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2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

Coordinates: 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369
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2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami
An aerial view of the tsunami damage
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami is located in Japan
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
Tokyo
Tokyo
Sendai
Sendai
class=notpageimage|
Map showing the epicenter of the earthquake
UTC time??
Duration5 minutes[1]
Magnitude9.0 Mw[2][3][4]
Depth32 km (20 mi)[2]
Epicenter38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369
TypeMegathrust earthquake
Areas affectedJapan (primary)
Pacific Rim (tsunami)
Total damageFlooding, landslides, fires, building and infrastructure damage, nuclear incidents
TsunamiYes
LandslidesYes
AftershocksAt least 517 (32 above 6.0 MW)

The 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami (東北地方太平洋沖地震, Tōhoku Chihō Taiheiyō-oki Jishin[8], literally "Tōhoku region Pacific Ocean offshore earthquake"[FN 1]) was a 9.0 MW megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on Friday 11 March 2011.[2][4][9] The epicenter was reported to be 130 kilometers (81 mi) off the east coast of the Oshika Peninsula, Tōhoku, with the hypocenter at a depth of 32 km (20 mi).[10][11]

The earthquake triggered tsunami warnings and evacuations along Japan's Pacific coast and in at least 20 countries, including the entire Pacific coast of North America and South America.[12][13][14] The earthquake created extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 10 meters (33 ft) that struck Japan minutes after the quake, with smaller waves after several hours in many other countries.[9] In Japan, the waves are reported to have travelled up to 10 km (6 mi) inland.[15]

The Japanese National Police Agency has officially confirmed 19,759 deaths,[16] deaths, 6,242 injured,[17] injuries, and 2,553 people missing[18] people missing across sixteen prefectures, but estimated numbers are far higher, ranging from thousands to tens of thousands dead or missing.[19] The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse. Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.4 million without water.[20] Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors partially melted down,[21][22] which prompted evacuations of the affected areas,[23] and a state of emergency was established. Both reactors believed to have partially melted down have experienced a chemical explosion extensively damaging their buildings, but the integrity of the inner core-containment vessel was not compromised and no highly radioactive release from the plants have occurred.[20][24][25] Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. Early estimates from AIR Worldwide place insured losses from the earthquake and tsunami at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[26] Chief economist for Japan at Credit Suisse, Hiromichi Shirakawa, said in a note to clients that the estimated economic loss may be around $171–183 billion[27] just to the region which was hit by the quake and tsunami. The Bank of Japan offered a combined ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March 2011[27] to make the conditions in the market normal.

The estimates of the Sendai earthquake's magnitude made it the most powerful earthquake to hit Japan and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900.[28][29][30] Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said that "in the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[31] The earthquake moved Honshu 2.4 m (7.9 ft) east and shifted the earth on its rotational axis by almost 10 cm (3.9 in).[32]

Earthquake

Map of the Sendai earthquake and aftershocks

The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, beginning with a 7.2 MW event on 9 March approximately 40 km (25 mi) from 11 March quake, and followed by another three on the same day in excess of 6 MW in magnitude.[28] One minute prior to the effects of the earthquake being felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system connected to more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan sent out warnings on television of an impending earthquake to millions. This was possible because the damaging seismic S-waves, traveling at 4 kilometers per second, took about 90 seconds to travel the 373 km (232 mi) to Tokyo. The early warning is believed by the Japan Meteorological Agency to have saved many lives.[33][34]

The earthquake occurred at 14:46 local time in the western Pacific Ocean, 130 km (81 mi) east of Sendai, Honshu, Japan. Its epicenter was 373 km (232 mi) from Tokyo, according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Multiple aftershocks were reported after the initial magnitude 9.0 quake. A magnitude 7.0 aftershock was reported at 15:06 local time, 7.4 at 15:15 local time and 7.2 at 15:26 local time.[35] Over five hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 or greater have occurred since the initial quake.[36] Initially reported as 7.9 by the USGS, the magnitude was quickly upgraded to 8.8 and then to 8.9,[28] and then again to either 9.0 or 9.1 according to some sources.[4][9] This earthquake occurred in the Japan Trench, where the Pacific Plate is subducting beneath the plate northern Honshu sits on; the plate tectonics of the region are complex, and geologists are not sure which plate this is—candidates include the Okhotsk Plate (which is arguably really just a part of either the North American Plate or the Eurasian Plate) or the Honshu Microplate (which is arguably just a part of the Okhotsk Plate).[37][38] What is clear is that the Pacific plate, which moves at a quick rate of 8–9cm a year dips under the Japanese plate releasing large amounts of energy. This motion pulls the upper plate down until it breaks. The break 80 miles off of the coast of Sendai was estimated to be several tens of miles long and only 15 miles deep, and caused the sea floor to spring up several meters, causing the earthquake[37][39] A quake of this size usually has a rupture length of at least 480 km (300 mi) and requires a long, relatively straight fault line. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in this region is not very straight, earthquake magnitudes are usually expected not to exceed 8 to 8.5; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.[40] The hypocentral region of this earthquake extends from offshore Iwate to offshore Ibaraki Prefectures.[41] The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km (310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi).[42][43] Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[44] The earthquake may have had a mechanism similar to that of another large earthquake in 869 with estimated magnitude Ms 8.6, which also caused a large tsunami.[45]

The quake registered a maximum 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture.[46] Three other prefectures—Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi—recorded upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured lower 6, recording upper 5 in Tokyo.

The quake moved portions of northeast Japan by as much as 13 ft (4.0 m) closer to North America,[38] making portions of Japan's landmass "wider than before," according to geophysicist Ross Stein.[38] Portions of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[38]

Energy

This earthquake released a surface energy (Me) of 1.9±0.5×1017 joules,[47] dissipated as shaking and tsunamic energy, which is nearly double that of the 9.1-magnitude 2004 Sumatran earthquake that killed 230,000 people, and flung the 2,600 ton Apung 1 ship 130 2[convert: unknown unit] inland. "If we could only harness the [surface] energy from this earthquake, it would power [a] city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year", USGS director Marcia McNutt said in an interview.[48] The total energy released (Mw) was more than 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS WPhase Moment Solution at 3.9×1022 joules,[49] slightly less than the 2004 Sumatra quake. This is equivalent to 9.32 teratons of TNT (approximately 600 million times that of the Hiroshima bomb, or 186,400 times as powerful as humanity's largest-ever explosive device, the Tsar Bomba).

Geophysical impact

Soil liquefaction in Koto, Tokyo

According to Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, the earthquake's enormous strength shifted the Earth's axis by 25 centimeters (9.8 in). This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the length of a day and the tilt of the Earth.[50] The speed of the Earth's rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth's mass.[51]

Researcher Lucy Jones said of the precise data, "The Japanese have the best seismic information in the world... This is overwhelmingly the best-recorded great earthquake ever."[52]

Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted two days after the earthquake. The volcano had erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[53]

Tsunami

Wave height map for the tsunami from NOAA
Water column height on 11 March 2011 at DART Station, 690 NM Southeast of Tokyo

The earthquake caused a massive tsunami which wrought massive destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands. The tsunami propagated across the Pacific, and warnings were issued and evacuations carried out in many countries with Pacific coasts, including the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile[12][13][14] ; however, while the tsunami was felt in many of these places, it caused only relatively minor effects.

Japan

The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale ("Major tsunami", ie. at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high).[54] The actual height predicted varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 10 m (33 ft) high.[55] The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST around 70 km (43 mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline (to the west), and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas further north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[56][57] Just over an hour after the earthquake, a tsunami was observed at 15:55 JST flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[58][59] with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[20][60] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[61] A 4-meter (13 ft)-high tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[62]

Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami and Cyclone Nargis, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. There were reports of "whole towns gone" from tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in Minamisanriku;[63] One thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.[64]

Kuji and Ofunato have been "swept away ... leaving no trace that a town was there."[65] Also destroyed was Rikuzentakata, where the tsunami was reportedly three stories high.[66][67][68] Other cities reportedly destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Miyako, Ōtsuchi, and Yamada (all in Iwate Prefecture), Namie, Sōma and Minamisōma (all in Fukushima Prefecture) and Onagawa, Natori, Ishinomaki, and Kesennuma (all in Miyagi Prefecture).[69][70][71][72] The severest effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670-kilometer (420 mi)-long stretch of coastline from Erimo in the north to Oarai in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake.[73]

On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 meters (9.8 ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[74]

These readings were obtained from recording stations maintained by the JMA around the coastline of Japan. Many areas were also affected by tsunamis of 1 to 3 meters (3.3 to 9.8 ft) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites". The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunamis.[75][76]

Elsewhere across the Pacific

NOAA animation of the tsunami's propagation

Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) issued tsunami watches and warnings for locations in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning for the entire Pacific Ocean, including upgrading the watch for Hawaii to a warning.[77][78] The United States West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas of California and Oregon from Point Conception, California, to the Oregon-Washington border.[79] In California and Oregon, up to 8 ft (2.4 m) high tsunami surges hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10 million of damage.[80][81] Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at $3 million.[82] A tsunami warning was also advised for the Canadian province of British Columbia, where the potentially affected areas included British Columbia's north coast and the outer west coast of Vancouver Island, waters surrounding the island were declared dangerous and boats were barred from them for twelve hours, stranding some island residents.[83]

Some South Pacific countries, including Tonga, American Samoa and New Zealand, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not report any major damage.[84] Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[85] Peru reported a wave of 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) and over 300 homes damaged in the towns of Pueblo Nuevo de Colan and Pisco.[85] The surge in Chile was large enough to cause some damage.

Russia evacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands shortly following the earthquake.[86]

Casualties

The bottom MODIS satellite image was taken on 26 February, and the top on 13 March, after the tsunami. Sendai is in the upper third of both (the red circle to its immediate north-east marks a fire). Scale bar is 10 km.

Both the earthquake and the resultant tsunami caused many casualties. Unlike other countries which had many hours' notice of a relatively small surge, a major tsunami struck Japan with only minutes' warning, leaving many people unable to escape.

The National Police Agency has officially confirmed 19,759 deaths,[87] people dead, 6,242 injured,[88] injured, and 2,553 people missing[89] missing across sixteen prefectures.[90] These numbers are expected to significantly increase,[91] with casualties expected to reach tens of thousands.[92]

Prefectural officials and the Kyodo News Agency, quoting local officials, said that 9,500 people from Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefecture—about a half of the town′s population—were unaccounted for.[93] NHK has reported that the death toll in Iwate Prefecture alone may reach 10,000.[20]

Officials in Wakabayashi-ku, Sendai, which was heavily damaged by tsunami waves, stated that they had found the bodies of 200–300 victims.[94]

It was reported that four passenger trains containing an unknown number of passengers disappeared in a coastal area during the tsunami.[21] One of the trains, on the Senseki Line, was found derailed in the morning; all passengers were rescued by a police helicopter.[95] Der Spiegel later reported that five missing trains in Miyagi Prefecture had been found with all passengers safe, although this information could not be confirmed locally.[96]

By 9:30 UTC on March 11, Google Person Finder, which was previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and their locations.[97][98] The Next of Kin Registry NOKR is assisting the Japanese government in locating next of kin for those missing or deceased.[99]

One man was killed in Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea.[100] Near Crescent City, California, a 25-year-old man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami was swept out to sea and confirmed dead.[101]

Damage and effects

Debris washed out to sea

The degree of damage caused by the earthquake and tsunami combined, most due to the tsunami, is very great. Film of towns worst affected show nothing more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any structures left standing.[102]

The extent of the damage was also massive. Estimates of the value of the damage go well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many places.[103][104]

Nuclear power plants

Main article: 2011 Japanese nuclear incidents

Fukushima I, Fukushima II, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations consisting of eleven reactors were automatically shut down following the earthquake.[105] Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a periodic inspection. However, cooling is needed to remove decay heat for several days even when a plant has been shut down. The cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators, as in the case of Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant.[106] At Fukushima I and II tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems, leading to severe problems including two large explosions at Fukushima I and leakage of radiation.[107] Over 200,000 people have been evacuated.[108]

Seismic recordings at six assessed nuclear power plant facilities indicated the plants had been exposed to peak ground accelerations of 0.037–0.383 g and peak ground velocities of 6.18–52.62 cm/sec.[109]

Fukushima I and II Nuclear Power Plants

File:2011-03-12 1800 NHK Sōgō channel news program screen shot.jpg
Before and after images of the explosion at Fukushima I Unit 1 reactor
Main articles: Fukushima I nuclear accidents and Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents

Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant,[110] resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents.[111][112] Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency have reported that radiation levels inside the plant are up to 1,000 times normal levels,[113] and that radiation levels outside the plant are up to 8 times normal levels.[114] Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima II nuclear power plant about 11 km (7 mi) south.[115] This brings the total number of problematic reactors to six,[116] two of which (unit 1 and 3 at Fukushima I) experienced a partial meltdown,[21][22][117] A large explosion, thought to be caused by the buildup of hydrogen gas, blew away the roof and outer walls of the Reactor 1 building, releasing a large cloud of dust and vapor, but the reactor itself was not damaged in the explosion.[25][118][119] A similar explosion occurred at Reactor 3 of the Fukushima I plant just after 11:00 am local time on March 14th. An exterior wall of the building collapsed, but the reactor vessel was not damaged according to a government spokesperson.[107]

At 16:29 UTC on Monday 14 March (14 March 01:29 UTC), the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency announced that the explosion had occurred. The local population was advised by the authorities to stay home until the radioactive situation of the environment is totally clarified.[120] Unlike the other five reactor units, reactor 3 runs on mixed uranium and plutonium oxide, or MOX fuel, making it potentially more dangerous in an incident due to the neutronic effects of plutonium on the reactor and the carcinogenic effects in the event of release to the environment.[121][122][123] Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) is trying to reduce the pressure within the plants by venting contaminated steam from the reactor vessels into the atmosphere. According to Tomoko Murakami, of the nuclear energy group at Japan's Institute of Energy Economics, this would not result in the release of significant radiation.[124] Residents living within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I plant were evacuated, as well as residents within 3 km (1.9 mi) of the Fukushima II plant.[125][126][127][23]

Additionally, it was reported on 14 Mar at 07:00 EDT that the fuel rods of Reactor 2 at the Fukushima I plant were now fully exposed, and a meltdown of the fuel rods, with the risk of damage to the reactor vessel and a possible radioactive leak, could not be ruled out.[128] On 12 March, a BBC journalist reported being stopped 60 km from the blast site by police.[25] As of 14 March, about 160 people have been exposed to dangerous radiation levels near the power stations. One plant employee was killed while operating a crane, eight others have been injured and three are reported to have severe symptoms of radiation poisoning.[129] An additional eleven employees were injured when the Reactor 3 building exploded.[130] Some local residents and health workers have been diagnosed with mild radiation poisoning.[131]

On Tuesday, March 15, at 06:10 local time an explosion occurred at Reactor 2 of the Fukushima I plant. Radiation "exceeding the legal limit" was detected outside the plant. The government admitted it was "very probable" that the cores of Reactors 1, 2 and 3 had experienced meltdowns due to high temperatures.[132] According to TEPCO, the plant's operator, the radiation level at 8:31 a.m. local time had risen to 8,217 microsieverts per hour, more than eight times the annual exposure permitted by law.[133]

At 01:17 JST on Sunday 13 March (12 March 16:17 GMT), the Japan Atomic Energy Agency announced that it was rating the Fukushima accident at 4 (accident with local consequences) on the 0–7 International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), below the Three Mile Island accident in seriousness.[134]

A US Navy relief group moved from the immediate area after its helicopters detected low-level radiation while returning to their aircraft carrier from a SAR mission, 160 km (100 miles) offshore. The flight absorbed the equivalent amount of earthbound background radiation for a month, in the span of about an hour.[135][136]

Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant

A map showing epicenter of earthquake and position of nuclear power plants

A fire from the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake was reported by Kyodo News.[106][137] The blaze was in a building housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant's reactor,[111] and was soon extinguished.[138]

On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant by TEPCO, as radioactivity readings temporarily[139] exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant.[140][141] TEPCO stated this was due to radiation from the Fukushima I nuclear accidents and not from the Onagawa plant itself.[142]

Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant

The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically.[105] On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working.[143] Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump and cooling was working, but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.[144]

Port

The effects of the quake included visible smoke rising from a building in the Port of Tokyo with parts of the port areas being flooded, including soil liquefaction in Tokyo Disneyland's carpark.[145][146]

Dam failure

The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[147] causing flooding and washing away homes.[148] No casualties have been counted,[149] but people are missing[147] and the Defense Ministry has reported 1,800 homes destroyed downstream.[149]

Water

At least 1.5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies.[150]

Electricity

According to Tohoku Electric, around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity.[151] Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline after the earthquake. Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake.[152] The Tokyo Electric Power Company, which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that it can currently provide only about 30 GW. This is because 40 percent of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area is now supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures.[153] Two of those reactors, the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni, were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and have sustained major damage related to the earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Rolling blackouts of three hours are expected to last until the end of April and will affect the Tokyo, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures.[154]

Oil

Fire at the Cosmo Oil refinery in Ichihara

A 220,000-barrel-per-day[155] oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo.[156] Major fires broke out elsewhere, such as in the city of Kesennuma.[157][158]

In Sendai, a 145,000-barrel-per-day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set ablaze by the quake.[155] Workers were evacuated,[159] but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when officials planned to do so.[155]

Transport

Japan's transport network suffered severe disruption. Many sections of Tohoku expressway serving northern Japan were damaged.[160] All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city.[161] In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed.[162] Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day-12 March.[163] Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11–12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.[164]

A tsunami wave was seen flooding Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST,[58] about 1 hour after the initial quake. Narita and Haneda Airport both suspended operations after the quake, with most flights diverted to other airports for about 24 hours.[146] Ten airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.[165]

Stranded passengers on a Tokyo train. Major disruptions to train travel, as well as car and airplane travel, have occurred in places such as Tokyo and northeastern Japan.

Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day.[166] Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four-car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning.[167] There had been no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended.[146] The Tōkaidō Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March; however, the Tōhoku Shinkansen remained suspended, with visible damage to electrical poles and elevated spans, and the state of the line in harder-hit areas still difficult to ascertain.[168] Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed on 15 March, with one round-trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu-Shiobara.[169]

The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima later had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at 10–20 minute intervals (normally 3–5 minutes), operating some lines only at rush hour, and completely shutting down others (notably, the Tokaido Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sobu Main Line and Chuo-Sobu Line were all stopped for the day).[170] This led to near-paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home.

Telecommunications

Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area.[171] Internet services, however, were to a large extent able to reroute around the damage;[172] only a few websites were unreachable.[173] Several Wi-Fi hotspot providers have reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks.[173]

Sports

The 2011 World Figure Skating Championships were scheduled to take place from 21–27 March at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium in Tokyo but the International Skating Union has decided to postpone the event on 14 March, after the German team announced that it would follow recommendations not to travel to Japan.[174] International Skating Union President Ottavio Cinquanta issued a statement March 15 at the federation website confirming the cancellation of the event. But the possibility of re-scheduling remains, says the ISU chief. "The postponement of the event or alternatively the final cancellation is under evaluation."[175]

Also on hold is the ISU Figure Skating World Team Trophy, scheduled for Yokohama on April 14 to 17. The ISU says it is waiting for guidance from Japanese authorities on whether the skating championships can be held. "It is understood that a postponement of the above-mentioned World Championships as well as the holding of the ISU World Team Trophy is subject to the confirmation by the competent Japanese authorities that the situation is back to normal conditions allowing the safe conduct of major ISU sports Events in the Tokyo area," says the ISU.[176]

Economic impact

An aerial view of Sendai, 12 March. While some analysts are predicting that the total recovery costs could reach ¥10 trillion (or $122 billion),[177] others suggest that the rebuilding efforts will help boost the Japanese economy in the long term.[178]

The northern Tohoku region, which was most affected, accounts for about 8 percent of the country's gross domestic product as it has factories that make products such as cars and beer as well as energy infrastructure.[179] The region has been experiencing a brain drain and economic drainage as young people leave the area.[180] It includes the northern Miyagi prefecture, where Sendai is located, about 300 km (180 miles) northeast of Tokyo. The Miyagi area includes manufacturing and industrial zones with chemical and electronics plants. It is estimated that Miyagi accounts for 1.7% of Japan’s gross domestic product.[181]

The earthquake and tsunami have had significant immediate impacts on businesses such as Toyota, Nissan and Honda, who completely suspended auto production until 14 March. Nippon Steel Corporation also suspended production, Toyo Tire & Rubber Company and Sumitomo Rubber Industries shuttered their tyre and rubber production lines, while GS Yuasa closed its automotive battery production. This was expected to hinder supply availability for automakers.[182] Tokyo Electric Power Company, Toshiba, East Japan Railway Company and Shin-Etsu Chemical Company were suggested as the most vulnerable companies as a result of the earthquake.[183] Sony also suspended production at all its six plants in the area, while Fuji Heavy Industries discontinued production at most of its factories in the Gunma and the Tochigi Prefectures.[184] Other factories suspending operations include Kirin Holdings, GlaxoSmithKline, Nestlé[185] and Toyota amid power cuts.[186] The northern Tohoku region, which was most affected, accounts for about 8 percent of the country's gross domestic product as it has factories that make products such as cars and beer as well as energy infrastructure. The factory shutdowns, power cuts and the consequent presumed impact on consumer confidence could hurt the national GDP for several months, although economist Michael Boskin predicts "only minimal impact on the Japanese economy overall."[179]

On 14 March, the Bank of Japan, in an attempt to maintain market stability,[187] injected 15 trillion yen into the money markets to assure financial stability amid a plunge in stocks and surge in credit risk. After it set up an emergency task force to ensure liquidity in the aftermath of the disaster, governor Masaaki Shirakawa and the bank's board also enlarged a programme to buy government bonds to exchange-traded funds to the tune of 10 trillion yen. The BOJ chief told reporters cash injections will continue as needed.[188]

Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano has said that Japan's government will convene on 13 March to gauge the economic effects of the catastrophe.[189] He also told NHK Television that about 200 billion yen that was remaining from the budget for the concurrent fiscal year that would end on 31 March would be used to fund the immediate recovery efforts. Additional measures could also hurt Japan's public debt (which is already the highest in the world). This additional spending could hurt demand for government bonds.[179]

Some economic analysts consider that, ultimately, the catastrophe will improve Japan's economy, with increased job availability during restoration efforts. An analyst at JPMorgan Chase, citing the 1989 San Francisco earthquake and the 1994 Northridge earthquake, noted that natural disasters "do eventually boost output." An analyst at Société Générale anticipated that Japan's economy will decline in March but will revive powerfully in subsequent months. After the Kobe earthquake, industrial output dropped 2.6%, but increased by 2.2% the next month, and 1% the following month. Japan's economy then accelerated substantially through the next two years, at more than its former rate.[178] Others are of the opinion that the catastrophe will harm the economy.[190]

Global financial impact

In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, Japan’s Nikkei stock market index saw its futures slide 5% in after-market trading.[191] The Bank of Japan said that they would do their utmost to ensure financial market stability.[192]

Other stock markets around the world were also affected; the German DAX lost 1.2% and fell to 6,978 points within minutes.[193] Hong Kong's Hang Seng index fell by 1.8%, while South Korea's Kospi index slumped by 1.3%.[194] By the end of trading on Friday, the MSCI Asia Pacific Index had dropped by 1.8%.[195] Major U.S. stock market indexes rose between 0.5% and 0.7%.[196] Oil prices also dropped as a result of the closure of Japanese refineries, despite the ongoing violence in Libya and expected demonstrations in Saudi Arabia. US crude dropped as low as $99.01 from $100.08 by lunchtime, with Brent Crude falling $2.62 to $112.81.[197] In Hong Kong, Financial Secretary John Tsang warned investors to "take extra care" as the earthquake may have a short term impact on each local stock market.[198]

The share prices of the biggest reinsurance companies Munich Re and Swiss Reinsurance Company fell following the earthquake on speculation that they may face losses "somewhere in the $10 billion range" even after certain costs were absorbed by Japan’s primary insurers and the government.[199]

Peter Bradford, a former member of the United States' Nuclear Regulatory Commission, said that the impact on the nuclear power plant was "obviously a significant setback for the so-called nuclear renaissance. The image of a nuclear power plant blowing up before your eyes on a television screen is a first."[200]

Response

Government response

Prime Minister Naoto Kan announced the government has mobilized the Japanese Self-Defense Forces in various earthquake disaster zones.[201] He asked the Japanese public to act calmly and tune into various media for updated information.[201][202] He also reported numerous nuclear power plants have automatically shut down to prevent damage and radiation leaks.[201] He also set up emergency headquarters in his office to coordinate the government's response.[202]

Kan promised his 100% cooperation in alleviating the situation. He declared that "the safety of Japan's citizens is the priority, and to save every possible life is his current mission." He added that the defense force, police, rescue crew and individuals are currently working at full potential to mediate the situation, and called for more help from all over Japan. Evacuation shelters currently are facing a shortage of potable water, food, blankets and bathroom facilities, as the government arranges these necessities to be delivered to where they are needed as soon as possible, from various areas of Japan and abroad.[citation needed] Dropping temperatures due to the disruption in electrical and gas lines caused further problems at shelters.[20]

A Japanese urban search and rescue team in New Zealand following the 2011 Christchurch earthquake was recalled.[203]

International response

Russians bring flowers to the embassy of Japan in Moscow

Japan received messages of condolence and offers of assistance from a range of international leaders. According to the United Nations, search and rescue teams from 45 countries had been offered to Japan.

Japan specifically requested teams from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States;[204][205] it also requested, via its space agency JAXA, the activation of the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters, allowing diverse satellite imagery of affected regions to be readily shared with rescue and aid organizations.[206]

Afghanistan donated $50,000 to Japan.[207]

Australia sent the frigate HMAS Sydney and heavy landing ship HMAS Tobruk carrying helicopters, Australian Army engineers and medical teams.[208] Fire and Rescue NSW service sent a 76-member Urban Search and Rescue team, some of which had recently been rotated through the Christchurch earthquake recovery effort, and 20 tonnes of rescue equipment.[209]

Canada initially sent a 17-member Disaster Victim Identification team and chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear decontamination equipment.[210] Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered Canadian Forces airlift, medical and engineering capabilities.[211] The volunteer Canadian Medical Assistance Team sent a portable field hospital, medical supplies and medical personnel.

China, which had suffered a major earthquake just one day prior to Japan's,[212] has sent US$167,000 in aid along with a 15-member rescue team which left Beijing on Sunday, 13 March 2011,[213] with an additional pledge of RMB 30 million Chinese yuan (USD 4.57 million) of humanitarian supplies announced by China's Ministry of Commerce the following day.[214] Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen ordered the Cambodian government to donate US$100,000 in aid.[215]

Germany sent search and rescue specialists from the Technisches Hilfswerk.[216]

India is sending woollen clothes and blankets, with the initial plan being to send 22 metric tons of woollen blankets.[217]

Indonesia, which was the worst hit country in the 2004 tsunami, sent rescue workers, medical assistance and supplies.[218]

Iran is dispatching an Iranian Red Crescent relief team to Japan.[219][220]

Malaysia sent a search and rescue team, with doctors and medical assistants.[221][222]

Mexico sent 8 search and rescue specialists, 5 search dogs, and 2 specialists in structural evaluation.[223]

The Mongolian government announced the country will send rescue teams[224] to Japan after it had donated US$1 million.[225]

New Zealand sent an urban search and rescue team which had spent the previous three weeks searching buildings following the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, and 15 tonnes of rescue equipment.[226]

Russian state-controlled gas giant Gazprom provided additional liquefied natural gas supplies, the company was now looking how to divert two tankers, or 150,000 tons,[214] currently under other contracts, towards Japan.[227] Russia's Emergencies Ministry official Irina Andrianova confirmed that Russia will send one Mi-26 helicopter along with a team of 50 Russian rescuers to search for survivors, and promised more aid.[228]

Singapore also sent a search and rescue team.[229]

South Korean aid arrived in Japan on March 12, consisting of 5 members from the National Rescue Services and two rescue dogs,[230] and a subsequent team of 102 rescue workers.[231]

Sri Lanka, also one of the worst hit countries in a 2004 tsunami, has announced US$1 million in aid, as well a team of medical and rescue workers.[232]

Taiwan President Ma Ying-Jeou ordered the government to donate NT$100 million (equal to about 300 million Japanese yen or 3.3 million US dollars) to Japan.[233] A 35-member civilian rescue team and a 28-member Ministry of the Interior rescue team were sent to Japan.[234][235] Many other Taiwanese central and local governments, major political parties, and charitable organizations have also arranged for donations and sent aid to Japan.[236][237] [238]

Thailand donated USD 6.6 million (THB 200 million), 15,000 tonnes of rice, tinned food and other necessities such as blankets and clothing.[239] [240] A search-and-rescue team consisting of specialist medics, officials and sniffer dogs have also been dispatched.[241] Other efforts initiated by the Thai public include charity organizations, fund-raising drives and donation through television and mobile phone networks.[242]

The United Kingdom sent 70 rescuers to Japan, including two search dogs, a medical support team and 11 metric tons of specialized rescue equipment.[243][244]

Sailors loading a humanitarian helicopter flight from an aircraft carrier

The United States moved naval vessels closer to Japan for the purposes of providing aid, including the aircraft carrier Ronald Reagan[245][246], USS Tortuga and USS Blue Ridge.[247] US Marines based at MCAS Futenma moved command and control teams and systems to Naval Air Station Atsugi.[247] MV Westpac Express, two KC-130Js from MCAS Futenma and two C-17A Globemaster cargo aircraft from Joint Base Lewis-McChord were made available to transport rescue teams and equipment.[247] Eight US Marine Corps CH-46E transport helicopters based at MCAS Futenma were made available for search and rescue.[247] The 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit was moved from southeast Asia to Japan to assise in the recovery effort.[247] The US Federal Emergency Management Agency sent Urban Search and Rescue California Task Force 2 and Virginia Task Force 1.[248]

The Vietnam government offered US$200,000 in aid to the Japanese people.[249]

Additionally, the Fukushima incident brought the issue of nuclear power to the fore internationally, causing an anti-nuclear demonstration of 50,000 people in Stuttgart and the cancellation of a pro-nuclear press conference in the United Kingdom.[250]

Information and support

Among several resources offered to help find earthquake survivors and obtain information about people in Japan are: Disaster Message Board Web171 operated by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone,[251][252] the International Committee of the Red Cross,[253]American Red Cross,[254] Google Person Finder,[255] websites of the Australian Embassy,[256] US Department of State,[257] UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office,[258] and the Honshu Quake wiki operated by the CrisisCommons volunteer community.[259]

Media coverage

Japan's national public broadcaster, NHK, and Japan Satellite Television suspended their usual programming to provide ongoing coverage of the situation.[260] Various other nationwide Japanese TV networks also broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the disaster. Ustream Asia broadcast live feeds of NHK, Tokyo Broadcasting System, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, TV Kanagawa, and CNN on the Internet starting on 12 March 2011.[261]

On 14 March 2011, NHK News reported a Japan Meteorological Agency warning that there was a 70% probability of a new earthquake exceeding magnitude 7.0 occurring within or near the same hypocentral region in the following three days.[262]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ The Japanese nomenclature of the earthquake varies between media sources. NHK [1] [2] uses Northeast Kantō Great Earthquake disaster (東北関東大震災, tōhoku kantōdaishinsai); Sankei Shimbun [3], Asahi Shimbun [4], Mainichi Shimbun [5], Jiji Press [6], Fuji Television [7], Kyodo News [8], Tokyo Shimbun [9], Chunichi Shimbun [10] and Tokyo Broadcasting System [11] use East Japan Great Earthquake disaster (東日本大震災, higashinihon daishinsai); Northeast-Kantō Great Earthquake (東北・関東大地震, tōhoku-kantō daijishin) has been used by Kyodo News [12], Tokyo Shimbun [13] and Chunichi Shimbun [14]; East Japan wide-area earthquake (東日本巨大地震, higashinihon kyodaijishin) has been used by Yomiuri Shimbun [15], Nihon Keizai Shimbun [16] and TV Asahi [17], and East Japan Great Earthquake (東日本大地震, higashinihon daijishin) is used by Nippon Television [18], Tokyo FM [19] and TV Asahi [20].

References

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Live media coverage
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