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Femininity

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Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Though socially constructed, femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors.[1][2][3][4] This makes it distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex,[5][6] as women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits.

Traits associated with femininity include a variety of social and cultural factors, and often vary depending on location and context.[7] Behavioral traits that are considered feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity.[8][9] The counterpart to femininity is masculinity.

History

The historical origin of the English word feminine is from the Latin femina meaning "woman" or "female," and literally meant, "she who suckles".[10]

Modern notions of femininity began during the English medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Middle Ages were referred to simply as maiden, wife, or widow. After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half of the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The concept of "woman" changed in a number of ways[11] and new language had to be created to describe these roles, with words like femininity and womanhood.[12]

Behavior and personality

See also: Sex and psychology

While the defining characteristics of femininity are not universally identical, some patterns exist. Gentleness, empathy, sensitivity, nurturance, deference, self-abasement, and succorance are behaviors generally considered feminine.[8][9] The feminine nature is considered by some to be more emotional and less logical than the masculine nature.[13][14][15]

Femininity is sometimes linked with sex and sexual appeal.[16][17] Sexual passiveness, or sexual reception, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire is sometime considered masculine behaviors. [17]

Ann Oakley's sex/gender dichotomy had a considerable influence on sociologists defining masculine and feminine behavior as regulated, policed, and reproduced in our society, as well as the power structures relating to the concepts. Some queer theorists and other postmodernists, however, have rejected the sex (biology)/gender (culture) dichotomy as a "dangerous simplification".[4]

An ongoing debate with regards to sex and psychology is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors.[1][3] According to Diane F. Halpern, both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated.[18] The nature versus nurture question, for example, is extensively debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings.[3]

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Erhardt proposed the neonatal hormone theory. Their research describes how the sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain and predicts future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction.[1] In 2005, scientific research investigating sex and psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age.[19] Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.[3] Some studies suggest that women tend to perform better on empathy tests than men,[20][21] though others have found no sex differences in empathy.[22][23] Some related studies suggest that empathy performance may be related to the subject's perceived gender identity and gender expectations,[24][25] while other researchers argue that because differences in empathy disappear on tests where it is not clear that empathy is being studied, men and women do not differ in ability, but instead in how empathetic they would like to appear to themselves and others.[26] Simon Baron-Cohen argues that there is a high capacity for empathy in women caused by biological factors,[27] though his studies have been criticized by Cordelia Fine, who argues that there is no evidence for biological behavioral differences.[25] Other researchers, such as Diane F. Halpern, argue that small innate differences are exaggerated socially and culturally to create gender.[28]

Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[8] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[16][29]

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[30]

Occupational roles

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar. Teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.
Main article: Gender roles

Several stereotypes about women have influenced what occupations are associated with femininity. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[31]

Early computer programmers were women. This has reversed in recent decades, however, with programming being perceived as a masculine occupation.[32]

In the field of medicine, the role of physician was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are still dominated by a masculine culture.[33]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.[34] However, some people have argued that the "feminine"-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over "masculine" leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.[35] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[35] Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[36]

Explanations for occupational imbalance

It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[9]

The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment[citation needed]. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than unskilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[31]

Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected roles negatively, supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other.[36]

Religion

Altai shaman

Asian religions

Shamanism may have originated as early as the paleolithic period, predating all organized religions.[37][38] Archeological finds have suggested that the earliest known shamans were female.[39] Among Altaic peoples, shamanic roles continue to be filled primarily by women.[40] In Korea, for example, the mudang (무당) is usually female, acting as an intercessor between the human and spirit worlds.[41]

File:Tridevi.png
Shakti and the Tridevi of: Lakshmi, Parvati, and Saraswati

In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe[42] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation.

Yin and yang

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[43]

In Judaeo-Christian theology

Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia

The Book of Genesis describes divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is the feminine aspect of God.[44] According to the Book of Job, "Wisdom comes from nothingness."[45] In the Book of Wisdom, wisdom is “the fashioner of all things” (v. 22). Because wisdom is God’s “creative agent,” she must be intimately identified with God.[46]

The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.

In the Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perseption) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the Creation of the Universe.[47]

Feminine athleticism

Main article: Women's_sports

Clothing and appearance

Main article: Clothing § Gender differentiation

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, light skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[5][48][49] In other cultures, however, these standards may vary. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine.[50]

These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized by feminists and others as restrictive, unhealthy, and discriminatory.[51][49] In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the feminine ideal of thinness.[52]

History

In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary a great deal on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th Century France, high heels were considered a masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[53]

In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.[54]

The typical feminine outfit of aristrocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[54]

Body alteration

Main article: Body alteration

Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[55] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it often made walking difficult and painful.[56][57]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty. The rings stretch the vertebrae until a person's neck can no longer support her head. This ironically disabling aspect is particularly troubling to humanitarian aid workers.[58]

  • In China until 1911, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine
    In China until 1911, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine
  • The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.
    The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.

Feminist views

See also: Feminism

Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir[1] contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[59]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[60]

Others, such as third-wave feminists and lipstick feminists, argue that feminism shouldn't devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[61][62]

Femininity in men

Main article: Effeminacy
RuPaul, a famous drag queen.

Men who behave in ways associated with femininity may be called effeminate. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are cross-dressers.[63] A drag queen is a man who wears women's clothing and behaves in an extremely feminine manner for entertainment purposes.

Femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality, though male femininity is often associated with homosexuality in modern Western culture.[64][65]

The terms femiphobia, effeminophobia, and sissyphobia are sometimes used to describe a generally negative attitude displayed in many societies towards feminine men.[66][67]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A. U of Minnesota Press. 2010. pp. 310 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
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  4. ^ a b Sexual politics: an introduction. Edinburgh University Press. 2000. pp. 240 pages. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |id ISBN= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b Ferrante, Joan. Sociology: A Global Perspective (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 269–272. ISBN 0840032048.
  6. ^ Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?' The World Health Organization
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  8. ^ a b c Vetterling-Braggin, Mary "Femininity," "masculinity," and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion
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  24. ^ DM Marx, DA Stapel - Distinguishing Stereotype Threat from Priming Effects: On the Role of the Social Self and Threat-Based Concerns Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006 - arno.uvt.nl
  25. ^ a b Fine, Cordelia Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference 2010
  26. ^ Schaffer, Amanda, The Sex Difference Evangelists, Slate, July 2, 2008 http://www.slate.com/id/2194486/entry/2194489
  27. ^ Baron-Cohen, Simon. "The Extreme-Male-Brain Theory of Autism"
  28. ^ Halpern, Diane F., Sex differences in cognitive abilities, Psychology Press, 2000, ISBN 0805827927, 9780805827927
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  30. ^ Jung, Carl. The Psychology of the Unconscious, Dvir Co., Ltd., Tel-Aviv, 1973 (originally 1917)
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  35. ^ a b Klenke, Karin, Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective , Springer Publishing Company, 2004 ISBN 0826192211, 9780826192219
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  38. ^ Karl J. Narr. "Prehistoric religion". Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-28.
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  42. ^ Sacred Sanskrit words, p.111
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  45. ^ Job. 28:12
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  47. ^ The Kabbalah Of Isaac Luria Glossary
  48. ^ Lesnik-Oberstein, Karín (2010). The Last Taboo: Women and Body Hair (Paperback edition ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719083230. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  49. ^ a b Davis, Kathy (2003). Dubious Equalities and Embodied Differences: Cultural Studies on Cosmetic Surgery. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 93. ISBN 0742514218.
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  53. ^ Brown, William, Art of shoe making, Global Media, 2007, 8189940295, 9788189940294
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  67. ^ Fellows, Will, A Passion to Preserve: Gay Men as Keepers of Culture, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2005, ISBN 0299196844, 9780299196844
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