Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (Mongolian: 
or ᠥᠪᠦᠷ ᠮᠣᠨᠺᠤᠯᠤᠨ ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠺᠡᠨ ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ ᠣᠷᠤᠨ, Öbür Mongghul-un Öbertegen Jasaqu Orun ; Chinese: 内蒙古自治区, Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū) is a Mongol autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.
Inner Mongolia borders, from east to west, the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and Gansu, while to the north it borders Mongolia and Russia. It has an area of 1.18 million km² occupying 12 per cent of China's land area, and a population of 23.76 million. The capital is Hohhot.
Name
In Chinese, the region is known as "Inner Mongolia", where the terms of "Inner/Outer" are derived from Manchu dorgi/tulergi. Inner Mongolia is distinct from Outer Mongolia, which was a term used by the Republic of China and previous governments to refer to what is now the independent state of Mongolia plus the Republic of Tuva in Russia. "Inner" and "Outer" imply a perspective centered on China proper and can be construed as being sinocentric. In modern Chinese, the term "Outer Mongolia" is used less and less in favour of "Mengguguo" (蒙古国, literally "Country of Mongolia").
In Mongolian, the region is known as öbür monggol where öbür can mean south, inner, front, bosom, breast. This is probably related to traditional Mongolian and Manchu world view where south (China) is regarded as front, right as west, left as east and north as back. Some Mongolians use the name "Southern Mongolia" in English as well.
Geography
Most of Inner Mongolia consists of high plateaus and mountain ranges. Eastern Inner Mongolia is dominated by the Greater Khingan Mountains, while the easternmost parts of Inner Mongolia dips down onto the plains of Manchuria. The central part of Inner Mongolia is dominated by the Yinshan Mountains and Langshan Mountains. The Gobi Desert stretches along the border between Inner Mongolia and indepedent Mongolia. Other deserts include the Mu Us Desert and Hobq Desert, south of the bend in the Yellow River, and the Badain Jaran Desert in the west.
Much of the eastern part of Inner Mongolia is part of the watersheds of the Amur and Liao Rivers. The Yellow River (Huang He) crosses northwards into central Inner Mongolia, passes near major cities like Hohhot and Baotou, before flowing back south. (Due to the inverted-U bend of the Yellow River, this region is known as Hetao (河套), literally "River wrap".) The rest of central and western Inner Mongolia is not part of any oceanic watershed and has numerous salt lakes.
The peak of Mount Helan, part of the Helan Mountains along the border with Ningxia, is the highest point in the region with an altitude of 3556 m. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Hulun, in northeastern Inner Mongolia near both Mongolia and Russia.
In general, the climate is continental, with long cold winters, with average January temperatures ranging from -23ºC in the northeast to -10ºC in the south. The summers are short, with average July temperatures ranging from 17ºC to 24ºC. The average annual rainfall ranges from less than 50mm in the north and east to 450mm in the highlands in the northwest. In recent years, desertification has become a major environmental problem.
Major cities:
History
Throughout most of history, central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the Hetao region, alternated in control between Chinese agriculturalists in the south and Xiongnu, Xianbei, Khitan, Nurchen, and Mongol nomads of the north. Eastern Inner Mongolia is properly speaking a part of Manchuria, and its historical narrative consists more of alternations between different groups there rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese agriculturalists.
During the Zhou Dynasty, central and western Inner Mongolia (the Hetao region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the Loufan, Linhu, and Dí, while eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the Donghu. During the Warring States Period, King Wuling (340 BC-295 BC) of the state of Zhao based in what is now Hebei and Shanxi provinces pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the Dí state of Zhongshan in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and Loufan and created the commandery of Yunzhong near modern Hohhot. King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After Qin Shihuang created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general Meng Kuo to drive the Xiongnu from the region, and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin Dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: Jiuyuan and Yunzhong, and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin Dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.
During the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu sent the general Wei Qing to reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong-Nu. In that same year he established the commanderies of Shuofang and Wuyuan in Hetao. At the same time, what is now eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the Xianbei, who would later on eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.
During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han Dynasty began to be settled in Hetao, and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on during the Western Jin Dynasty, it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, Liu Yuan, who established the Han Zhao kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the Sixteen Kingdoms period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.
The Sui Dynasty (581-618) and Tang Dynasty (618-907) re-established a unified Chinese empire, and like their predecessors they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the Khitan Empire (Liao Dynasty), founded by the Khitans, a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the Tangut Empire (Western Xia) of the Tanguts, which took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the Jurchens, precursors to the modern Manchus, who established the Jinn Dynasty over Manchuria and northern China.
Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in 1206, conquered the Tanguts in 1227, the Jurchens in 1234, and his descendents completed his conquest of China in 1279, establishing the Yuan Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty was evicted from China proper by the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Ming rebuilt the Great Wall of China at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei-Inner Mongolia border).
The Manchus subjugated the Mongols in the early 17th century, then invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their Qing Dynasty. Under the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1912), Mongolia was administered in a different way for each region:
- "Outer Mongolia": The four leagues (aimag) of the Khalkha Mongols in northern and central Mongolia, as well as the Tannu Uriankhai and Hovd regions in northwestern Mongolia, were overseen by the General of Uliastay at the city of Uliastay. This is equivalent to the modern independent state of Mongolia, the Russian-administered region of Tannu Uriankhai, and a part of northern Xinjiang.
- "Inner Mongolia": The banners and tribes of southern Mongolia came under six leagues (chuulghan): Jirim, Juu Uda, Josutu, Xilingol, Ulaan Chab, and Yeke Juu. This is equivalent to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in Liaoning and Jilin provinces.
- "Taoxi Mongolia": The Alashan Oolud and Ejine Torghuud banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This is equivalent to the westernmost part of modern Inner Mongolia.
- The Chahar Eight Banners were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now Zhangjiakou). Their extent corresponds to southern Ulaan Chab and Baynnur in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around Zhangjiakou in Hebei province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of Zhili and Shanxi provinces also overlapped into this region.
- The Guihua Tümed banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now Hohhot). This corresponds to the vinicities of the modern city of Hohhot. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of Shanxi province also overlapped into this region.
- The Hulunbuir region, in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia, was part of the jurisdiction of the General of Heilongjiang, one of the three generals of Manchuria.
Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. While there had been Han Chinese farmers in what is now Inner Mongolia since the time of Altan Khan, mass settlement began in the late nineteenth century. The Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicized, and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy has been followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.
During the Republic of China era, Outer Mongolia, with Russian support, passed out of Chinese control and became a Soviet satellite. At the same time, Inner Mongolia was reorganized into provinces:
- Rehe province was created to include the Juu Uda and Josutu leagues, plus the Chengde area in what is now northern Hebei.
- Chahar province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.
- Suiyuan province was created to include Ulaan Chab league, Yeke Juu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).
- Hulunbuir stayed within Heilongjiang in Manchuria, which had become a province.
- Most of Jirim league came under the new province of Fengtien in southern Manchuria.
- Taoxi Mongolia, i.e. Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring Gansu province. Later on Ningxia province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.
Some maps in Taiwan (Republic of China) still show this structure.
Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state Manchukuo in 1931, taking the Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e. Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were administered by Manchukuo until the end of World War II in 1945.
In 1937, open war broke out between China and Japan. On December 8 1937, Mongolian Prince De Wang declared the independence of the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e. the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as Mengkiang or Mengkukuo, and signed close agreements with Manchukuo and Japan, thereby turning Inner Mongolia to a puppet of the Japanese Empire. The capital was established at Zhangbei (now in Hebei province), with the puppet government's control extending as far west as the Hohhot region. In August 1945, Mengkiang was taken by Soviet and Outer Mongolian troops during Operation August Storm.
Following the end of World War II, the Chinese Communists took over most of Manchuria with Soviet support, and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947 following Soviet nationalities policy. Initially the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the People's Republic of China and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in Liaoning province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in Hebei province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, near all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape.
In 1969 during the Cultural Revolution, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between Heilongjiang and Jilin, Jirim going to Jilin, Juu Uda to Liaoning, and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among Gansu and Ningxia. This was reversed in 1979.
There are groups calling for the independence of Inner Mongolia from what they view as Chinese imperialism; these groups, however, have less influence and support within and outside Inner Mongolia than similar movements in Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan.
Administrative divisions
Inner Mongolia is divided into 12 prefecture-level divisions, including 9 prefecture-level cities and 3 leagues.
The nine prefecture-level cities are:
- Hohhot (呼和浩特市 Hanyu Pinyin: Hūhéhàotè shì)
- Baotou (包头市 Bāotóu shì)
- Wuhai (乌海市 Wūhǎi shì)
- Chifeng (赤峰市 Chìfēng shì)
- Tongliao (通辽市 Tōngliáo shì)
- Ordos (鄂尔多斯市 È'ěrduōsī shì)
- Hulunbuir (呼伦贝尔市 Hūlúnbèi'ěr shì)
- Baynnur (巴彦淖尔市 Bāyànnào'ěr shì)
- Ulaan Chab (乌兰察布市 Wūlánchábù shì)
The three leagues are:
Many of the prefecture-level cities were converted very recently from leagues. See League (Inner Mongolia) for more information.
The 12 prefecture-level divisions of Inner Mongolia are subdivided into 101 county-level divisions, including 21 districts, 11 county-level cities, 17 counties, 49 banners, and 3 autonomous banners. Those are in turn divided into 1425 township-level divisions, including 532 towns, 407 townships, 277 sumu, 18 ethnic townships, 1 ethnic sumu, and 190 subdistricts.
See List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia for a complete list of county-level divisions.
Economy
Farming of crops such as wheat takes precedence along the river valleys. In the more arid grasslands, herding of goats, sheep and so on is a traditional method of subsistence. Forestry and hunting are somewhat important in the Daxingan (Greater Khingan) ranges in the east. Reindeer herding is carried out by Evenks in the Evenk Autonomous Banner.
Inner Mongolia has abundance of resources especially coal, cashmere, natural gas, rare earth elements, and has more deposits of naturally-occurring niobium, zirconium and beryllium than any other province-level region in China. However in the past, the exploitation and utilisation of resources were rather inefficient, which resulted in poor returns from rich resources. Inner Mongolia is also an important coal production base in north China. It plans to double annual coal output by 2010 (from the 2005 volume of 260 million tons) to 500 million tons of coal a year [1].
Industry in Inner Mongolia has grown up mainly around coal, power generation, forestry-related industries, and so forth. Inner Mongolia now laid emphasis on six unique and competitive industries, namely energy, chemicals, metallurgy, equipment manufacturing, processing of farm (including dairy) produce as well as hi-tech products. Well-known Inner Mongolian enterprises include companies such as ERDOS, Yili, and Mengniu.
The nominal GDP of Inner Mongolia in 2005 was 382.28 billion yuan (US$47.2 billion), a growth of 21.6% from 2004. It was also 120% higher than that in 2000, with an average annual increase of 16.6%. Its per capita GDP exceeded 15,500 yuan (US$1,900). Inner Mongolia's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 60.01 billion yuan, 168.51 billion yuan, and 153.76 billion yuan respectively. The urban per capita disposable income and rural per capita net income were 9,130 yuan and 2,980 yuan, up 78% and 46% respectively. [2] [3]
Demographics
Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group, constituting about 80% of the population. While the Hetao region along the Yellow River has always alternated between farmers from the south and nomads from the north, the most recent episode of Han Chinese migration began in the early 18th century with encouragement from the Manchu Qing Dynasty, and continued into the 20th century. Han Chinese live mostly in the Hetao region as well as various population centres in central and eastern Inner Mongolia.
Mongols are the second largest ethnic group, comprising about 17% of the population. They include many diverse Mongolian-speaking groups; groups such as the Buryats and the Oirats are also officially considered to be Mongols in China. Many of the traditionally nomadic Mongols have settled in permanent homes as their pastoral economy was collectivized during the Maoist Era.
Other ethnic groups include the Daur, the Evenks, the Oroqin, the Hui, the Manchus, and the Koreans.
| Ethnic groups in Inner Mongolia, 2000 census | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nationality | Population | Percentage |
| Han Chinese | 18,465,586 | 79.17% |
| Mongol | 3,995,349 | 17.13% |
| Manchu | 499,911 | 2.14% |
| Hui | 209,850 | 0.900% |
| Daur | 77,188 | 0.331% |
| Evenks | 26,201 | 0.112% |
| Koreans | 21,859 | 0.094% |
| Russians | 5,020 | 0.022% |
Excludes members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.
Source: Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (ISBN 7105054255)
See List of Chinese ethnic groups.
Culture
Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects, depending on region. The eastern parts tend to speak Northeastern China dialects, which belong to the Mandarin group of dialects; those in the central parts, such as the Huang He valley, speak varieties of Jin, another subdivision of Chinese, due to its proximity to other Jin-speaking areas in China, such as Shanxi province.
Mongols in Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects of the Mongolian language, including Chahar, Bairin, Ordos, Ejin-Alxa, Barghu-Buryat, etc.; the standard pronunciation of Mongolian in China is based on the Chahar dialect of the Plain Blue Banner, located in central Inner Mongolia.
The Daur, Evenks, and Oroqin speak their own respective languages.
The Mongols of Inner Mongolia practice many traditional forms of art. See also: Culture of Mongolia, Music of Mongolia.
Among the Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia, Jinju or Shanxi Opera is a popular traditional form of entertainment. See also: Shanxi.
Siqin Gaowa, a famous actress of China, is an ethnic Mongol native to Inner Mongolia.
A popular career in Inner Mongolia is circus acrobatics. The famous Inner Mongolia Acrobatic Troupe travels and performs with the renowned Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus.
Tourism
In the capital city Hohhot:
Dazhao Temple is a Lamaist temple built in 1580. Dazhao Temple is known for three sites: a statue of Buddha made from silver, elaborate carvings of dragons, and murals.
Xiaozhao Temple, also known as Chongfu temple, is a Lamaist temple built in 1697 and favoured by the Qing Dynasty emperor Kangxi.
Xilituzhao Temple is the largest Lamaist temple in the Hohhot area, and once the center of power of Lamaism in the region.
Zhaojun Tomb is the tomb of Wang Zhaojun, a Han Dynasty palace woman and wife of a Hun ruler.
Elsewhere in Inner Mongolia:
The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan, the cenotaph of Genghis Khan, is located in Ordos City.
Bashang Grasslands, on the border close to Beijing, is a popular retreat for urban residents wanting to get a taste of grasslands life.
Miscellaneous topics
Colleges and universities
- Chifeng University (赤峰学院)
- Inner Mongolia Agricultural University (内蒙古农业大学)
- Inner Mongolia Finance and Economics College (内蒙古财经学院)
- Inner Mongolia Medical College (内蒙古医学院)
- Inner Mongolia Normal University (内蒙古师范大学)
- Inner Mongolia University (内蒙古大学)
- Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities (内蒙古民族大学)
- Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology (内蒙古科技大学)
- Inner Mongolia University of Technology (内蒙古工业大学)
All of the above are under the authority of the autonomous region government. Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.
External links
- People's Government of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (simplified Chinese)
- Large map of Inner Mongolia
- Inner Mongolia: China Travel Information
- Inner Mongolia University
- MongolCulture.com
- Inner Mongolian People's Party (separatist)
- Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, NY, NY, USA
