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Energy in the United Kingdom

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Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 3,894.6 kilogrammes of oil equivalent per capita in 2005 compared to a world average of 1,778.0.[1] In 2008, total energy consumed was 9.85 exajoules (EJ) - around 2% of the estimated 474 EJ worldwide total (while the UK accounts for under 1% of global population). Demand for electricity in 2006 was ~40GW typically, and ~60GW at peak;[2] the total electricity consumed in 2006 was 1.25 exajoules.[3]

The Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the British government in July 2009 aims at 30% of renewable and of 40% of low CO2-content fuels in electricity generation by 2020.[4] The NDA announced winning bidders for its nuclear site auction and launched a new process for the Sellafield site to be closed by 2010. These actions are occurring as Europe is facing the consequences of the economic and financial crisis.[5] Europe’s consumptions shrank by 5% and primary production faced a noticeable drop as well. The trade deficit was reduced by 8%, respectively due to substantial cuts in energy imports.[6]

Government policy plays a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions toward avoiding dangerous climate change, and in meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs. In 2006, the United Kingdom was ranked 5th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index- which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy - and the UK were ranked in the top 20 in the subsequent EPIs in 2008 and 2010. Great Britain returned to the top 10 in the 2012 Environmental Performance Index.[7]

London by night seen from the International Space Station.

Overview

Energy in the United Kingdom[8]
Capita Prim. energy Production Import Electricity CO2-emission
million TWh TWh TWh TWh Mt
2004 59.8 2,718 2,619 135 371 537
2007 60.8 2,458 2,050 522 373 523
2008 61.4 2,424 1,939 672 372 511
2009 61.8 2,288 1,848 641 352 466
Change 2004-2009 3.3 % -15.8 % -29.4 % 373 % -5.3 % -13.3 %
Mtoe = 11.63 TWh>, Prim. energy includes energy losses that are 2/3 for nuclear power[9]

Fossil fuels

During 2008, the total energy consumed in the UK was 234.439 million tonnes of oil equivalent (= circa 9.85 EJ = 9.85*1018J).[10]

Concerns over peak oil have been raised by high-profile voices in the UK such as Sir David King[11] and the Industry Task-Force on Peak Oil and Energy Security.[12] The latter's 2010 report states that "The next five years will see us face another crunch - the oil crunch. This time, we do have the chance to prepare. The challenge is to use that time well." (Sir Richard Branson and Ian Marchant).[13]

Natural gas

United Kingdom produced 60 % of its consumed natural gas in 2010. In five years the United Kingdom moved from almost gas self-sufficient to 40% gas import in 2010. Share of gas in TPES was almost 40 % and in electricity over 45 % in 2010. Underground storage was about 5 % annual demand and above 10 % of net imports. There is alternative fuel obligation in UK.[14]

Gasfields include Amethyst gasfield, Armada gasfield, Easington Catchment Area, East Knapton, Everest gasfield and Rhum gasfield.

Electricity supply

Main article: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom
Electricity production by source. Source: the EIA.

With the development of the national grid, the switch to using electricity, UK electricity consumption increased by around 150% between the post war nationalisation of the industry in 1948 and the mid 1960s. During the 1960s growth slowed as the market became saturated. The UK is planning to reform it's Electricity Market. It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation.

Fuel sources

The former Battersea Power Station

During the 1940s some 90% of the generating capacity was fired by coal, with oil providing most of the remainder.

The UK started to develop a nuclear generating capacity in the 1950s, with Calder Hall being connected to the grid on 27 August 1956. Though the production of weapons-grade plutonium was the main reason behind this power station, other civil stations followed, and 26% of the nation's electricity was generated from nuclear power at its peak in 1997.

Despite the flow of North Sea oil from the mid 1970s, oil fuelled generation remained relatively small and continued to decline.

Starting in 1993, and continuing through to the 1990s, a combination of factors led to a so-called Dash for Gas, during which the use of coal was scaled back in favour of gas fuelled generation. This was sparked by the privatisation of the National Coal Board, British Gas, the Central Electricity Generating Board, the introduction of laws facilitating competition within the energy markets, and the availability of cheap gas from the North Sea. In 1990 just 1.09% of all gas consumed in the country was used in electricity generation. By 2004 the figure was 30.25%.[15]

By 2004, coal use in power stations had fallen by 43.6% (50.5 million tonnes, representing 82.4% of all coal used in 2004) compared to 1980 levels, though up slightly from its low in 1999.[15]

From the mid 1990s new renewable energy sources began to contribute to the electricity generated, adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity.

A typical offshore oil/gas platform

By 2004, total electricity production stood at 382.7 TWh (up 23.7% compared to 309.4 TWh in 1990), generated from the following sources:[16]

  • gas – 39.93% (0.05% in 1990)
  • coal – 33.08% (67.22% in 1990)
  • nuclear – 19.26% (18.97% in 1990)
  • renewables – 3.55% (0% in 1990)
  • hydroelectric – 1.10% (2.55% in 1990)
  • imports – 1.96% (3.85% in 1990)
  • oil – 1.12% (6.82% in 1990)

UK Government energy policy expects that the total contribution from renewables should rise to 10% by 2010. The Scottish Executive has a target of generating 17% to 18% of Scotland's electricity from renewables by 2010,[17] rising to 40% by 2020.[18]

The UK 'energy gap'

In the early years of the 2000s, concerns grew over the prospect of an 'energy gap' in UK generating capacity. This is forecast to arise because it is expected that a number of coal fired power stations will close due to being unable to meet the clean air requirements of the European Large Combustion Plant Directive (directive 2001/80/EC).[19] In addition, the UK's remaining Magnox nuclear stations will have closed by 2015. The oldest AGR nuclear power station has had its life extended by ten years,[20] and it is likely many of the others can be life-extended, reducing the potential gap suggested by the current accounting closure dates of between 2014 and 2023 for the AGR power stations.[21]

A report from the industry in 2005 forecast that, without action to fill the gap, there would be a 20% shortfall in electricity generation capacity by 2015. Similar concerns were raised by a report published in 2000 by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (Energy - The Changing Climate). The 2006 Energy Review attracted considerable press coverage - in particular in relation to the prospect of constructing a new generation of nuclear power stations, in order to prevent the rise in carbon dioxide emissions that would arise if other conventional power stations were to be built.

Among the public, according to a November 2005 poll conducted by YouGov for Deloitte, 35% of the population expect that by 2020 the majority of electricity generation will come from renewable energy (more than double the government's target, and far larger than the 5.5% generated as of 2008),[22] 23% expect that the majority will come from nuclear power, and only 18% that the majority will come from fossil fuels. 92% thought the Government should do more to explore alternative power generation technologies to reduce carbon emissions.[23]

Plugging the energy gap

The first move to plug the UK's energy gap was the June 2006 announcement by Centrica that they would proceed to construct the conventionally gas-fired Langage Power Station.

In 2007, proposals for the construction of two new coal-fired power stations were announced, in Tilbury, Essex and in Kingsnorth, Kent. If built, they will be the first coal-fired stations to be built in the UK in 20 years.[24]

Beyond these new plants, there are a number of options that might be used to provide the new generating capacity, while minimising carbon emissions and producing less residues and contamination. Fossil fuel power plants might provide a solution if there was a satisfactory and economical way of reducing their carbon emissions. Carbon capture might provide a way of doing this; however the technology is relatively untried and costs are relatively high. As yet (2006) there are no power plants in operation with a full carbon capture and storage system.

However due to reducing demand in the late-2000s recession removing any medium term gap, and high gas prices, in 2011 and 2012 over 2 GW of older, less efficient, gas generation plant was mothballed.[25][26] In 2011 electricity demand dropped 4%, and about 6.5 GW of additional gas-fired capacity is being added over 2011 and 2012. Early in 2012 the reserve margin stood at the high level of 32%.[27]

Regional differences

See also: Energy policy of Scotland

While in some ways limited by which powers are devolved, the four countries of the United Kingdom have different energy mixes and ambitions. Scotland currently has a target of 80 per cent of electricity from renewables by 2020, with an interim target of 31 per cent by 2011.[28] It has a quarter of the EU's estimated offshore wind potential,[29] and may also be at the forefront of testing various marine energy systems.[30]

Nuclear

Heysham nuclear power station
Main article: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

Britain's existing Advanced gas-cooled reactors were described by the Chairman of the Central Electricity Generating Board as the worst civil engineering disaster in British history. The proto-type fast reactor at Dounreay was expensively dismantled, having never worked properly. The THORP reprocessing plant at Sellafield never worked properly. [31]

The installed nuclear capacity in the UK is between 10 and 11 GW.[32][33] While nuclear power does not produce significant carbon dioxide in generation (though the construction, mining, waste handling and disposal, and decommissioning do generate some carbon emissions), it raises other environmental and security concerns. Despite this, it has enormous potential for generating electricity, when it is taken into consideration that uranium could last between a hundred years to thousands of years.[34] However, even with changes to the planning system to speed applications, there are doubts over whether the necessary timescale could be met, and over the financial viability of nuclear power with present oil and gas prices. With no nuclear plants having been constructed since Sizewell B in 1995, there are also likely to be capacity issues within the native nuclear industry. The existing privatised nuclear supplier, British Energy, had been in financial trouble in 2004.

Since the EDF takeover of British Energy in early 2009, plans have been put in place to build two new nuclear power stations (Sizewell C and Hinkley Point C). In addition, in November 2009 the government published the Nuclear National Policy Statement in which it announced that it had approved the construction of 10 new nuclear power plants around the country, but none were expected to be operational until 2018 at the earliest.

There was an 11% increase in the use of nuclear power in 2011, which helped to bring greenhouse gas emissions down 7% on the previous year.[35]

Wind power

Main article: Wind power in the United Kingdom
File:UK windfarm growth.PNG
UK installed wind power capacity 1990-2010
Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm.

As of September 2010, the installed nameplate capacity of wind power in the United Kingdom was over 5 gigawatts (GW), representing a real terms figure of approximately 1.5GW.[36] Wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy in the UK after biomass. Over 1 GW of new wind power capacity was brought online during 2009, 800 MW onshore and 285 MW offshore (1 GW = 1000 MW). Growth has continued in 2010 with the milestone of 1 GW of installed offshore capacity passed in April 2010, by the completion of the Gunfleet Sands and Robin Rigg wind farms.[37] The milestone of 5 GW of total installed capacity was reached in September 2010 with the opening of the Thanet wind farm.[38] RenewableUK estimates that more than 2 GW of capacity will be deployed per year for the next five years.[36]

As of 1 October 2011, there were 295 operational wind farms in the UK, with 3,415 turbines and 5,752 MW of installed capacity. A further 3,497 MW worth of schemes are currently under construction, while another 5,363 MW have planning consent and some 9,254 MW are in planning awaiting approval.[39]

Elexon - the UK electricity balancing and settlement code company, forecast the cumulative nameplate capacity of wind farms connected to the transmission network to be 2.43 GW.[40] On 6 September 2010 a historical peak of 1860 MW was recorded from these wind farms accounting for 4.7% of total generation at the time.[41] Throughout 2009, an average 2.5% of UK electricity was generated by wind power with a total of around 6.7% of UK electricity coming from all renewable sources.[42] Such was the rise in new wind energy coming on stream between April & June 2011 renewable sources accounted for 9.6% of UK electricity, with wind now accounting for 4.7% on average.[43] This is expected to rise dramatically in coming years, as a result of the British government's energy policy strongly supporting new renewable energy generating capacity. In the short to medium term, the bulk of this new capacity is expected to be provided by onshore and offshore wind power.

In 2007 the UK Government agreed to an overall European Union target of generating 20% of EU’s energy supply from renewable sources by 2020. Each EU member state was given its own allocated target; for the UK it is 15%. This was formalised in January 2009 with the passage of the EU Renewables Directive. As renewable heat and fuel production in the UK are at extremely low bases, RenewableUK estimates that this will require 35–40% of the UK’s electricity to be generated from renewable sources by that date,[44] to be met largely by 33–35 GW of installed wind capacity.

In December 2007, the Government announced plans for a massive expansion of wind energy in the UK, by conducting a Strategic Environmental Assessment of up to 25 GW worth of wind farm offshore sites in preparation for a new round of development. These proposed sites are in addition to the 8 GW worth of sites already awarded in the 2 earlier rounds of site allocations, Round 1 in 2001 and Round 2 in 2003. Taken together it is estimated that this would result in the construction of over 7,000 offshore wind turbines.[45]

Cogeneration

District heating accumulator tower, Pimlico

Combined heat and power plants, where 'waste' hot water from generating is used for district heating, are also a well tried technology in other parts of Europe. While it heats about 50% of all houses in Denmark, Finland, Poland, Sweden and Slovakia, it currently only plays a small role in the UK. It has, however, been rising, and had reached an installed capacity of 5,777 MWe by 2004, up from around 2,500 MWe in 1990. The Government has targeted 10,000 MWe by 2010.

Energy research

Historically, public sector support for energy research and development in the UK has been provided by a variety of bodies with little co-ordination between them. Problems experienced have included poor continuity of funding, and the availability of funding for certain parts of the research-development-commercialisation process but not others. Levels of public funding have also been low by international standards, and funding by the private sector has also been limited.

Research in the area of energy is carried out by a number of public and private sector bodies:

The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council funds an energy programme[46] spanning energy and climate change research. It aims to develop, embrace and exploit sustainable, low carbon and/or energy efficient technologies and systems to enable the UK to meet the Government’s energy and environmental targets by 2020. Its research includes renewable, conventional, nuclear and fusion electricity supply as well as energy efficiency, fuel poverty and other topics.

Since being established in 2004, the UK Energy Research Centre[47] carries out research into demand reduction, future sources of energy, infrastructure and supply, energy systems, sustainability and materials for advanced energy systems.

The Energy Technologies Institute, expected to begin operating in 2008, is to 'accelerate the development of secure, reliable and cost-effective low-carbon energy technologies towards commercial deployment'.

In relation to buildings, the Building Research Establishment[48] carries out some research into energy conservation.

There is currently international research being conducted into Fusion power. The ITER reactor is currently being constructed at Cadarache in France. The UK contributes towards this project through membership of the European Union. Prior to this, an experimental Fusion reactor (the Joint European Torus) had been built at Culham in Oxfordshire.

Energy Efficiency

The UK government has instituted several policies desigend to increase energy efficiency. These include the roll out of smart meters, the Green Deal, The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme and Climate Change Agreements.

See also

References

  1. ^ http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/energy-resources/variable-351.html
  2. ^ http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn280.pdf
  3. ^ http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ene_ele_con-energy-electricity-consumption
  4. ^ The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan (pdf)
  5. ^ Enerdata Publication, May 2010.
  6. ^ United Kingdom Energy Report, Enerdata 2010.
  7. ^ Environmental Performance Index
  8. ^ IEA Key World Energy Statistics 2011, 2010, 2009, 2006 IEA October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15
  9. ^ Energy in Sweden 2010, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, Table 8 Losses in nuclear power stations Table 9 Nuclear power brutto
  10. ^ Department of energy and climate change, Dukes1_1-1_3.xls, retrieved 2010-05-25
  11. ^ Adam, David (9 June 2010). "Top scientist says politicians have 'heads in the sand' over oil". The Guardian. London.
  12. ^ http://peakoiltaskforce.net/
  13. ^ The Oil Crunch: A wake-up call for the UK economy, Second report of the UK Industry Taskforce on Peak Oil & Energy Security (ITPOES) February 2010
  14. ^ Gas emergency policy: Where do IEA countries stand? IEA 25 May 2011, figures
  15. ^ a b UK Energy in Brief July 2005, DTI statistics
  16. ^ http://stats.berr.gov.uk/energystats/dukes08.pdf BERR
  17. ^ http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/1050/0002275.pdf
  18. ^ [1]
  19. ^ [2]
  20. ^ 10-year life extension at Dungeness B nuclear power station, British Energy, 15 September 2005, archived from the original on 22 March 2006, retrieved 19 June 2008
  21. ^ Stephen Seawright (13 June 2006), Nuclear stations may stay on line to bridge the gap, London: Daily Telegraph, retrieved 30 August 2008
  22. ^ [3], page 23, Department of Energy and Climate Change, published 2009-07-30, accessed 2009-08-28
  23. ^ Support for nuclear and renewable energy, Deloitte, published 2005-12-02, retrieved 2007-03-17
  24. ^ Plans for two coal power stations announced, BBC, published 2007-03-14, accessed 2007-03-17.
  25. ^ Andreas Walstad (2 August 2011). "UK power plants mothballed on higher gas prices". National Gas Daily. Interfax. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ "Centrica idles gas-fired plant amid low spark spreads". Argus Media. 12 March 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Kari Lundgren (23 February 2012). "Centrica May Mothball More Gas Plants as Capacity Trims Profits". Bloomberg. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ "New target for Scottish renewable energy". BBC News. 23 September 2010.
  29. ^ "New wind farm contracts announced". BBC News. 8 January 2010.
  30. ^ Dutta, Kunal (17 March 2010). "Marine energy projects approved for Scotland". The Independent. London.
  31. ^ Nuclear power will fail to achieve what George Monbiot wants Guradian 16 March 2012
  32. ^ http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclear-power-plant-world-wide.htm
  33. ^ http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html
  34. ^ Uranium 2007 – Resources, Production and Demand. OECD Publishing. 17 June 2008. ISBN 9789264047662.
  35. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/mar/29/uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2011
  36. ^ a b RenewableUK 23 September 2010 Press Release
  37. ^ NewEnergyFocus wind news webpage
  38. ^ PublicService.co.uk news article
  39. ^ RenewableUK Wind Energy statistics
  40. ^ Elexon Peak Wind Generation Forecast table (Power Park Modules)
  41. ^ RenewableUK record wind generation press release
  42. ^ Department of Energy and Climate Change Digest of United Kingdom energy statistics (DUKES) 2010
  43. ^ RenewableUK 29 September 2011 Press Release
  44. ^ New Civil Engineer – Wind power: Chancellor urged to use budget to aid ailing developers
  45. ^ Daley, Janet. The Daily Telegraph. London http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?xml=/earth/2008/06/25/eawindfarms125.xml. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  46. ^ [4], Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
  47. ^ [5], UK Energy Research Centre
  48. ^ [6], Building Research Establishment
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