User:Dacey.stratton/Quechuadraft

Background Information

Social Structure and Organization

Similar to many Spanish cultures, the Quechua surname consists of two parts. Married couples do not exchange names; their children receive a combination of their names. One receives the first of two part surname of each parent; with the mother's name first and the father's name last. Thus, the father's surname continues indefinitely while the mother's does not. One may marry someone removed by four generations. In some populations of Quechua, it is not appropriate to marry one who shares either of the last names. To do so would be considered incest, which is "a most shameful act." Bolin, 117) There are gender roles, but they are not strict. For example, women typically rear children and cook meals, but a man preparing dinner would not be out of place. Men and women both weave, but women typically weave more intricate patterns. Men and women both take great pride in their work, so if there is work to be done, anyone available will help regardless of their sex.(Bolin 121) Although there are semi-defined sex roles, there is no gender inequality. The youngest child remains in the parents' home to take care of them in old age. After they die, the youngest child inherits the home and their share of the land and livestock for their work. The other siblings generally receive the same amount of land and livestock as the youngest child.

The community unit is the ayllu.

Political and Economic System

In Peru, indigenous people are one-and-a-half times more likely to be poor and almost three times more likely to be extremely poor than nonindigenous people. "The rural/urban gap is greatest in China, followed by Vietnam, Kazakhstan and Peru; 6 of the 12 countries with the highest rural/urban stunting disparities are in Latin America and the Caribbean…Stunting often begins in the womb as a result of maternal malnutrition, which also leads to low-weight births. Low-birth weight babies are much more likely to die in the first month of life than babies of normal weight, and those who survive are likely to be stunted for the rest of their lives. Women who are stunted are more likely to experience obstructed labour and face a greater risk of dying in childbirth. If they live, they will more likely give birth to low birth weight infants, continuing the impact of stunting over generations." (http://www.unicef.org/pon99/pon99all.pdf)

Religion

From their interactions with the Inca and the Spaniards, the Quechua developed religious practices that include aspects of the Spaniards’ Christianity interwoven with Incan duality (Smith, 2008). Their beliefs are structured around appeasing their many gods in order to ensure good fortune. The central god is Pachamama, Mother Earth, and offerings of drinks are made to her daily (Nature Worship, 2011). Included in their beliefs is the idea that all things are animate and omnipotent. Some, like moving water, rainbows, and cold air, are controlled by the devil and can cause serious harm to anyone who comes in contact with them (Smith, 2008, p. 34-36).

Health Statistics (especially related to women’s health)

Peru has the second highest maternal mortality rate in South America. The major causes of maternal death are hemorrhage, infection, eclampsia. Of the thousands of health centers in Peru, only 25 combine the use of traditional and western medicine. (Of highest risk) Due to their forced geographic isolation, fifty-nine percent of the indigenous communities do not have access to a health care facility (Amnesty International, 2009). Of the communities that do have a facility, forty-five percent have only a first-aid post, forty-two percent had a health post (one of the most basic health facilities), and only ten percent had an actual health center (Amnesty International). In addition, language and cultural barriers leave them apprehensive about the care they will receive, and so they simply do not go to the health centers when they are available (Bristol, 2009). As a result, the maternal mortality rate of indigenous women is significantly higher than their Spanish counterpart (Physicians for Human Rights). 1999 C-section rate: 13% urban, 3% rural. http://www.unicef.org/pon99/pon99all.pdf Over 50 percent of Peru’s 2009 population falls under the national poverty line. http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Postscript_Formatted_-_IMR_paper_FINAL_11.17.09.pdf In 1996, children in the poorest 20% of the population was 4.96 times more likely die before their fifth birthday than children in the wealthiest 20%. By 2000, this rate had actually increased to 5.26 times. Both years, Peru had the greatest mortality ratio discrepancy between upper and lower quintiles in the world. http://www.unicef.org/health/files/MDG_and_Health_Inequalities_UN_2009.pdf In 2000, 47% on rural women reported experiencing sexual violence at some point in their lifetime. 62% reported experiencing physical violence. World development report 2006: equity and development, p 54. By Francisco H. G. Ferreira, Michael Walton, World Bank People from indigenous groups are more likely to be poor and in Peru they are less likely to complete their secondary education (23 percent of poor indigenous children compared with 36 percent of the poor non-indigenous children) http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/The_intergenerational_transmission_of_poverty.pdf

Pregnancy Behaviors and Beliefs

Local View (conceptualization) of Pregnancy, Birth and Infertility

"Phallcha flowers are female and are symbols for fertility" Page 61, Rituals of respect. For impotence or inability to beget children, inscense of Chutarpu or Sutarpu are used. "los sahumerios con chutarpu o sutarpu, hacen impotente no engendran hijos" (21, Cavero) Se usa como planta medicinal cuando la mujer no puede tener hijos o dar la luz. Se toma una copa y despues tambien se lavan sus partes intimas con este planta. Se toma mezclado con malva y luego se lava la vagina. Se usa cuando uno es afasi y cuando en el anzuelo o trampa no quiere caer nada. Se le hace hervir a la alba; hace negra y se recibe en las manos el humo que proviene de la olla que se tapa con un mantel. Es muy bueno. (Rengifo, La Vision Quechua Lamas de las plantas medicinales) Mancharisqa: Enfermedad que se contrae en los parajes solitarios o en los camposantos, se expresa en reacciones como temblores, encogimiento de los miembros superiores o inferiores, ataques convulsivos, sentimientos de amor y odio incontrolables, estados depresivos. El Mancharisqa se produce principalmente en los ninos y las mujeres embarazadas que han sufrido un gran susto o han visto algo indebido. En esos casos se cura con intervencion del layqa. (390)

RAINBOW: CHIRAPA This disease is linked to Puki, but in this case is the rainbow that seizes or "alkanza" the individual. Even more serious when a woman is taken by the rainbow, because she will become pregnant and the baby will be born with some physical defect and take only the surname of the mother. (Sumar)

Preparation for Birth

In some areas, a mode of transportation such as a horse or canoe is acquired prior to labor, in case there are any complications that require transport to the nearest city. (Uzendoski, 29)

Extrinsic Factors

Air, water, food, and drink.

Air: sullu wayra: Causante de las dermitis de toda clase. Este viento vive fundamentalmente en las quchas o en los resquicios de los cerros. Viento de los fetos, de los no nacidos, que vaga por los subterraneos y protege los tesoros de la tierra de las ambiciones de sus buscadores. Es posible evitar los efectos de sullu wayra mediante los pagos y los despachos. (388)

Sleep and wakefulness, rest, activity, and movement.

In general, women do not change their daily activities due to pregnancy. A common Quechua belief is that the thoughts of a woman are transferred to her fetus. Therefore, she should not think of anything unsettling. A woman should also avoid spinning or weaving while pregnant to prevent the fetus from becoming entangled in the umbilical cord. To dispel malevolent air that could harm the fetus, the woman may tie black and white wool threads around their wrists, ankles, or waist. (Bolin, COR, 18)

Labor

Beliefs of Cause of Labor, Onset, and Length of Labor

A drink made with shavings of giant armadillo claws is used to help the baby slide out easily (Uzendoski, 29)

Birth

Birth Attendant and Assistants

Most often, the mother of the woman in labor acts as the birth attendant. Occasionally, the father of the child will be the birth attendant, but this removes him from his typical support position behind the laboring woman. Alternatively, it is possible to have a woman who lives nearby serve as a midwife. If no other options are available, any child over the age of twelve is typically able to help during uncomplicated births (Bolin, growing up, 18)

There is a midwife or partero (male healer who knows about birth) in some villages, but the majority do not. (Bolin COR 21) When they are present, they are either centrally located in the village or operate out of their home (which could be 10 or more miles away from the village center). (Bolin, COR, 30) With unpaved roads and few vehicles, it is unlikely that a woman would be able to access a healer, midwife, or health station in case of emergency during childbirth (Bolin, COR, 21)

Status of Birth Attendant (including education level and/or training)

Healers of various types are highly esteemed among the Quechua. Midwives who are more experienced and thought to have “special knowledge” may be asked to come from a neighboring village if a labor is not progressing. For this, they may be paid the equivalent of two US dollars. (Bolin, COR, 21)

Locus of Decision Making Power

Women are generally able to make decisions, or at least have some input, on their care. Only 16% of Peruvian women reported that their husband made all decisions regarding health care Source: http://www.unicef.org/india/SOWC09-FullReport-EN.pdf, page 40.

Birth Position

Women are particularly susceptible to negative forces while in labor, and therefore specific precautions must be taken (Smith). For example, the woman must be shielded from the cold air by being fully clothed and by being in a warm room, preferably heated by fire (Smith). Of utmost importance is that the woman be touching Pachamama, with her bare feet on the ground, when the child is born and that the placenta be buried, within Pachamama’s warm stomach (Smith). These will each ensure that Pachamama will treat the child favorably (Smith).

Placental delivery and practices

Some healers use Brack Egg to disinfect the umbilical cord before cutting it, but most are not concerned with the possibility of infection. (Bolin, COR 164). There was no discussion of disinfecting whatever tool is used for cutting, although there are numerous beliefs about what tool to use. Some cut the umbilical cord with broken earthen ceramic or sharp tile piece because cutting with a sharp object such as a knife or scissors will cause the child to wear through clothes very quickly, or possibly become an assassin. Others prefer to use a knife or scissors to make their child “sharp,” instead of ceramic or tile which will make the child “dull.” (Boline, COR 19 and 163).

In some Quechua villages, such as Chillihuani, the placenta is washed within a day of being expelled and then burned. The ashes can be spread over livestock or land to make it more fertile, or they can be mixed with blessed water and drank to bestow immunity against the "malevolent wind." If the placenta is not washed before it is burned, it will cause the mother intense pain, and the child will "turn dark." (Bolin, COR 164).

In other villages, it is more common to bury the placenta near the home in a warm place to keep it safe from the cold.

Extrinsic factors

Behavior for complications, abnormalities

A midwife may use her hands or a technique called blanketing to adjust the fetus’ placement in the womb. These are done with the intention of assisting the fetus into the birth canal. Lafeber and Voorhoeve stated that during blanketing, “a shawl or sheet is placed under the back of the woman, who is lying on her back. Then the midwife takes the two wends of the shawl and rubs rhythmically and slowly in to dorsal and iliac areas, going up and down various times.” (Bolin, COR, 21)

The Quechua use many different methods to combat hemorrhage. Clay can be used to cover deep tears to stop bleeding, or one can eat fresh dove heart (Cavero, 18-19). One method for combatting a slow hemorrhage, or recovering from blood loss, is to rub a mixture of steeped herbs and animal fat onto the woman’s entire body, place nettles on her belly button, then wrap her in blankets. The feet should be rubbed with the same mixture with the addition of chewed coca, and then heated tiles should be pressed against them. This should be done on the first, third, and fifth day following the birth. (Bolin COR, 165).

"el caldo de camarones para aumentar la secrecion lactea, asi el caldo de un ave, llamada pito" Shrimp or chicken broth is given to increase milk production. (page 19 Cavero) To induce milk production, Quinua (Chenopodium quinua) is used. (20 Cavero)

Llama placenta is used to help or induce labor (19 Cavero), "empleaban el cocimiento del moqomoqo y la altamisa" or they use the cooking of moqomoqo and feverfew. (20 Cavero). Moqomoqo is either a plant with sap to stop bleeding or a general term for a lizard.

Postpartum

Different Behaviors for Primiparous vs. Multiparous

Among the Chillihuani, tradition says that if the firstborn child is a female, its family will experience good luck and economic well-being. If the firstborn child is a boy, the family will struggle to make a living. The sex of all subsequent children is inconsequential.

Extrinsic Factors

Air, water, food, and drink.

Following the birth of the child, the mother cannot eat salt for one to three weeks because it will injure the womb (Bolin 25) Women of Puno do not eat white food of any kind for a period following the birth of the child, unless it will stimulate milk production. (Graham, 155). This is a very restrictive diet, considering that the staple of the Quechua diet is the potato. (Graham)

Both women and men of the Napo Runa observe two week period of restrictions after the birth of their child. During this time, they do not consume any nocturnal game for fear that the child will take on its characteristics and stay awake at night. They also avoid heavy physical activity and sex, either of which will negatively affect the child’s development. The child might grow “crooked,” turn different colors, or become very sick with diarrhea. (Uzendoski)

Sleep and wakefulness, rest, activity, and movement.

The mother must remain in her home for eight days following the birth of a child (Bolin, 156). Some believe that getting out of bed early will cause air to enter the vagina, which will result in itching, listlessness, lack of appetite, and severe swelling and pain. (Cabieses, bookmarked)

"Caught" by Air. Description: Introduction of air through the vagina when getting out of bed early, or that is, before the 7 days after giving birth. Denominations: - Aire pasmo o soplado (Huamanga). - Air amazement or blower (Huamanga). - Aire de parturientas (Cajamarca). - Air parturients (Cajamarca). Symptoms: Whole body itching, listlessness and lack of appetite, swelling with severe pain (Cabieses, bookmarked)

Among the Napo Runa, newborns are born “soft,” and must be shaped into a human by their parents and family. Because newborns are so malleable, they only the mother can hold them for the first month. If anyone else holds the child, it will become “twisted;” that is, the child will cry incessantly, and it and its feces will turn black and green. After the first month, if someone is to hold the infant, they must first ritually pass it head first through their legs (the first time that they hold it) to prevent it from becoming twisted. (Uzendoski, 31).

Emotional behavior and sexual activity.

The Napo Runa observe a two week period of abstinence following the birth of a child. This restriction helps to spiritually feed the child. (Uzendoski, 32)

Newborn

Rites of passage

There are no immediate right of passage for newborn. Sometime between their first and fourth birthday, the first haircutting ceremony (Rutuy, which literally translates to "to cut the hair") occurs. At this time, the baby becomes a child and one or two people who are special to the family accept the honor of being the child's godparents. The male godparent is the padrino and the female is the madrina. Rutuy is a celebration of life. Friends and family come with gifts of clothing, livestock, or most frequently, money to aid in the child's upbringing. The child's parents provide food and drink for all who participate. At the beginning of the ceremony, an unkuna cloth is placed on a table under a plate. An unkuna cloth is a special cloth for rituals that generally holds coca leaves. For Rutuy, the unkuna holds the scissors until the haircut begins. The godparents begin the ceremony by each cutting a section of the child's hair and placing it on the plate. On top of the hair, each godparent places a gift of money. Then the hug the parents and allow the next person to cut hair while they drink. Each person has a turn cutting the child's hair, placing it on the plate, and donating money. When everyone has had a turn, the godparents finish the haircut and count the money. The money is presented to the parents for the child's future needs. The hair is placed inside the unkuna cloth while the celebration continues. Once it is dark, the unkuna is burned as an offering to the mountain god, but the celebration may continue until dawn. (Woven stories, 2003)

Caregiver

While the mother is the primary care giver, the father is also very involved in the children's upbringing. The godparents become involved in the raising of the child after the Rutuy. (Woven Stories)

Other women of the village are also involved in the rearing of children ((Uzendoski, 27)

Extrinsic Factors

Air and water.

(bathing, vernix, navel/umbilical cord, fontanelles) Sources vary regarding the actions immediately following birth. However, all share the common theme of protecting the child from the cold. According to Graham, the children of Puno are quickly rinsed in warm water and wrapped in multiple cloths to avoid contact with the cold (Graham, 155). The Napo Runa also follow this practice (Uzendoski, 30). Bolin, on the other hand, states that children of Chillihuani are covered with qollpa, a substance similar to salt-peter, before being wrapped in cloths. The qollpa is used for purification and protection against the malevolent wind. He goes on to state that the child will not be bathed until the umbilical cord has fallen off (20)

Food and drink.

(feeding, introduction of foods) The first breast milk (colostrum) is expelled and thrown away. It is believed to be spoiled because it has stayed in the breast for the duration of the pregnancy. The majority of infants begin breastfeeding within 24 hours of birth, and nearly all have begun by 48 hours. Children are allowed to play with and suck on adult food as soon as they are able to grab it, which is usually before they develop teeth. The child dictates the types of food that it wants to try; the parents do not attempt to compel it. (Graham, 156)

Newborns are fed breast milk, as they feel it is the ideal nourishment for the baby. (Uzendoski, 27)

Quechua women do not use formula. While discarding colostrum, the infant is fed anise or some other herbal tea (Bolin, COR, 24)

Sleep and wakefulness

Where baby sleeps.

The baby sleeps in the same bed as its mother, which facilitates breastfeeding more easily. (Uzendoski, 27)

During the day, the mother caries the baby in a cloth strapped to her back, called an aparinga. (Uzendoski, 28) If the mother is performing physical labor, she will place two stakes in the ground and attach the aparinga to make a hammock for the child. If this is done in the forest, mothers are very careful to remove and hide the stakes afterward. If she does not, the forest spirit (supai) will sense a child's prescience and hurt them during the night. (Uzendoski, 28)

Emotional behavior.

Crying.

Among the Napo Runa, infants are not expected to cry. In general, the mother anticipates the infant’s hunger. If the child cries for milk too frequently, the mother may punish it by placing pepper on her nipple before the feeding.

Older children, both male and female, are punished for crying. The extent of the punishment could vary from teasing or a slap on the hand to having pepper thrown in one’s eyes.

Circumcision.

There are little, if any, publications regarding circumcision among the Quechua. However, since neither male nor female circumcision is common in South America (other than among migrant populations and one Amazonian, non Quechua indigenous tribe), it can be assumed that the Quechua do not practice circumcision of any kind.

Random

son aires que se desprenden de lugares donde se encuentran enterrados los fetos de origen abortivo, no cubiertos por suficiente cantidad de tierra, siendo esto por lo general fuera del panteon. Se cree que en circumstancias en que un sujeto respira dicho aire, se producen en su organismo transtornos cutaneous, o sea de la piel; apareciendo erupciones, pupulas o proliferaciones de forma conica, que se manifiesta de preferencia en la cara y miembros, siendo ellas generalmente sin prurito (escosor), y poco numerosas; dichas papulas encierran un liquido transparente. esta enfermedad que conoce el vulgo, se relaciona cientificamente con los transtornos de la piel, de origen multiple, asi: nerviosos, que ocurre cuando los poros forman prominencias a veces pasajeras como cuando la piel recibe un choque de aire frio que origina un ligero escalofrio en el cuerpo, asi alguna emocion o impresion de caracter sensacional que ocasiona extraña reaccion como el temor, recibiendo la piel la apariencia de estar cubierta de granulos o corpusculos, tomando el aspecto de carne de gallina; llamada asi corrientemente por la semejanza de sus caracteres externos.

"Caught" by the air of the fetuses. Este tipo de vientos caminan por las orillas de los ríos en forma de brisa. This type of wind walk the riverbanks in the form of a breeze. Descripción: Description: Bathing in the evenings or at any time washing clothing in water sources with which abortions are buried single mothers or fetuses. The same effect can be caused by the placenta (Wawlla or Paris). Denominations: - Mal aire o Sullu huaira (Andahuaylas). - Mal aire o Puquio Huayra (Andahuaylas). - Sullu wayra o viento del feto enterrado (Cangallo). - Sullu Wayra (Cusco). - Sullu wayra o viento del feto (Huamanga). - Sullu huayra (Huancayo). Symptoms: Appearance of small bumps or itchy medallions on the body or the parts that came into contact with water, or purulent eruptions if the condition is more serious (Cabieses, bookmarked)

References

Amnesty International (2009). Peru: Maternal health and mortality—Facts and figures & case studies. Retrieved from http://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/peru-maternal-health-and-mortality-facts-and-figures-amp-case-studies-20

Backman, G., Hunt, P., Khosla, R., Jaramillo-Strouss, C., Fikre, B., Rumble, C., Pevalin, D., Páez, D., Pineda, M., Frisancho, A. (2008). Health systems and the right to health: An assessment of 194 countries. Lancet 372(9655), 2047-2085.

Bristol, N. (2009). Dying to give birth: Fighting maternal mortality in Peru. Health Affairs, 28(4), 997-1002.

Fraser, B. (2008). Peru makes progress on maternal health. Lancet, 371(9620), 1233-1234.

Gabrysch, S., Lema, C., Bedrinana, E., Bautista, M. A., Malca, R., Campbella, O., & Miranda, J. J. (2009). Cultural adaptation of birthing services in rural Ayacucho, Peru. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 87(9), 724-729.

International Initiative on Maternal Mortality and Human Rights (2010). Briefing paper: Human rights based approaches to maternal mortality reduction efforts. Available from http://righttomaternalhealth.org/resource/hr-based-approaches

Nature worship. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/406588/nature-worship

Physicians for Human Rights (2007). Deadly delays: Maternal mortality in Peru—A rights based approach to safe motherhood. Retrieved from http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/maternal-mortality-in-peru.pdf

Smith, T. P. (2008) With one heart: The Panao Quechua way of life (2nd Ed.). Lima, Perú: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano