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Libyan civil war (2011)

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Libyan uprising
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests

Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces
Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces

Ongoing fighting/unclear situation
(situation as of 20th March)
Date15 February 2011 (2011-02-15) – present
Location
Libya
Status Ongoing
Belligerents

Pro-Gaddafi forces: Libya Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

Anti-Gaddafi forces: Libya Libyan Republic (National Transitional Council)[1]

Limited/Alleged:

United Nations United Nations (No-Fly Zone):

Template:Collapsible bulletlist
Commanders and leaders

Libya Muammar Gaddafi
Libya Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi
Libya Khamis al-Gaddafi

Libya Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr

Libya Mustafa Abdul Jalil [10] Libya Omar El-Hariri[11]
Libya Abdul Fatah Younis[12]
Libya Suleiman Mahmoud[13]
Libya Khalifa Belqasim Haftar

United Nations Ban Ki-Moon
France Nicolas Sarkozy
France François Fillon
France Édouard Guillaud
United Kingdom David Cameron
United Kingdom David Richards
United Kingdom Stuart Peach
United States Barack Obama
United States Carter Ham

United States Samuel J. Locklear
Strength
10,000–12,000 (Al Jazeera estimate)[14]

8,000 defected soldiers (in Benghazi)[15]
Saaiqa 36 Battalion (on the front)[16]
5,000 Rebel Fighters (3 March; anti-Gaddafi claim)[17]

International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here)
Casualties and losses
385-448 soldiers killed, (see here)

1,633 opposition fighters killed (see here)

International Forces: No casualties
Total number of people killed on both sides, includes protesters, rebel fighters, captives executed, government forces killed and civilians killed by NATO bombing:
1,000 killed (UN) (by 7 March)[6]
2,000 killed (WHO) (by 2 March)[18]
3,000 killed (IFHR) (by 5 March)[19]
6,000 killed (LHRL) (by 5 March)[19]
8,000 killed (NTC) (by 20 March)[20]
10,000 killed (ICC) (by 7 March)[21]

Template:Campaignbox 2011 Libyan protests

The 2011 Libyan uprising is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African state of Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule, with protesters calling for his ousting and democratic elections. The uprising began as a series of protests and confrontations beginning 15 February 2011. Within a week, the uprising had spread Gaddafi was struggling to retain control across the country except for his stronghold in Tripoli, where Gaddafi.[22] Gaddafi responded with censorship, blocking of communications, and deadly military force. With many of Gaddafi military in the east defecting to the rebels, he has resorted to recruiting domestic and foreign mercenaries to supplement his forces. By the end of February the uprising had escalated into an armed conflict Gaddafi holding Tripoli and the rebels forming a government called the National Transitional Council based in Benghazi. International human rights organizations and locals have documented severe human rights abuses. The International Criminal Court has warned Gaddafi that he and members of his regime may have committed crimes against humanity.[23] Gaddafi has vowed to stay in power at all costs. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, push eastwards and re-took several coastal cities including Brega, Ra's Lanuf and Bin Jawad. Gaddafi then declared a cease-fire on 18 March, though he continued to bomb and shell Misurata and on 19 March began an attack on Benghazi. The United Nations declared and begun to enforce no-fly zones against Gaddafi and inflicted numerous air strikes on his air defences and ammunition depots around Tripoli.

Much of the world has strongly condemned Gaddafi's use of violence against civilians.[24] A number of countries imposed sanctions on Gaddafi, many including travel bans and freezing of the family's multibillion assets. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the regime in Tripoli to the International Criminal Court for investigation.[25] On 10 March, France became the first country to recognize the National Transitional Council as the official government of Libya.[26] On 17 March, a further resolution was announced which authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya and "to take all necessary measures... to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force".[27] In response to this the Gaddaffi regime anounced a ceasefire, which they failed to uphold. On 19 March, France and the United Kingdom officially announced that they will lead the United Nations Coalition with Operation Ellamy and Opération Harmattan to enforce the resolution. A dozen other countries joined the coalition. On the same day, a series of strikes disabled Gaddafi's air defenses and coalitions jets started enforcing the resolution.[28]

Background

History

Main article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

Gaddafi has ruled Libya as de facto autocrat since overthrowing the short-lived constitutional monarchy in 1969.[29] WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".[30] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[30] Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[31] Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently are less willing to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, such governments can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters.[32] The government of Libya can utilize these techniques by using the national oil resources.[33] Libya's oil wealth was spread over a relatively small population of six million,[34] with 21% general unemployment, the highest in the region, according to the latest census figures.[35]

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia.[36] Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living.[37] Its corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who faced uprising before Libya.[38] This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).[36] Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world.[39][40] Once a breadbasket of the ancient world, the eastern parts of the country became impoverished under Gaddafi's economic theories.[41][42] The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans.[43] Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.[44]

Human rights

Further information: Human rights in Libya

According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored country in the Middle East and North Africa.[45] Gaddafi's revolutionary committees resemble the systems of historical and current regimes and reportedly ten to twenty percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea.

The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.[46] Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases. Gaddafi removed foreign languages from school curriculum for a decade.[47][48] Gaddafi has paid for murders of his critics around the world.[46][49] As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.[50] The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.[46][51]

Anti-Gaddafi movement

The protests and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.[44] On 17 February, a "Day of Revolt" was called by Libyans.[52][53]

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.[54][55]

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building.[56][57] On 24 January 2010, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch.[58] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.[59]

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.[60] In early February, Gaddafi met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.[61]

Human rights

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi during the 2011 Libyan uprising

Free speech is reportedly practiced for the first time. An opposition-controlled newspaper called Libya has appeared in Benghazi, as well as opposition-controlled radio stations.[62] The movement opposes tribalism and defected soldiers wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".[42] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used against opposition members in the past.[63]

Organization

Many protest movement leaders have called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multiparty democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Gaddafi's attacks and help liberate the capital Tripoli from his rule.[64] In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.[42]

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي) was a body established by opposition forces on 27 February in an effort to consolidate the anti-Gaddafi forces.[65] The main objectives of the group do not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.[66] The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Gaddafi regime.[67] The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.[68] Gaddafi's former Justice Minister said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.[69]

Gaddafi's response

Main article: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Gaddafi has attributed the protests against his rule to people who are "rats" and "cockroaches", terms that were cited by Hutu radicals of the Tutsi population before the 1994 Rwanda genocide began, thus causing unease in the global community. Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol.[70][71][72][73] He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a "colonialist plot" by foreign countries, particularly blaming France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, to "control oil" and "enslave" Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to "cleanse Libya house by house" until he had crushed the insurrection.[74][75][76][77][78] Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live".[75][77]

International journalists were banned[79][80] by the Libyan authorities[81] from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government.

Mercenaries

Numerous eyewitnesses and identity documents of captured soldiers show that Gaddafi is employing foreign nationalities to attack Libyan civilians. French-speaking fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countries such as Chad and Niger.[82] However, some have urged caution, saying that Libya has a significant black population who could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army.[83] Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship.[83] There have been reports of the Gadaffi regime employing mercenaries from the Democratic Republic of Congo,Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Kenya and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe.[84][85] Speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe’s Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a clear answer to a question on the topic posed in Parliament.[86]

The Serbian Ministry of Defence denied rumors that of any of its active or retired personnel participating in the events in Libya.[87] The Foreign Ministry of Chad denied allegations that mercenaries were fighting for Gaddafi, although he admitted it was possible that individuals had joined such groups.[88]

Military conflict

File:Libya Brega rebel fighters 10 March 2011 - VOA Ittner.jpg
Rebels on the outskirts of Brega.
Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan uprising

By the end of 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing,[89] resignations and defections of close allies,[90] the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration"[91] and other cities including Tobruk and Misurata reportedly falling[92] with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets,[90] mounting international isolation and pressure,[90][93] and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his "disintegrating"[94] regime all but inevitable.[94]

After taking over the city of Zawiya on 24 February, Gaddafi's troops attacked the outskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops had ambushed the rebel coloumn and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misurata and mannaged to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts.[95]

On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces.[96][97] By March 15, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded. On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council voted to imposed a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace,[98] with British, French and Arab aircraft potentially launching airstrikes within hours of its imposition. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire,[99] but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that Government forces are still fighting with rebels.[100]

Territory controlled by each side

By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including the major cities of Misurata and Benghazi, and the important harbours at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega.[101][102] The Libyan opposition had formed a National Transitional Council and a free press had begun to operate in Cyrenaica.[103]

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counter-offensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained in continuous control of Tripoli,[104] Sirt,[105] Zliten[106] and Sabha,[107] as well as several other towns.

Gaddafi controls the well-armed Khamis Brigade, among other loyalist military and police units, and some believe a small number of foreign mercenaries.[108] Some of Gaddafi's officials, as well as a number of current and retired military personnel, have sided with the protesters and requested outside help in bringing an end to massacres of non-combatants.

As of 17 March, out of Libya's twenty-two districts, twelve were under government control, seven were under rebel control and three were contested territories (see map).

Libyan fighting around Benghazi

On 18 March, the Libyan government declared an "immediate" ceasefire.[109] Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misurata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi.[110][111] BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting.[112] Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.[113]

Also on 19 March, a Mig-23BN was shot down over Benghazi by ground fire. A rebel spokesman later confirmed that the plane belonged to the Free Libyan Air Force and had been engaged in error by rebels.[6][114] [115] [116] [117] [118][119][120]

The Libyan government said the rebels violated the UN "no fly" resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.[121]

UN no-fly zone actions

Main article: Coalition intervention in Libya
See also: Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opération Harmattan, and Operation MOBILE

At 1600 GMT, 19 March, BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sent 19 fighter planes over an area 100 km by 150 km (60 by 100 miles) over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel controlled city.[122] "Our air force will oppose any aggression by Colonel Gadhafi against the population of Benghazi," said French President Nicolas Sarkozy. BBC News reported at 16:59 GMT that at 16:45 GMT a French warplane had fired at and destroyed a Libyan military vehicle – this being confirmed by French defence ministry spokesman Laurent Teisseire.[123]

At 2031 GMT the Pentagon announced that U.S. and British forces had fired 114+ Tomahawk cruise missiles targeting 20 Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems.[124] 25 coalition ships, including 3 U.S. submarines, are in the area.[125][126][127][128] CBS New's David Martin reported that 3 B-2 stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop 40 bombs on a major Libyan airfield. Martin further reported that US fighter jets are searching for Libyan ground forces to attack. On Sunday, around 1500 CST, Pentagon officials confirmed this.[129][130]

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli.[125] France's military denied earlier reports from Libyan state TV that a French aircraft had been shot down and reported that all planes had returned to their air bases.[131] On 20 March 2011, several Storm Shadow missiles have been launched against Gaddafi by British jets.[132] Also, sustained anti-aircraft fire erupted in Tripoli at around 2:33 a.m. Libyan time.[133] Gaddafi's forces claimed they had shot down two planes, which was denied by the United States.[134]

Humanitarian situation

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in the country.[135] On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country.[136] On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.[137]

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans.[138] By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya.[139] By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.[140]

With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigeriens) and 5,448 in Algeria.[141]

Casualties

People protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans.
Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan uprising

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000,[6] Whereas the International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March.[21] The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.[142] On 2 March, The International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed.[18] At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.[143] The Libyan Human Rights League estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March.[19][19] Later, Rebel spokesman Abdel Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000. [144]

Domestic responses

Main article: Domestic responses to the 2011 Libyan protests
A map showing the ethnic and part of the tribal composition of Libya

Several officials resigned from their positions after 20 February in large part due to protests against the army's "excessive use of force", including justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil as well as Interior Minister and Major General Abdul Fatah Younis,[145] whereas Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem was reported to have fled the country.[146] Citing "grave violations of human rights", Gaddafi's cousin and close aide, Ahmad Qadhaf al-Dam, announced his defection from the government when he arrived in Egypt on 24 February.[147]

Several members of the diplomatic corps also resigned. Amongst these were the ambassadors to the Arab League,[148] Bangladesh, the People's Republic of China,[149] the European Union and Belgium,[150] India,[151] Indonesia,[146] Nigeria, Sweden and the United States. The deputy ambassador to the UN Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi did not resign but distanced himself from the Libyan government's actions.[152][153] The ambassador to the United States Ali Aujali together with the embassy staff also distanced himself from the government, "condemned" the violence and urged the international community (QTO STOP THE KILLINGS.) The ambassador to the United Kingdom denied reports that he had resigned.[146]

The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces.[154] This will prove a major boost for the embattled rebel forces low on funds.

Two Libyan Air Force pilots[citation needed] and a naval vessel fled to Malta, reportedly claiming to have refused orders to bomb protesters in Benghazi.[155][156]

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[146][157] The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have announced their support of the protesters.[101][158] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.[158]

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence".[101]

On 28 February, Gaddafi reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.[159]

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.[160]

Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."[161] as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.[162] On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".[163] He has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence.[164] He has asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.[165] On March 17 he returned to Libya after 41 years in exile.[166]

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated.[167] On 21 February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[168] On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.[169]

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Official responses

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi.[170][171][172] Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.[173][174]

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".[175][176] Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters.[177] On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians.[178] Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime.[179] A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.[180] The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians.[181] The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.[182]

Evacuations

During the uprising, many countries evacuated their citizens.[183] China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other countries.[184][185][186] On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm.[187] South Korea evacuated 12,000 people [clarification needed], utilizing airplanes and ferries, to Malta.[188][189] Bulgaria also evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens.[190] Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals.[191] The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul.[192] The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya.[193] A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.[194][195]

Several Russians, 21 Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia at the same time.[196]

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircrafts and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations.[197][198][199] China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts.[185][200] The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens.[201] The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government.[202][203] Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.[204] Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi.[205][206] A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the United Kingdom and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.[207][208][209] An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirt by helicopter failed after its 3-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance.[210][211] The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released 12 days later, but the helicopter was confiscated.[212] . Also a cruise ship arrived in Libya to evcuate the filipinos in Libya only Filipino Nurses are left behind to care for the rebel forces .

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis.The South African government proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war.[213] Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later voiced some skepticism to the proposal.[citation needed] The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.[214] The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The United States and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.[215] Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.[216]

Coalition intervention

 UN Mandate
(no-fly zone and other measures)
Countries committed to enforcement:[clarification needed]
Belgium Belgium[217]
Canada Canada[218]
Denmark Denmark[219]
France France[220]
Greece Greece[221]
Italy Italy[222]
Jordan Jordan[223]
Netherlands Netherlands[224]
Norway Norway[225]
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia[223]
Spain Spain[226]
 UAE[223]
United Kingdom United Kingdom[227]
United States United States[228]
Main article: Coalition intervention in Libya

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians.[229] Italy said it would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.[230] US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has been skeptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defenses.[231] This proposal was rejected by Russia and China.[232][233][234][235] Romania is utterly against the initiation of a no-fly zone.[236] "Among the arguments I want to bring in order to support our position is that this mission of initiating a no fly zone is a mission that only NATO can have and not the EU. We also consider it is not the moment for a military solution in Libya," said Romanian President Traian Băsescu at the EU summit on 11 March.

On 7 March, United States Permanent Representative to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions to twenty-four hours a day. On the same day, it was reported that one United Nations diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse on condition of anonymity that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone and it go before the United Nations Security Council as early as this week.[237][238]

On 12 March, the foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed to ask the United Nations to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. That brought a joint NATO/Arab-enforced fly-zone closer to establishment. The rebels have stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be enough, because the majority of the bombardment is coming from things other than aircraft – particularly tanks and rockets.[239]

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 1973 (2011), allowing for a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favor, zero against, and five abstentions. Resolution 1973 bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians[240] and authorizes member states "to take all necessary measures... to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamhariya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force".[241][242] Changing its position, the United States joined the initial supporters of the UN no-fly resolution, Britain, France and Lebanon, to urge for a stronger resolution that allowed military action short of ground troups to protect civilians from air, land and sea attacks by Gadhafi's fighters.[240] British Foreign Secretary William Hague said the three criteria for taking action all have been fulfilled. The criteria for taking action – a demonstrated need, clear legal basis and broad regional support – have all been met according to Hague.[240]

Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opération Harmattan, and Operation MOBILE are the codenames for the British, American, French, and Canadian participations in the no-fly zone respectively.[243]

On 1 March, Russian NATO ambassador Dmitry Rogozin stated that: "A ban on the national air force or civil aviation to fly over their own territory is ... a serious interference into the domestic affairs of another country".[244] On 18 March 2011, Chairman of the Russian State Duma International Affairs Committee Konstantin Kosachyov said that air strikes on Libya might "spark a huge conflict between the so-called West and the so-called Arab world."[245] China and India have also criticised military intervention, with India's foreign ministry saying "the measures adopted should mitigate and not exacerbate an already difficult situation for the people of Libya".[246]

See also

References

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Further reading

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