Coastal hazards

Cockenzie Harbour in a gale - geograph.org.uk - 370232

Introduction

Coastal hazards play a major role in today's society because it is a part of human nature to live near or along the coast. 80% of people live near the coast. 1.2 billion people live within 100km of the coast and it is on the rise. It is important for us to educate ourselves and others on coastal hazards so we can continue living near the coast with the least amount of damage to the environment. In the past, human development has effected our coastal living arrangements by making it vulnerable to such fragile environments such as the barrier islands. Disasters such as hurricanes with high winds and swells, cause erosion along coastlines. Due to this certain policies have been set in place to try and manage disaster property damages; FEMA, NFIP, CZM, and etc. Adaptive management has become a major source of planning in order to make development sustainable for the environment. Structural versus non-structural mitigation techniques have been a main focus for planners towards coastal hazards. Short term solutions versus long term solutions; dune, sea walls, etc.. Current strategies are only an illusion of safety.

For coastal hazards it is important to have emergency management plans in advance so agencies can respond quickly and effectively. If we have better plans it will create a faster recovery time that will ensure economic, social, and environmental life back to its original state. For example, Hurricane Katrina was an national eye opener on how on the risk of improper risk management between federal, state, and local governments. Due to the nature of the federal system and policies often conflict with one another between both private and public agencies in addition to mandated mitigation programs going unfunded. Communication between these governments is essential in coordinating an effective response through mitigation. Coastal hazards are unpredictable to know where and when they will occur and it is important for everyone to be prepared.

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Coastal Environments

There are many different types of environments along the coasts of the United States with very diverse features that affect, influence, and mold the nearshore processes that are involved. Understanding these ecosystems and environments can further advance the mitigating techniques and policy-making efforts against natural and man-made coastal hazards in these vulnerable areas. The five most common types of coastal zones range from the northern ice-pushing, mountainous coastline of Alaska and Maine, the barrier island coasts facing the Atlantic, the steep, cliff-back headlands along the pacific coast, the marginal-sea type coastline of the Gulf region, and the coral reef coasts bordering Southern Florida and Hawaii.

Ice-Pushing/Mountainous Coastline

These coastal regions along the Northern-most part of the nation, were affected predominantly by, along with the rest of the Pacific Coast, continuous tectonic activity, forming a very long, irregular, ridged, steep and mostly mountainous coastline. These environments are heavily occupied with permafrost and glaciers, which are the two major conditions affecting Alaska's Coastal Development.

Barrier Island Coastline

Barrier Islands is a land form system that consists of fairly narrow strips of sand running parallel to the mainland and play a significant role in mitigating storm surges and oceans swells as natural storm events occur. The morphology of the various types and sizes of barrier islands depend on the wave energy, tidal range, basement controls, and sea level trends. The islands create multiple unique environments of wetland systems including marshes, estuaries, and lagoons.

Steep, Cliff-Backing Abrasion Coastline

The coastline along the western part of the nation consists of very steep, cliffed rock formations generally with vegetative slopes descending down and a fringing beach below. The various sedimentary, metamorphic, and volcanic rock formations assembled along a tectonically disturbed environment, all with altering resistances running perpindicular, cause the ridged, extensive stretch of uplifted cliffs that form the peninsulas, lagoons, and valleys.

Marginal-Sea Type Coastline

The southern banks of the United States border the Gulf of Mexico, intersecting numerous rivers, forming many inlets bays, and lagoons along its coast, consisting of vast areas of marsh and wetlands. This region of landform is prone to natural disasters yet highly and continuously developed, with man-made structures attaining to water flow and control.

Coral Reef Coastline

Coral reefs are located off the shores of the southern Florida and Hawaii consisting of rough and complex natural structures along the bottom of the ocean floor with extremely diverse ecosystems, absorbing up to ninety percent of the energy dissipated from wind-generated waves. This process is a significant buffer for the inner-laying coastlines, naturally protecting and minimizing the impact of storm surge and direct wave damage. Because of the highly diverse ecosystems, these coral reefs not only provide for the shoreline protection, but also deliver an abundant amount of services to fisheries and tourism, increasing it's economic value.

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Causes of Coastal Hazards

Natural VS Human disasters

The population that lives along or near our coastlines are an extremely vulnerable population due to the long list of possible coastal hazards (SUCH AS??). There are numerous issues facing our coastlines. There are two main categories that these hazards can be placed under, National disasters and Human disasters. Both of these issues cause great damage to our coastlines and discussion is still ongoing regarding what standards or responses need to be met to help both the individuals who want to continue living along the coastline, while keeping them safe and not eroding more coastline away. Natural disasters are disasters that are out of human control and are usually caused by the weather. Disasters that include but are not limited to; storms, tsunamis, typhoons, flooding, tides, waterspouts, nor'easters, and storm surge. Human disasters occur when humans are the main culprit behind why the disaster happened. Some human disasters are but are not limited to; pollution, trawling, and human development. Natural and human disasters continue to harm the coastlines severely and they need to be researched in order to prepare/stop the hazards if possible.

The populations that live near or along the coast experience many hazards and it affects millions of people. Around ten million people (IN THE UNITED STATES OR GLOBALLY??) feel the effects of coastal problems yearly and most are due to certain natural hazards like coastal flooding with storm surges and typhoons. A major problem related to coastal regions deals with how the entire global environment is changing and in response, the coastal regions are easily effected.

Storms, Flooding, Erosion

Storms are one of the major hazards that are associated to coastal regions. Storms, flooding, and erosion are closely associated and can happen simultaneously. Tropical storms or Hurricanes especially can devastate coastal regions. For example, Florida during Hurricane Andrew occurred in 1992 that caused extreme damage. It was a category five hurricane that caused $26.5 billion dollars in damages and even 23 individuals lost their lives from the storm. Hurricane Katrina also caused havoc along the coast to show the extreme force a hurricane can do in a certain region. In almost all cases, storms are the major culprit that causes flooding and erosion. Flash flooding is caused by storms that occurs when a massive amount of rainfall comes down into an area over a short period of time. Where as a storm surge, which is closely related to tropical storms, is when the wind collects and pushes water towards low pressure or inland and can rise rapidly. It is an offshore rise of water and overall creates a higher sea level that rises and is pushed inland. The amount of rise or fall of storm surge depends greatly on the amount and duration of wind and water in a specific location. Also if it occurs during a high tide it can have an even greater effect on the coast.

Almost all storms with high wind and water cause erosion along the coast. Erosion occurs when but not limited to; along shore currents, tides, sea level rise and fall, and high winds. Larger amounts of erosion cause the coastline to erode away at a faster rate and can leave people homeless and leave less land to develop or keep for environmental reasons. In many recent reports (SUCH AS??) coastal erosion has been increasing over the past few years and it is still on the rise which makes it a major coastline hazard. In the United States, 45 percent of its coast line is along the Atlantic or Gulf coast and the erosion rate per year along the Gulf coast is at six feet a year. The average rate of erosion along the Atlantic is around two to three feet a year. Even with these findings, erosion rates in specific locations vary because of various environmental factors such as major storms that can cause major erosion upwards to 100 feet or more in only one day.

Pollution, Trawling, Human Development

Pollution, trawling, and human development are major human disasters that effect coastal regions. There are two main categories related to pollution, point source pollution, and nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution is when there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body of water that leads into the rivers and oceans. Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source of pollution. Nonpoint source pollution would pertain more to fertilizer runoff, and industrial waste. Examples of pollution that effect the coastal regions are but are not limited to; fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous materials into the oceans. More human acts that hurt the coastline are as follows; waste discharge, fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling. Oil spills are one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities. They are hard to contain, difficult to clean up, and devastate everything. The fish, animals such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill. The most recent oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the BP oil spill.

Trawling hurts the normal ecosystems in the water around the coastline. It depletes all ecosystems on the ocean floor such as, flounder, shellfish, marsh etc.. It is simply a giant net that is drug across the ocean floor and destroys and catches anything in its path. Human development is one of the major problems when facing coastal hazards. The overall construction of buildings and houses on the coast line takes away the natural occurrences to handle the fluctuation in water and sea level rise. Building houses in pre-flood areas or high risk areas that are extremely vulnerable to flooding are major concerns towards human development in coastal regions. Having houses and buildings in areas that are known to have powerful storms that will create people to be in risk by living there. Also pertaining to barrier islands, where land is at risk for erosion but they still continue to build there anyway. More and more houses today are being taken by the ocean (HOW DO YOU KNOW, NEED CITATION).

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Management and Planning

Due to the increasing urbanization along the coastlines, planning and management are essential to protecting the ecosystems and environment from depleting. Coastal Management is becoming more popular because of the movement of people to the shore and the hazards that come with the territory. Some of the hazards include movement of barrier islands, sea level rise,hurricanes, nor'easters, earthquakes, flooding, erosion, pollution and human development along the coast. The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was created in 1972 because of the continued growth along the coast, this act introduced better management practices such as integrated coastal zone management, adaptive management and the use mitigation strategies when planning. The development of the land can strongly affect the sea , for example the engineering of structures versus non-structures and the affects of erosion along the shore.

Coastal Zone Management Act

The Coastal Zone Management Act was created and initiated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM), that provides management of the nation's coastal resources, including the Great Lakes, and balances economic development with environmental conservation. The CZMA is developed around two main programs which include: National Coastal Zone Management Program and the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. With a total of 34 coastal programs in the CZMA, the issues between land and water are studied to gain a better understanding of the impact of human development on the environment. The overall program objectives of CZMA remain balanced to "preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the nation's coastal zone" .

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Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Integrated coastal zone management means the integration of all aspects of the coastal zone, this includes environmentally, socially, culturally politically and economically to meet a sustainable balance all around. Sustainability is the goal to allow development yet protect the environment in which we develop. Coastal zones are fragile and do not do well with change so it is important to acquire sustainable development. The integration from all views will entitle a holistic view for the best implementation and management of that country, region and local scales. The five types of integration include integration among sectors, integration between land and water elements of the coastal zone, integration amount levels of government, integration between nations and integration among disciplines are all essential to meet the needs for implementation. Management practices include 1. maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal resource systems,without disrupting the environment 2. reducing resource-use conflicts, by making sure resources are used adequately and sustainably, 3. maintaining the health of the environment, which means to protect the ecosystems and natural cycle, 4. facilitating the progress of multisectoral development, which means allowing developers to develop within standards. These four management practices should be based on a bottom-up approach, meaning the approach starts from a local level which is more intimate to the specific environment of that area. After assessment from the local level, the state and federal input can be implemented. The bottom-up approach is key for protecting the local environments because there is a diversity of environments that have specific needs all over the world.

Adaptive management

Adaptive management is another practice of development adaptation with the environment. Resources are the major factor when managing adaptively to a certain environment to accommodate all the needs of development and ecosystems. Strategies used must be flexible by either passive or active adaptive management include these key features:

• AIterative decision-making (evaluating results and adjusting actions on the basis of what has been learned)
• Feedback between monitoring and decisions (learning)
• Explicit characterization of system uncertainty through multi-model inference
• Embracing risk and uncertainty as a way of building understanding

To achieve adaptive management is testing the assumptions to achieve a desired outcome, such as trial and error, find the best known strategy then monitoring it to adapt to the environment, and learning the outcomes of sucess and faliures of a porject.

WHAT DO EACH OF THE POINTS ABOVE MEAN, GENERAL READER ON WIKIPEDIA DOES NOT UNDERSTAND THE TECHNICAL JARGON UNLESS EXPLAINED

Mitigation

The purpose of mitigation is not only to minimize the loss of property damage, but minimize environmental damages due to development. To avoid impacts by not taking or limiting actions, to reduce or rectify impacts by rehabilitation or restoring the affected environments or instituting long term mmaitenance operations and compensating for impacts by replacing or providing substitute environments for resources Structural mitigation is the current solution to eroding beaches and movement of sand is the use of engineered structures along the coast have been short lived and are only an illusion of safety to the public that result in long term damage of the coastline. Structural management deals with the use of the following: groins which are man-made solution to longshore current movements up and down the coast. The use of groins are efficient to some extent yet cause erosion and sand build up father down the beaches. Bulkheads are man-made structures that help protect the homes built along the coast and other bodies of water that actually induce erosion in the long run. Jetties are structures built to protect sand movement into the inlets where boats for fishing and recreation move through. The use of nonstructural mitigation is the practice of using organic and soft structures for solutions to protect against coastal hazards. These include: artificial dunes, which are used to create dunes that have been either developed on or eroded. There needs to be at least two lines of dunes before any development can occur. Beach Nourishment is a major source of nonstructural mitigation to ensure that beaches are present for the communities and for the protection of the coastline. Vegetation is a key factor when protecting from erosion, specifically for to help stabilize dune erosion.

Policies

National Flood Insurance Program

The National Flood Insurance Program or NFIP was instituted in 1968 and offers home owners in qualifying communities an opportunity to rebuild and recover after flooding events. The goals of this program are to not only better protect individuals from flood, but to reduce property losses, and reduce the total amount disbursed for flood loses by the government. Only communities which have adopted and implemented mitigation policies that are compliant with or exceed federal regulations. The regulatory policies reduce risk to life and property located within floodplains. The NFIP also comprehensively mapped domestic floodplains increasing public awareness of risk. The majority of sructures were constructed after the mapping was completed and risk could be assessed. To reduce the cost to these owners, which consititue roughly 25% of the total policies the rates for insurance are subsidized.

Coastal States Organization

The Coastal States Organization or CSO was established in 1970 to represent 35 U.S. sub-federal governments on issues of coastal policies. CSO lobbies Congress on issues pertaining to Coastal Policy allowing states input on federal policy decisions. Funding, support, water quality, coastal hazards, and coastal zone management are the primary issues CSO promotes. The strategic goals of CSO are to provide information and assistance to members,evaluate and manage coastal needs, and secure long term funding for member states initiatives.

Coastal Zone Management Act

In 1972 the Coastal Zone Management Act or CZMA works to streamline the policies which states create to a minimum federal standard for environmental protection. CZMA establishes the national policy for the development and implementation of regulatory programs for coastal land usage. Congress found that it was necessary to establish the minimum which programs should provide for. Each coastal state is required to have a program with 7 distinct parts: Identifying land uses,Identifying critical coastal areas, Management measures,Technical assistance, Public participation, Administrative coordination, State coastal zone boundary modification.

The Coastal Area Management Act

The Coastal Area Management Act or CAMA is policy that was implemented by the state of North Carolina in 1974. It creates a cooperative program between the state and local governments. The State government operates in a advisory capacity and reviews decisions made by local government planners. The goal of this legislation was to create a management system capable of preserving the coastal environment, insure the preservation of land and water resources, balance the use of coastal resources and establish guidelines and standards for conservations, economic development, tourism, transportation, and the protection of common law.

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References

NOAA Coastal Hazards NC COHAZ eurosion CAMA Coastal Hazards and National Policy Reframing disaster policy: the global evolution of Vulnerable Communites CZMA NOAA CZMA Sea level rise Cost of Coastal Hazards Erosion Control Tsunami Mechanisms of Tsunamis Coastal Management Coastal Mitigations Wetland Mitigations Coastal Policies Barrier Islands Hurricane Katrina Hurricane effects on the environment

External Links

Federal Emergency Management Agency NOAA