Jump to content

International Monetary Fund

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Willcrowne (talk | contribs) at 10:56, 6 July 2011 (→Criticism). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"IMF" redirects here. For other uses, see IMF (disambiguation).
International Monetary Fund
EstablishedDecember 27, 1945
TypeInternational organization
HeadquartersWashington, D.C.
United States
Membership187 countries
Managing Director
Christine Lagarde
Main organ
Board of Governors
Websitehttp://www.imf.org
IMF "Headquarters 1" in Washington, D.C.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an intergovernmental organization that oversees the global financial system by monitoring[clarification needed] the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rate and the balance of payments. Its objectives are to stabilize international exchange rates and facilitate development through the encouragement of liberalising economic policies[1] in other countries as a condition of loans, debt relief, and aid.[2] It also offers loans with varying levels of conditionality, mainly to poorer countries. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. The IMF’s relatively high influence in world affairs and development has drawn heavy criticism from some sources.[3][4]

The International Monetary Fund was conceived in July 1944 originally with 45 members and came into existence in December 1945 when 29 countries signed the agreement,[5] with a goal to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world’s international payment system. Countries contributed to a pool which could be borrowed from, on a temporary basis, by countries with payment imbalances. The IMF was important when it was first created because it helped the world stabilize the economic system. The IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.[6] The IMF describes itself as “an organization of 187 countries (as of July 2010), working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty.”

Membership

  IMF member states
  IMF member states not accepting the obligations of Article VIII, Sections 2, 3, and 4[7]

The members of the IMF are the 187 members of the UN and Kosovo.[8][9]

Former members are Cuba (which left in 1964) and [10] the Republic of China.[11]

The other nonmembers are North Korea, Andorra, Monaco, Liechtenstein, Nauru, Cook Islands, Niue, Vatican City, and the rest of the states with limited recognition.

All member states participate directly in the IMF. Member states are represented on a 24-member executive board (five executive directors are appointed by the five members with the largest quotas, nineteen executive directors are elected by the remaining members), and all members appoint a governor to the IMF's board of governors.[12]

All members of the IMF are also IBRD members and vice versa.[citation needed]

History

IMF "Headquarters 2" in Washington, D.C.

The International Monetary Fund was conceived in July 1944 during the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The representatives of 45 governments met in the Mount Washington Hotel in the area of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, with the delegates to the conference agreeing on a framework for international economic cooperation.[13] The IMF was formally organized on December 27, 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement. The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1943 (see #Assistance and reforms).

The IMF’s influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the dissolution of the USSR. The expansion of the IMF’s membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively.

In 2008, faced with a shortfall in revenue, the International Monetary Fund’s executive board agreed to sell part of the IMF’s gold reserves. On April 27, 2008, former IMF Managing Director Dominique Strauss-Kahn welcomed the board’s decision of April 7, 2008, to propose a new framework for the fund, designed to close a projected $400 million budget deficit over the next few years. The budget proposal includes sharp spending cuts of $100 million until 2011 that will include up to 380 staff dismissals.[14]

At the 2009 G-20 London summit, it was decided that the IMF would require additional financial resources to meet prospective needs of its member countries during the ongoing global financial crisis. As part of that decision, the G-20 leaders pledged to increase the IMF’s supplemental cash tenfold to $500 billion, and to allocate to member countries another $250 billion via Special Drawing Rights.[15][16]

On October 23, 2010, the ministers of finance of G-20, governing most of the IMF member quotas, agreed to reform IMF and shift about 6 percent of the voting shares to major developing nations and countries with emerging markets.[17] As of August 2010 Romania ($13.9 billion), Ukraine ($12.66 billion), Hungary ($11.7 billion), and Greece ($30 billion) are the largest borrowers of the fund.[18]

Data dissemination systems

IMF Data Dissemination Systems participants:
  IMF member using SDDS
  IMF member, using GDDS
  IMF member, not using any of the DDSystems
  non-IMF entity using SDDS
  non-IMF entity using GDDS
  no interaction with the IMF

In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) endorsed the guidelines for the dissemination standards and they were split into two tiers: The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS).

The International Monetary Fund executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, and subsequent amendments were published in a revised “Guide to the General Data Dissemination System.” The system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals and Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers.

The IMF established a system and standard to guide members in the dissemination to the public of their economic and financial data. Currently there are two such systems: General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and its superset Special Data Dissemination System (SDDS), for those member countries having or seeking access to international capital markets.

The primary objective of the GDDS is to encourage IMF member countries to build a framework to improve data quality and increase statistical capacity building. This will involve the preparation of meta data describing current statistical collection practices and setting improvement plans. Upon building a framework, a country can evaluate statistical needs, set priorities in improving the timeliness, transparency, reliability and accessibility of financial and economic data.

Some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS.

Some entities that are not themselves IMF members also contribute statistical data to the systems:

Member states

Membership qualifications

The application will be considered first by the IMF’s executive board. After its consideration, the board will submit a report to the board of governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a “membership resolution.” These recommendations cover the amount of quota in the IMF, the form of payment of the subscription, and other customary terms and conditions of membership.[19] After the board of governors has adopted the membership Resolution, the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF’s Articles of Agreement and to fulfill the obligations of IMF membership.

Similarly, any member country can withdraw from the Fund, although that is rare. For example, in April 2007, the president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, announced the expulsion of the World Bank representative in the country. A few days later, at the end of April, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez announced that the country would withdraw from the IMF and the World Bank. Chavez dubbed both organizations as “the tools of the empire” that “serve the interests of the North.”[20] As of June 2009, both countries remain as members of both organizations. The government of Venezuela was forced to back down because a withdrawal would have triggered default clauses in the country’s sovereign bonds.[citation needed]

A member’s quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). A member state cannot unilaterally increase its quota—increases must be approved by the Executive Board of IMF and are linked to formulas that include many variables such as the size of a country in the world economy. For example, in 2001, the People’s Republic of China was prevented from increasing its quota as high as it wished, ensuring it remained at the level of the smallest G7 economy (Canada).[21]

In September 2005 the IMF’s member countries agreed to the first round of ad-hoc quota increases for four countries, including China[citation needed]. On March 28, 2008, the IMF’s executive board ended a period of extensive discussion and negotiation over a major package of reforms to enhance the institution's governance that would shift quota and voting shares from advanced to emerging markets and developing countries.[citation needed] Under existing arrangements, the industrialized countries (including Mexico) hold 57 per cent of the IMF votes[citation needed]. But the financial crisis has tilted control away from heavily indebted mature economies, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, in favour of the fast-growing, cash-rich, so-called BRIC economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.[22]

Since the United States has by far the largest share of votes (approx. 17 percent) amongst IMF members (see table below), it has little to lose relative to European nations. At the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit, the U.S. raised the possibility that some European countries would reduce their votes in favour of increasing the votes for emerging economies. However, both France and Britain were particularly reluctant as an increase in China’s votes would mean China now has more votes than the UK and France. At a subsequent IMF meeting in Istanbul, the same month as the Pittsburgh Summit, former IMF managing director Dominique Strauss-Kahn then highlighted that “If we don’t correct them, we’ll have the recipe for the next major crisis.”[23] Citing the seriousness of the issue to be tackled.

Members' quotas and voting power, and board of governors

Major decisions require an 85 percent supermajority.[24] The United States has always been the only country able to block a supermajority on its own. The following table shows the top 20 member states in terms of voting power (2,220,817 votes in total). The 27 member states of the European Union have a combined vote of 710,786 (32.07 percent).[25]

On October 23, 2010, the ministers of finance of G-20, governing most of the IMF member quotas, agreed to reform IMF and shift about 6 percent of the voting shares to major developing nations and countries with emerging markets.[17]

Members' quotas and voting power, and board of governors (Note: Voting shares before the changes made on October, 2010)
IMF member country Quota: millions of SDRs Quota: percentage of total Governor Alternative Governor Votes: number Votes: percentage of total
 United States 37,149.3 17.09 Timothy Geithner Ben Bernanke 371,743 16.74
 Japan 13,312.8 6.12 Yoshihiko Noda Masaaki Shirakawa 133,378 6.01
 Germany 13,008.2 5.98 Jens Weidmann Wolfgang Schäuble 130,332 5.87
 France 10,738.5 4.94 Christine Lagarde Christian Noyer 107,635 4.85
 United Kingdom 10,738.5 4.94 George Osborne Sir Mervyn King 107,635 4.85
 China 8,090.1 4.42 Zhou Xiaochuan Yi Gang 81,151 3.65
 Italy 7,055.5 3.24 Giulio Tremonti Mario Draghi 70,805 3.19
 Saudi Arabia 6,985.5 3.21 Ibrahim A. Al-Assaf Hamad Al-Sayari 70,105 3.16
 Canada 6,369.2 2.93 Jim Flaherty Mark Carney 63,942 2.88
 Russia 5,945.4 2.73 Aleksei Kudrin Sergey Ignatyev 59,704 2.69
 India 5,898.2 2.44 Pranab Mukherjee Duvvuri Subbarao 58,832 2.34
 Netherlands 5,162.4 2.37 Nout Wellink L.B.J. van Geest 51,874 2.34
 Belgium 4,605.2 2.12 Guy Quaden Jean-Pierre Arnoldi 46,302 2.08
  Switzerland 3,458.5 1.59 Jean-Pierre Roth Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf 34,835 1.57
 Australia 3,236.4 1.49 Wayne Swan Martin Parkinson 32,614 1.47
 Mexico 3,152.8 1.45 Agustín Carstens Guillermo Ortiz 31,778 1.43
 Spain 3,048.9 1.40 Elena Salgado Miguel Fernández Ordóñez 30,739 1.38
 Brazil 3,036.1 1.40 Guido Mantega Alexandre Tombini 30,611 1.38
 South Korea 2,927.3 1.35 Okyu Kwon Seong Tae Lee 29,523 1.33
 Venezuela 2,659.1 1.22 Gastón Parra Luzardo Rodrigo Cabeza Morales 26,841 1.21
remaining 166 countries 62,593.8 28.79 respective respective 667,438 30.05


























Assistance and reforms

Main articles: Washington consensus and Structural adjustment program

The primary mission of the IMF is to provide financial assistance to countries that experience serious financial and economic difficulties using funds deposited with the IMF from the institution’s 187 member countries. Member states with balance of payments problems, which often arise from these difficulties, may request loans to help fill gaps between what countries earn and/or are able to borrow from other official lenders and what countries must spend to operate, including to cover the cost of importing basic goods and services. In return, countries are usually required to launch certain reforms, which have often been dubbed the Washington Consensus. These reforms are thought to be beneficial to countries with fixed exchange rate policies that may engage in fiscal, monetary, and political practices that may lead to the crisis itself. For example, nations with severe budget deficits, rampant inflation, strict price controls, or significantly overvalued or undervalued currencies run the risk of facing balance-of-payment crises. Thus, the structural adjustment programs are at least ostensibly intended to ensure that the IMF is actually helping to prevent financial crises rather than merely funding financial recklessness.

Following the recent economic crisis, the IMF has attempted to help emerging economies deal with large capital outflows.[26]

Criticism

Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called Conditionalities, including Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP). It is claimed that conditionalities (economic performance targets established as a precondition for IMF loans) retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries.[27]

The IMF sometimes advocates “austerity programmes,” cutting public spending and increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, in order to bring budgets closer to a balance, thus reducing budget deficits. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate. In Globalization and Its Discontents, Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and senior vice president at the World Bank, criticizes these policies.[28] He argues that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the purpose of the fund is no longer valid, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF “was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial community.”[29]

“When the IMF arrives in a country, they are interested in only one thing. How do we make sure the banks and financial institutions are paid?... It is the IMF that keeps the [financial] speculators in business. They’re not interested in development, or what helps a country to get out of poverty.”

— Joseph Stiglitz[30]

ODI research undertaken in 1980 pointed to five main criticisms of the IMF. Firstly, developed countries were seen to have a more dominant role and control over LDCs primarily due to the Western bias towards a capitalist form of the world economy with professional staff being Western trained and believing in the efficacy of market-oriented policies. Secondly, the Fund worked on the incorrect assumption that all payments disequilibria were caused domestically. The Group of 24 (G-24), on behalf of LDC members, and UNCTAD complained that the Fund did not distinguish sufficiently between disequilibria with predominantly external as opposed to internal causes. This criticism was voiced in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis. Then LDCs found themselves with payments deficits due to adverse changes in their terms of trade, with the Fund prescribing stabilisation programmes similar to those suggested for deficits caused by government over-spending. Faced with long-term, externally-generated disequilibria, the Group of 24 argued that LDCs should be allowed more time to adjust their economies and that the policies needed to achieve such adjustment are different from demand-management programmes devised primarily with internally generated disequilibria in mind.

The third criticism was that the effects of Fund policies were anti-developmental. The deflationary effects of IMF programmes quickly led to losses of output and employment in economies where incomes were low and unemployment was high. Moreover, it was sometimes claimed that the burden of the deflationary effects was borne disproportionately by the poor.

Fourthly is the accusation that harsh policy conditions were self-defeating where a vicious circle developed when members refused loans due to harsh conditionality, making their economy worse and eventually taking loans as a drastic medicine.

Lastly is the point that the Fund's policies lack a clear economic rationale. Its policy foundations were theoretical and unclear due to differing opinions and departmental rivalries whilst dealing with countries with widely varying economic circumstances.

ODI conclusions were that the Fund’s very nature of promoting market-oriented economic approach attracted unavoidable criticism, as LDC governments were likely to object when in a tight corner. Yet, on the other hand, the Fund could provide a ‘scapegoat service’ where governments could take loans as a last resort, whilst blaming international bankers for any economic downfall. The ODI conceded that the fund was to some extent insensitive to political aspirations of LDCs, while its policy conditions were inflexible.[31]

Argentina, which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001,[32] which some believe to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions—which undercut the government’s ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security—and privatization of strategically vital national resources.[33] Others attribute the crisis to Argentina’s misdesigned fiscal federalism, which caused subnational spending to increase rapidly.[34] The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region’s economic problems.[35] The current—as of early 2006—trend toward moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis.

In an interview, the former Romanian Prime Minister Tăriceanu claimed that "Since 2005, IMF is constantly making mistakes when it appreciates the country's economic performances".[36]

The delay in the IMF’s response to any crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to them rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform. In 2006 an IMF reform agenda called the Medium Term Strategy was widely endorsed by the institution’s member countries. The agenda includes changes in IMF governance to enhance the role of developing countries in the institution’s decision-making process and steps to deepen the effectiveness of its core mandate, which is known as economic surveillance or helping member countries adopt macroeconomic policies that will sustain global growth and reduce poverty. On June 15, 2007, the executive board of the IMF adopted the 2007 Decision on Bilateral Surveillance, a landmark measure that replaced a 30-year-old decision of the Fund’s member countries on how the IMF should analyze economic outcomes at the country level.

Impact on access to food

A number of civil society organizations[37] have criticized the IMF’s policies for their impact on people’s access to food, particularly in developing countries. In October 2008, former U.S. president Bill Clinton presented a speech to the United Nations World Food Day, which criticized the World Bank and IMF for their policies on food and agriculture:

We need the World Bank, the IMF, all the big foundations, and all the governments to admit that, for 30 years, we all blew it, including me when I was president. We were wrong to believe that food was like some other product in international trade, and we all have to go back to a more responsible and sustainable form of agriculture.

— Former U.S. president Bill Clinton, Speech at United Nations World Food Day, October 16, 2008[38]

Impact on public health

In 2008 a study by analysts from Cambridge and Yale universities published on the open-access Public Library of Science concluded that strict conditions on the international loans by the IMF resulted in thousands of deaths in Eastern Europe by tuberculosis as public health care had to be weakened. In the 21 countries to which the IMF had given loans, tuberculosis deaths rose by 16.6%.[39]

In 2009, a book by Rick Rowden titled The Deadly Ideas of Neoliberalism: How the IMF has Undermined Public Health and the Fight Against AIDS, claimed that the IMF’s monetarist approach towards prioritizing price stability (low inflation) and fiscal restraint (low budget deficits) was unnecessarily restrictive and has prevented developing countries from being able to scale up long-term public investment as a percent of GDP in the underlying public health infrastructure. The book claimed the consequences have been chronically underfunded public health systems, leading to dilapidated health infrastructure, inadequate numbers of health personnel, and demoralizing working conditions that have fueled the “push factors” driving the brain drain of nurses migrating from poor countries to rich ones, all of which has undermined public health systems and the fight against HIV/AIDS in developing countries.[40]

Impact on environment

IMF policies have been repeatedly criticized for making it difficult for indebted countries to avoid ecosystem-damaging projects that generate cash flow, in particular oil, coal, and forest-destroying lumber and agriculture projects. Ecuador for example had to defy IMF advice repeatedly in order to pursue the protection of its rain forests, though paradoxically this need was cited in IMF argument to support that country. The IMF acknowledged this paradox in a March 2010 staff position report [41] which proposed the IMF Green Fund, a mechanism to issue Special Drawing Rights directly to pay for climate harm prevention and potentially other ecological protection as pursued generally by other environmental finance.

While the response to these moves was generally positive [42] possibly because ecological protection and energy and infrastructure transformation are more politically neutral than pressures to change social policy. Some experts voiced concern that the IMF was not representative, and that the IMF proposals to generate only 200 billion dollars a year by 2020 with the SDRs as seed funds, did not go far enough to undo the general incentive to pursue destructive projects inherent in the world commodity trading and banking systems—criticisms often leveled at the WTO and large global banking institutions.

In the context of the May 2010 European banking crisis, some observers also noted that Spain and California, two troubled economies within Europe and the United States respectively, and also Germany, the primary and politically most fragile supporter of a Euro currency bailout would benefit from IMF recognition of their leadership in green technology, and directly from Green Fund–generated demand for their exports, which might also improve their credit standing with international bankers.[citation needed]

Criticism from free-market advocates

Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a monetarist approach. As such, adherents of supply-side economics generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF.[who?] The IMF frequently advocates currency devaluation, criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as inflationary. Second, they link higher taxes under "austerity programmes" with economic contraction.[citation needed]

Currency devaluation is recommended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Some economists claim these IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity.[43]

Managing director

Historically the IMF’s managing director has been European and the president of the World Bank has been from the United States. However, this standard is increasingly being questioned and competition for these two posts may soon open up to include other qualified candidates from any part of the world.[44][45] Executive directors, who confirm the managing director, are voted in by finance ministers from countries they represent. The first deputy managing director of the IMF, the second in command, has traditionally been (and is today) an American.

The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western powers, with voting rights on the executive board based on a quota derived from the relative size of a country in the global economy. Critics claim that the board rarely votes and passes issues contradicting the will of the U.S. or Europeans, which combined represent the largest bloc of shareholders in the Fund. By contrast, executive directors that represent emerging and developing countries have many times strongly defended the group of nations in their constituency. Alexandre Kafka, who represented several Latin American countries for 32 years as Executive Director (including 21 as the dean of the Board), is a prime example.

EU ministers agreed on the candidacy of Dominique Strauss-Kahn, Socialist Party MP and former finance minister in France,[46] as managing director of the IMF at the Economic and Financial Affairs Council meeting in Brussels on July 10, 2007. On September 28, 2007, the International Monetary Fund’s 24 executive directors elected Dominic Strauss-Kahn as new managing director, with broad support including from the United States and the 27-nation European Union. Strauss-Kahn succeeded Spain's Rodrigo Rato, who retired on October 31, 2007.[47] The only other nominee was Josef Tošovský, a late candidate proposed by Russia. Strauss-Kahn said: "I am determined to pursue without delay the reforms needed for the IMF to make financial stability serve the international community, while fostering growth and employment."[48]

In April 2011, press reports linked the former United Kingdom prime minister Gordon Brown with the role as the next managing director of the International Monetary Fund. However, these reports received mixed reception. Ed Miliband, who succeeded Brown as the Labour Party’s leader after their general election defeat the previous year, backed Brown for the role as his handling of the global economic crisis three years earlier had been “outstanding.” However, the new Conservative prime minister David Cameron spoke of the possibility that he would block Brown from taking the position, as Brown “didn’t know” that the country was deep in debt during his leadership and that for this reason Brown might not be the best person to run the International Monetary Fund.[49]

The IMF announced on May 15, 2011 that John Lipsky had become acting managing director.[50] This was because of Strauss-Kahn's arrest in connection with charges of sexually assaulting a New York room attendant. Strauss-Kahn subsequently resigned his position on May 18.[51]

On June 28, 2011, Christine Lagarde was named Managing Director of the IMF, replacing Dominique Strauss-Kahn.

On June 14, the IMF announced two candidates had been shortlisted for the post. These were Agustín Carstens, governor of the Mexican central bank, and Christine Lagarde, French finance minister.[52]

Early in the contest the world's largest developing countries, the BRIC nations, issued an unusual statement declaring that the tradition of appointing a European as managing director undermined the legitimacy of the IMF and called for the appointment to be merit-based.[45][53]

The Wall Street Journal noted that the U.S. faced a delicate dilemma in backing a candidate. On the one hand it had advocated for more emerging-market representation and governance reform, a position favoring Agustin Carstens. On the other hand, it would wish to maintain its hold on its appointment of the No. 2 spot at the fund and its selection of the head of the World Bank, a position favoring Christine Lagarde.[54]

In the event, the U.S. came out in favour of Lagarde, along with the BRIC nations Brazil, Russia, India and China, and on June 28 Lagarde was accordingly confirmed Managing Director of the IMF for a five-year term, starting on July 5, 2011.[55][56]

Dates Name Nationality
May 6, 1946 – May 5, 1951 Camille Gutt  Belgium
August 3, 1951 – October 3, 1956 Ivar Rooth  Sweden
November 21, 1956 – May 5, 1963 Per Jacobsson  Sweden
September 1, 1963 – August 31, 1973 Pierre-Paul Schweitzer  France
September 1, 1973 – June 16, 1978 Johannes Witteveen  Netherlands
June 17, 1978 – January 15, 1987 Jacques de Larosière  France
January 16, 1987 – February 14, 2000 Michel Camdessus  France
May 1, 2000 – March 4, 2004 Horst Köhler  Germany
June 7, 2004 – October 31, 2007 Rodrigo Rato  Spain
November 1, 2007 – May 18, 2011 Dominique Strauss-Kahn  France
July 5, 2011 – Christine Lagarde  France

Security

The computer systems of the IMF were breached by hackers on 12 June 2011 after an assault lasting several months. The chief information officer of the IMF stated in an internal memo that they "have no reason to believe that any personal information was sought for fraud purposes." [57] The US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating the attacks, which officials from the IMF said was conducted by "hackers believed to be connected to a foreign government."[58]

In the media

Life and Debt, a documentary film, deals with the IMF's policies' influence on Jamaica and its economy from a critical point of view. Debtocracy, a 2011 independent Greek documentary film, also takes a look into the IMF and its tactics when it comes to providing financial help to endebted nations, taking a negative stand against the organization.

References

  1. ^ Davis, Bob (2010-05-03). "IMF's Sweeping Demands Signal Shift - WSJ.com". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  2. ^ Sullivan, Arthur (2003). Economics: Principles in action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 488. ISBN 0-13-063085-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  3. ^ http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/item.shtml?x=320869
  4. ^ http://tech.mit.edu/V120/N46/46chomsky.46n.html
  5. ^ "Factsheet - The IMF at a Glance". IMF. 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-19. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ^ Escobar, Arturo. 1988. Power and Visibility: Development and the Invention and Management of the Third World. Cultural Anthropology 3 (4): 428-443.
  7. ^ Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund, Article VIII - General Obligations of Members
    Section 2: Avoidance of restrictions on current payments;
    Section 3: Avoidance of discriminatory currency practices;
    Section 4: Convertibility of foreign-held balances.
  8. ^ "Republic of Kosovo is now officially a member of the IMF and the World Bank". The Kosovo Times. 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2009-06-29. Kosovo signed the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) on behalf of Kosovo at the State Department in Washington.
  9. ^ "Kosovo Becomes the International Monetary Fund's 186th Member" (Press release). International Monetary Fund. 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2009-06-29.
  10. ^ "Brazil calls for Cuba to be allowed into IMF". Caribbean Net News. 2009-04-27. Retrieved 2009-05-07. Cuba was a member of the IMF until 1964, when it left under revolutionary leader Fidel Castro following his confrontation with the United States.
  11. ^ Andrews, Nick (2009-05-07). "Kosovo Wins Acceptance to IMF". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2009-05-07. Taiwan was booted out of the IMF in 1980 when China was admitted, and it hasn't applied to return since. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ IMF Articles of Agreement, Article XII Section 2(a) and Section 3(b).
  13. ^ Brief video of the Bretton Woods Conference is available at YouTube.com
  14. ^ "IMF.org". IMF.org. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  15. ^ "G20 leaders seal $1tn global deal". BBC News. 2009-04-02. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  16. ^ Patrick Wintour and Larry Elliott (2009-04-03). "G20: Gordon Brown brokers massive financial aid deal for global economy". London: Guardian. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  17. ^ a b G20 summit agrees to reform IMF BBC.
  18. ^ Ukraine is now second largest International Monetary Fund debtor, Kyiv Post (August 10, 2010)
  19. ^ Section 1. Quotas and payment of subscriptions
  20. ^ "BrettonWoodsProject.org". BrettonWoodsProject.org. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  21. ^ Barnett, Michael; Finnemore, Martha (2004). Rules for the World: International Organisations in Global Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801488238.
  22. ^ http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/quotas.htm
  23. ^ Arnott, Sarah (2009-09-28). "Emerging economies battle for more voting rights at IMF". London: independent.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
  24. ^ CounterPunch, 2 September, Multilateral Money
  25. ^ Source for the figures is the International Monetary Fund. "Members". Retrieved 2007-09-24.
  26. ^ "Economics focus: The Reformation". "The Economist". 2011-04-17. Retrieved 2011-04-17.
  27. ^ Hertz, Noreena. The Debt Threat. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2004.
  28. ^ Stiglitz, Joseph. Globalization and its Discontents. New York: WW Norton & Company, 2002.
  29. ^ More by Benjamin M. Friedman (2002-08-15). "Globalization: Stiglitz's Case". Nybooks.com. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  30. ^ as quoted in: It's not just Dominique Strauss-Kahn. The IMF itself should be on trial, by Johann Hari, The Independent, 3 June 2011
  31. ^ "The IMF and the Third World". ODI briefing paper. Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
  32. ^ Memoria del Saqueo, Fernando Ezequiel Solanas, documentary film, 2003 (Language: spanish; Subtitles: english) YouTube.com
  33. ^ "Economic debacle in Argentina: The IMF strikes again". Twnside.org.sg. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  34. ^ Stephen Webb, “Argentina: Hardening the Provincial Budget Constraint,” in Rodden, Eskeland, and Litvack (eds.), Fiscal Decentralization and the Challenge of Hard Budget Constraints (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003).
  35. ^ How the IMF Props Up the Bankrupt Dollar System, by F. William Engdahl, U.S./Germany
  36. ^ "Tăriceanu: FMI a făcut constant greşeli de apreciere a economiei româneşti - Mediafax". Mediafax.ro. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  37. ^ Oxfam, Death on the Doorstep of the Summit, August 2002.
  38. ^ Bill Clinton, "Speech: United Nations World Food Day", October 13, 2008
  39. ^ International Monetary Fund Programs and Tuberculosis Outcomes in Post-Communist Countries PLoS Medicine. The study has not been independently verified, nor have the authors published parts of their supporting data. Retrieved 29-7-2008.
  40. ^ Rowden, Rick (2009). The Deadly Ideas of Neoliberalismh: How the IMF has Undermined Public Health and the Fight Against AIDS. Zed Books. ISBN 9781848132849.
  41. ^ "Financing the Response to Climate Change, Staff Position Note 10/06, March 25, 2010" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  42. ^ Robert, Adam (2010-03-25). "Finance: IMF Proposes 100-Billion-Dollar Climate Fund—Global Issues". Globalissues.org. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  43. ^ "Paying More Blood Money to the IMF". 1998-03-08. Retrieved 2011-01-12.
  44. ^ Woods, Ngaire (2003). "The United States and the International Financial Institutions: Power and Influence Within the World Bank and the IMF". In Foot, Rosemary, MacFarlene, S.Neil, and Mastanduno, Michael (ed.). US Hegemony and International Organizations. U.S.A.: OUP. pp. 92–114. ISBN 9780199261437. {{cite book}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  45. ^ a b Harding, Robin (24 May 2011). "Brics say European IMF claim 'obsolete'". The Financial Times. Retrieved 17 June 2011. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  46. ^ "France's presidency: Yes he Kahn!". "The Economist". 2011-04-17. Retrieved 2011-04-17.
  47. ^ Yahoo.com, IMF to choose new director[dead link‍]
  48. ^ "BBC NEWS, [[Frenchman]] is named new [[IMF chief]]". BBC News. 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2010-05-30. {{cite news}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  49. ^ "Cameron hints at blocking Brown bid for IMF job". BBC News. April 19, 2011.
  50. ^ "IMF Official: Lipsky Acting Managing Director Of Fund". Wall Street Journal. 15 May 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
  51. ^ "IMF Managing Director Dominique Strauss-Kahn Resigns". Press Release No. 11/187. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 14 June 2011. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  52. ^ Ewing, Jack (14 June 2011). "I.M.F. Names Lagarde and Carstens as Contenders for Top Post". New York Times. Retrieved 17 June 2011. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  53. ^ Mallaby, Sebastian (9 June 2011). "Can the BRICs Take the IMF?". Foreign Affairs. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help)
  54. ^ Talley, Ian (13 June 2011). "IMF Candidate Carstens Meets Geithner As IMF Mulls Choice". The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones Newswire. Retrieved 16 June 2011. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  55. ^ "IMF Executive Board Selects Christine Lagarde as Managing Director". Press Release. IMF. 28 June 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
  56. ^ "France's Lagarde elected new IMF chief". Reuters. 28 June 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
  57. ^ Foley, Stephen (13 June 2011). "Anti-capitalist hackers in the frame as IMF reveals cyber attack". The Independent. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  58. ^ Yates, Daniel (12 June 2011). "FBI investigates hackers who targeted IMF financial crisis secrets". Daily Mail. Retrieved 13 June 2011.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to International Monetary Fund.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=International_Monetary_Fund&oldid=438032650"