Jump to content

Loneliness

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 62.189.91.30 (talk) at 15:27, 20 September 2011 (→In modern society). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Loneliness is an unpleasant feeling in which a person experiences a strong sense of emptiness and solitude resulting from inadequate levels of social relationships. However, it is a subjective experience.[1] Loneliness has also been described as social pain - a psychological mechanism meant to alert an individual of isolation and motivate her/him to seek social connections.[2]

Common causes

People can experience loneliness for many reasons and many life events are associated with it, like the lack of friendship relations during childhood and adolescence, or the physical absence of meaningful people around a person are a few causes for loneliness. At the same time, loneliness may be a symptom of another social or psychological problem, such as chronic depression.

Many people experience loneliness for the first time when they are left alone as infants. It is also a very common, though normally temporary, consequence of a breakup, divorce, or loss of any important long-term relationship. In these cases, it may stem both from the loss of a specific person and from the withdrawal from social circles caused by the event or the associated sadness.

The loss of a significant person in one's life will typically initiate a grief response; in this situation, one might feel lonely, even while in the company of others. Loneliness may also occur after the birth of a child (often expressed in postpartum depression), after marriage, or following any other socially disruptive event, such as moving from one's home town into an unfamiliar community leading to homesickness. Loneliness can occur within unstable marriages or other close relationships in a similar nature, in which feelings present may include anger or resentment, or in which the feeling of love cannot be given or received. Loneliness may represent a dysfunction of communication, and can also result from places with low population densities in which there are comparatively few people to interact with. Loneliness can also be seen as a social phenomenon, capable of spreading like a disease.[3] Learning to cope with changes in life patterns is essential in overcoming loneliness.

A twin study found evidence that genetics account for approximately half of the measurable differences in loneliness among adults, which was similar to the heritability estimates found previously in children. These genes operate in a similar manner in males and females. The study found no common environmental contributions to adult loneliness.[4]

Enforced loneliness has been a punishment method throughout history.

Typology

Emotional vs social isolation

One of the most popular typologies of loneliness was developed by Robert S. Weiss. He categorized loneliness into two types: Loneliness of Emotional Isolation (also known as emotional loneliness) and Loneliness of Social Isolation (also known as social loneliness).[5]

Emotional loneliness is derived from attachment theory. Part of attachment theory looks at the relationship between parents/caregivers and children. When securely attached children are separated from their parents, they exhibit separation distress such as crying, attempts to search for parents, inhibited behavior. Adults get attached to romantic partners and show separation distress when separated from their partners. Weiss defined emotional loneliness as "separation distress without an object".[6] This means that emotional loneliness is caused by the lack of a romantic partner, and feels like the separation distress one feels when a romantic partner is missing.

Social loneliness, on the other hand, is the loneliness one experiences because of the lack of a wider social network. One does not feel like he is a member of his community, and he does not have friends or allies that he can rely on in times of distress.[6]

Transient vs. chronic

The other important typology of loneliness focuses on the time perspective.[7] In this respect, loneliness can be viewed as either transient or chronic. It has also been referred to as state and trait loneliness.

Transient (state) loneliness is temporary in nature, caused by something in the environment, and is easily relieved. Chronic (trait) loneliness is more permanent, caused by the person, and is not easily relieved.[8] For example, when a person is sick and cannot socialize with friends would be a case of transient loneliness. Once the person got better it would be easy for them to alleviate their loneliness. A person who feels lonely regardless of if she is at a family gathering, with friends, or alone is experiencing chronic loneliness. It does not matter what goes on in the surrounding environment, the experience of loneliness is always there.

Distinction from solitude

Jean Jacques Henner, Solitude
See also: Loner

One way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's desired and achieved levels of social interaction,[1] while solitude is simply the lack of contact with people. Loneliness is therefore a subjective experience; if a person thinks they are lonely, then they are lonely. People can be lonely while in solitude, or in the middle of a crowd. What makes a person lonely is the fact that they want more social interaction than what is currently available. A person can be in the middle of a party and feel lonely due to not talking to enough people. Conversely, one can be alone and not feel lonely; even though there is no one around that person is not lonely because there is no desire for social interaction. There have also been suggestions that each person has their own sweet spot of social interaction. If a person gets too little or too much social interaction, this could lead to feelings of loneliness or over-stimulation.[9]

Solitude can have positive effects on individuals. One study found that although time spent alone tended to depress a person's mood and increase feelings of loneliness, it also helped to improve their cognitive state, such as improving concentration. Furthermore, once the alone time was over, people's moods tended to increase significantly.[10] Solitude is also associated with other positive growth experiences, religious experiences, and identity building such as solitary quests used in rites of passages for adolescents.[11]

Loneliness can also play an important role in the creative process.[12] In some people, temporary or prolonged loneliness can lead to notable artistic and creative expression, for example, as was the case with poet Emily Dickinson, and numerous musicians. This is not to imply that loneliness itself ensures this creativity, rather, it may have an influence on the subject matter of the artist and more likely be present in individuals engaged in creative activities.

As human condition

The existentialist school of thought views loneliness as the essence of being human. Each human being comes into the world alone, travels through life as a separate person, and ultimately dies alone. Coping with this, accepting it, and learning how to direct our own lives with some degree of grace and satisfaction is the human condition.[13]

Some philosophers, such as Sartre, believe in an epistemic loneliness in which loneliness is a fundamental part of the human condition because of the paradox between the desire of man's consciousness to have meaning in life conflicting with the isolation and nothingness of the universe. Conversely, other existentialist thinkers argue that human beings might be said to actively engage each other and the universe as they communicate and create, and loneliness is merely the feeling of being cut off from this process.

Rates of loneliness

There are several estimates and indicators of loneliness. It has been estimated that approximately 60 million people in the United States, or 20% of the total population, feel lonely.[2] Another study found that 12% of Americans have no one with whom to spend free time or to discuss important matters.[14] Other research suggests that this rate has been increasing over time. The General Social Survey found that between 1985 and 2004, the number of people the average American discusses important matters with decreased from three to two. Additionally, the rate of Americans with no one to discuss important matters with tripled.[15]

In modern society

Loneliness frequently occurs in heavily populated cities[citation needed]; in these cities many people feel utterly alone and cut off, even when surrounded by millions of other people, experiencing a loss of identifiable community in an anonymous crowd. It is unclear whether loneliness is a condition aggravated by high population density itself, or simply part of the human condition brought on by this social setting. While loneliness also occurs in societies with much smaller populations, the sheer number of people that one comes into contact with daily in a city, even if only briefly, may raise barriers to actually interacting more deeply with them, and thereby increase the feeling of being cut off and alone. Quantity of contact does not translate into quality of contact.[16]

Loneliness appears to have become particularly prevalent in modern times. At the beginning of the 20th century, particularly in the western world, families were typically larger and more stable, divorce was rarer, and relatively few people lived alone. In 1900 in the United States only 5% of households were single-person households; by 1995, 24 million Americans lived alone, and by 2010, it was estimated that that number would have increased to around 31 million.[17]

A 2006 study in the American Sociological Review found that Americans on average had only two close friends in which to confide, which was down from an average of three in 1985. The percentage of people who noted having no such confidant rose from 10% to almost 25%, and an additional 19% said they had only a single confidant, often their spouse, thus raising the risk of serious loneliness if the relationship ended.[18]

Similarly, the modern office environment has been demonstrated to give rise to loneliness. This can be especially prevalent in individuals prone to social isolation who can interpret the business focus of co-workers for a deliberate ignoring of needs. Loneliness in the Workplace, Sarah Wright, VDM Verlag Dr. Mull Ed Beasleyschaft & Co. KG (16 May 2008), ISBN-10: 3639027345

Loneliness has also shown a strong correlation with internet usage,[19] with many people suffering from loneliness tending to visit various websites to help deal with their condition, as seen in phenomena such as the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread.

Effects

Chronic loneliness is a serious, life-threatening condition. At least one study has empirically correlated it with an increased risk of cancer, especially for those who hide their loneliness from the outside world,[20] and it is also associated with increased risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease.[17]

Loneliness has been linked with depression, and is thus a risk factor for suicide.[21] Émile Durkheim has described loneliness, specifically the inability or unwillingness to live for others, i.e. for friendships or altruistic ideas, as the main reason for what he called egoistic suicide.[22] People who are socially isolated may report poor sleep quality, and thus have diminished restorative processes.[23] Loneliness has also been linked with a Schizoid character type in which case one may see the world differently and experience social alienation, described as the self in exile.[24] Loneliness can also play a part in alcoholism and substance abuse.

In children, a lack of social connections is directly linked to several forms of antisocial and self-destructive behavior, most notably hostile and delinquent behavior. In both children and adults, loneliness often has a negative impact on learning and memory. Its disruption of sleep patterns can have a significant impact on the ability to function in everyday life.[21]

Some other effects of loneliness may not be symptomatic for years. In 2005, results from the American Framingham Heart Study demonstrated that lonely men had raised levels of Interleukin 6 (IL-6), a blood chemical linked to heart disease. A 2006 study conducted by the Center for Cognitive and Social Neuroscience at the University of Chicago found loneliness can add thirty points to a blood pressure reading for adults over the age of fifty. Another finding, from a survey conducted by John Cacioppo from the University of Chicago, is that doctors report providing better medical care to patients who have a strong network of family and friends than they do to patients who are alone. Cacioppo states that loneliness impairs cognition and willpower, alters DNA transcription in immune cells, and leads over time to high blood pressure.[2]

Treatments and prevention

There are many different ways used to treat loneliness, social isolation, and clinical depression. The first step that most doctors recommend to patients is therapy. Therapy is a common and effective way of treating loneliness and is often successful. Short term therapy, the most common form for lonely or depressed patients, typically occurs over a period of ten to twenty weeks. During therapy, emphasis is put on understanding the cause of the problem, reversing the negative thoughts, feelings, and attitudes resulting from the problem, and exploring ways to help the patient feel connected. Some doctors also recommend group therapy as a means to connect with other sufferers and establish a support system.[25] Doctors also frequently prescribe anti-depressants to patients as a stand-alone treatment, or in conjunction with therapy. It may take several attempts before a suitable anti-depressant medication is found. Some patients may also develop a resistance to a certain type of medication and need to switch periodically.[26]

Alternative approaches to treating depression are suggested by many doctors. These treatments may include exercise, dieting, hypnosis, electro-shock therapy, acupuncture, herbs, amongst others. Many patients find that participating in these activities fully or partially alleviates symptoms related to depression.[27]

Another treatment for both loneliness and depression is pet therapy, or animal-assisted therapy, as it is more formally known. Studies and surveys, as well as anecdotal evidence provided by volunteer and community organizations, indicate that the presence of animal companions such as dogs, cats, rabbits, and guinea pigs can ease feelings of depression and loneliness among some sufferers. Beyond the companionship the animal itself provides there may also be increased opportunities for socializing with other pet owners. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention there are a number of other health benefits associated with pet ownership, including lowered blood pressure and decreased levels of cholesterol and triglycerides.[28]

Nostalgia has also been found to have a restorative effect, counteracting loneliness by increasing perceived social support.[29]

A 1989 study found that the social aspect of religion had a significant negative relationship with loneliness among elderly people. The effect was more consistent than the effect of social relationships with family and friends, and the subjective concept of religiosity had no significant effect on loneliness.[30]

One way to counteract loneliness is to live with other people. Homeshare programmes seek to match people who have homes with those who need a place to live.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Peplau, L.A. & Perlman, D. (1982). Perspectives on loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy. (pp. 1-18). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
  2. ^ a b c Cacioppo, John; Patrick, William, Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection, New York : W.W. Norton & Co., 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06170-3. Science of Loneliness.com
  3. ^ Park, Alice (1 December 2009). "Time.com". Time.com. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
  4. ^ Boomsma, D. I., Willemse, G., Dolan, C. V., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2005). Genetic and environmental contributions to loneliness in adults: The Netherlands Twin Register Study. Behavior Genetics. pdf
  5. ^ Weiss, R.S. (1975). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Boston, MA: The MIT Press
  6. ^ a b Weiss, R.S. (1999). Reflections of the present state of loneliness research. In M. Hojat & R. Crandall (Eds.), Loneliness: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 1-16). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
  7. ^ de Jong-Gierveld, J. & Raadschelders, J. (1982). Types of loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy. (pp. 105-119). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
  8. ^ Duck, S. (1992). Human relations (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
  9. ^ Suedfeld, P. (1989). Past the reflection and through the looking-glass: Extending loneliness research. In M. Hojat & R. Crandall (Eds.), Loneliness: Theory, research and applications (pp. 51-56). Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications.
  10. ^ Larson, R., Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, R. (1982). Time alone in daily experience: Loneliness or renewal? In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 41-53). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
  11. ^ Suedfeld, P. (1982). Aloneness as a healing experience. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 54-67). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
  12. ^ t
  13. ^ An Existential View of Loneliness - Carter, Michele; excerpt from Abiding Loneliness: An Existential Perspective, Park Ridge Center, September 2000
  14. ^ Christakis, N.A. & Fowler, J.H. (2009). Connected: The surprising power of our social networks and how they shape our lives. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
  15. ^ Olds, J. & Schwartz, R.S. (2009). The lonely American: Drifting apart in the 21st century. Boston, MA: Beacon Press
  16. ^ "Lonely Nation: Americans Try to Connect in a Country Where Isolation Is Common" (Document). Associated Press. 6 August 2006. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help) [dead link‍]
  17. ^ a b "Loneliness and Isolation: Modern Health Risks". The Pfizer Journal. IV (4). 2000. Archived from the original on 28 January 2006.
  18. ^ McPherson, Miller; Smith-Lovin, Lynn; Brashears, Matthew E (2006). "Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks over Two Decades" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 71 (3): 353–375. doi:10.1177/000312240607100301.Inentaconnect.com
  19. ^ http://escholarship.bc.edu/dissertations/AAI9923427/
  20. ^ Fighting cancerous feelings; warning: scientists haven't determined that repressed emotions are hazardous to your health - yet - Smith, Eleanor; Psychology Today, May 1988
  21. ^ a b The Dangers of Loneliness - Marano, Hara Estroff; Psychology Today Thursday 21 August 2003
  22. ^ Social Depression, Loneliness, and Depression (from the Online Social Networks website)
  23. ^ Loneliness and pathways to disease (pdf) - Hawkley, Louise C. & Cacioppo, John T.; Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Thursday 18 July 2002
  24. ^ Masterson, James F. (1995). Disorders of the Self: Secret Pure Schizoid Cluster Disorder. pp. 25–27. Klein was Clinical Director of the Masterson Institute and Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ "Psychotherapy". Depression.com. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
  26. ^ "The Truth About Antidepressants". WebMD. Retrieved 30 March 2008. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  27. ^ "Alternative treatments for depression". WebMD. Retrieved 30 March 2008. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ Health Benefits of Pets (from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
  29. ^ Xinyue Zhou, Constantine Sedikides, Tim Wildschut, Ding-Guo Gao, "Counteracting Loneliness: On the Restorative Function of Nostalgia", Psychological Science, Vol. 19, No. 10, pp. 1023 - 1029, Nov. 4, 2008.
  30. ^ "Doyle Paul Johnson, Larry C. Mullins, "Religiosity and Loneliness Among the Elderly ", ''Journal of Applied Gerontology'', Vol. 8, No. 1, 110-131 (1989)". Jag.sagepub.com. doi:10.1177/073346488900800109. Retrieved 2 April 2010.

Why Loneliness Is Hazardous to Your Health by Greg Miller http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/138.full

Quotations related to Loneliness at Wikiquote Quotations related to Solitude at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of loneliness at Wiktionary

in Somali ( Furitaan)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loneliness&oldid=451515867"