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Native Americans and reservation inequality

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Native Americans and reservation inequality underlies a range of societal issues that affect the lives of Native American populations residing on reservations in the United States. About one third of the Native American population lives on reservations in the United States, comprising of about 700,000 individuals.[1]

Bureau of Indian Affairs map of reservations in the continental United States

Teenage Pregnancy

Teenage Pregnancy among the Native American population represents the third highest birth rate in the United States with 59 per 1,000 births in 2007.[2] Between 2005 and 2007 the birth rate among Native Indian teen girls increased 12%, more than twice the national increase in teenage pregnancy.[2] Rates of teenage pregnancy differ by geographic region and tribal affiliation. Teen pregnancy of 15-19 year old women in the Navajo Tribe have among the highest rates of teenage pregnancy, 15.8% higher than the national average.[3]

Contraceptive Use among Native American Teenagers

Native American populations show some of the lowest documented use of contraceptive use rates.[4] A recent health study shows that 65% of males and 57% of females reported having sexual intercourse by the 12th grade. Only 40% and 50% respectively reported always using contraceptives and more than one third of males and one half of females had sex without contraceptives between the 7th and 9th grade. 7% of females report incidences of pregnancy but rates are due to school drop out rates.[5] Data from the ADD Health Survey conducted on students of Bureau of Indian Affairs shows that high schools were more likely to have had sexual intercourse compared to the national rates of sexual experience collected through the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System. In general Native youth are more likely to have sexual intercourse at a younger age compared to their peers and are less likely to have used contraception the last time they had sex compared to their peers.[2] The low rates of contraceptive use are attributed to a historical disinclination of public discussions of sexuality and perceptions of shame associated with sexual behavior.[4] Additionally access to sexual health organizations and family planning centers on Native American reservations remains limited.[6]

Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy in Native Youth

The high concentration of poverty and extreme poverty on Native American reservations has potentially severe consequences for teen pregnancy. These negative consequences include educational deficits, economic strain, poor marital outcomes, as well as slowed cognitive, social and physical development in children of adolescent parents.[3] In 2006 90% of teenage pregnancy among Native teenagers aged 15 to 19 were to unmarried mothers.[2] Single parent, female headed households are at higher risk of impoverishment and almost 41% of all single parent female headed households are below the national poverty line.[7]

The recent rise in teenage pregnancy in Native Teen populations coupled with the already high rates of poverty on Native American Reservations has potentially detrimental consequences for Native families. A Study completed by the United States Department of Agriculture found Native American young mothers on reservations show a tendency to begin prenatal care later than their peers. They were also found to have higher rates of substance abuse during pregnancy and are more likely to have diabetes during pregnancy. Native Americans on reservations in particular showed greater rates of participation in public assistance services and their children suffered higher rates of nutritional, dietary, and clinical risks than children not born on the reservation.[8] Advocates suggest the implementation of policies and programs that will delay sexual initiation and improve contraceptive use among Native teenagers as a possible solution to the rising rates of teen pregnancy.[8]

Violence Against Native Women

Native American women have the highest rates of violent crime victimization, more than double that of other racial groups.[9] Of the violent acts committed against Native women, they are more likely to have injuries that require medical attention than crimes committed against other races and are also more likely to face an armed assailant.[10] On a number of Native American reservations Native Women are murdered at a rate representing ten times the national average. Violent crime rates over all on Native American reservations are 2.5 times the national average while some individual reservations reach 20 times the national average of violent crime.[10]

These high rates of gendered violence have in recent years been the subject of international attention. The United Nations Special Rappotereur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples cited the rates of violence against women as one of the most pervasive human rights violations and represented an international human rights crisis.[6]

Historical Factors

Scholars suggest that historically physical and sexual violence in Native American communities was rare Pre-Colonial society. Traditional gender roles advocated co-dependence where women's contributions were honored and respected and where violence against Native women was heavily punished by Native Justice systems.[11]

Colonial and Post-colonial changes in Native American society spurred transformations in these traditional perceptions of gender norms and Native American societal structure. The General Allotment Act of 1887 allocated private lands to male heads of house hold that belied many traditions of maternal land inheritance. Women also were denied access to farming responsibilities, that took away venues for accruing leadership and honor within the community. The conversion of traditional names to Christian names in the evangelical movement to Christianize Native populations also decreased female gender status. The historical tracing of lineage through maternal lines were changed to follow kinship ties through the father's last name.[12] These changes in gender norms are suggested to contribute to the high rates of violent crimes against Native American women.

Sexual Assault and Native Women

According to the National Violence Against Women Survey 34% of American Indian and Alaska Native women had suffered attempted or completed rape within their lifetimes. This is far greater than the 18% of white women, 19% of African American women and 7% of Asian and Pacific Islander women that completed the survey. In South Dakota, the population comprises only 10% Native Americans but they make up 40% of all sexual assault cases in the state. Similarly Alaska Natives make up only 15% of the population but represent 61% of victims of reported sexual assault cases.[13]

While most sexual offences are intra-racial or between members of the same race, the sexual offences against Native American women and Alaskan Native women are more often committed by white offenders. 1/3 of sexual offences committed against Native women are intra-racial.[10]

Although violent crime and sexual assault rates are extremely high in Native American reservations, prosecution for these crimes is low. In the Navajo Nation alone, of the 329 rape cases reported in 2007 among a population of 180,000 individuals, only 17 arrests were made in five years. In 2011, of all rape cases reported on Native American reservations the Justice Department only prosecuted 65%. As a result Native American reservations have a high proportion of sex offenders within the population.[13]

The low prosecution rates and rates of arrest result from numerous factors. Native American women have extremely low rates of reporting a sexual assault. Some women's advocacy groups suggest that only 10% of all sexual offences are reported.[13] Many Native women report feelings of betraying the community by coming forward especially if the non-Native court systems are involved. Native Women also reported a lack of faith in the local law enforcement to do anything. The lack of reports, and therefore investigations, therefore provides no incentive for the cessation of the behavior and the assault continues.[12]

Even when a sexual assault is reported to the authorities, prosecution is uncertain. According to a study by Amnesty International in 2006, the local police many times either do not respond to a sexual assault case or take hours or days to respond to the victim.[9] Additionally due to overlapping jurisdiction of tribal, state, and federal authorities, enforcement of protection orders for victims remains largely unreliable. Tension between these three groups often hinders responsiveness and efficiency in the prosecution of sexual offenders and the protection of the victims.[12]

Tribal authorities also have limited jurisdiction over the prosecution of non-native offenders. 46% of American Native American populations are non-natives.[12] As of 1978, under the Supreme Court case Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, tribal courts are denied inherent jurisdiction to criminally prosecute non-natives.[14] Tribal governments therefore have limited powers of legal processes over a significant portion of the resident population. This is potentially negative impacts due to the high rates of intra-racial sexual assaults against Native American women.

Re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA)

The re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act spurred controversy among the Native American community in 2012. The act having expired lent itself to revisions in the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Senate's re-authorization worked to eliminate some of the limitations on criminal jurisdiction of the tribal courts. In the summer of 2012 however the Republican majority in the House of Representatives proffered a separate re-authorization of VAWA. The House re-authorization stripped tribal protections from the jurisdiction of tribal courts.[9] The House's Bill would disallow Indian tribal courts from accusing non-natives on the grounds of domestic violence within reservations.[15] President Obama's White House administration vowed to veto any re-authorization of VAWA that failed to include the tribal protection clause. On February 28, 2013 President Obama received the Senate's re-authorization of VAWA after a vote passing the act in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.[16]

Substance Abuse

Suicide Rates

Native American and Alaskan Native populations have disproportionately high rates of homicide and suicide, particularly among younger populations. Between 1979 -1992, 2,394 individuals who lived in or near a reservation committed suicide. This represents 1.5 times the national average during these 14 years.[17] Since 1950 the suicide rate among 15-24 year old Native American youth has increased between 200% and 300%. This rate is significantly higher than other racial groups making Indian youth suicide rates 2 to 3 times the rates nationwide. Suicide rates are greatest especially among Native American males following general trends of gender and suicide.[18] Suicide rates vary depending on region and tribal affiliation but rates are particularly high in the Southwestern United States, the northern Rocky Mountain and Plains States, and in Alaska.[17]

High suicide rates are often correlated with drug use, alcoholism, depression, and poverty, widespread in many native American reservations.[19] Studies have shown that early substance abuse can lead to higher homicide and suicide rates among a population group. Native American youth show higher rates of drinking and drug use than most other racial or ethnic groups and those that live on reservations are at the highest risk of developing alcohol related problems.[20] Marijuana and prescription drug use for Native American teens are twice the national average and on average young people start drinking at the age of 14.[21] Though alcohol usage also varies by region and tribal affiliation, there remains a high risk factor for all Native American populations.[6]

Risk Factors

Risk factors for suicide often include a sense of hopelessness, alcohol abuse, depression, poverty and a triggering conflict or event which can include conflict or loss. Among 77% of males that attempted or completed suicide had incomes of less than 10,000 dollars and 79% were unemployed.[18] Native American youth also report higher rates of exposure to violence and sexual and physical abuse, both correlated to suicide rates.[18] Other possible contributing factors include the mother's age at deliver, family conflict, and financial instability.[20] Additionally 20% of all individuals who attempted or completed suicide had a parent who had also attempted or completed suicide.[18]

Community based programming has been shown to effectively alleviate some of the risk factors on Native American reservations associated with suicide. These programs have been proven to decrease substance abuse and increase communal connections and support.[22]

References

  1. ^ Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development (2008). The State of Native Nations: Conditions Under U.S. Policies of Self-Determination. New York: Oxford University Press.(accessed April 18, 2013).
  2. ^ a b c d The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. "The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy." American Indian/Alaska Native Youth and Teen Pregnancy Prevention. http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/SS/SS39_NativeAmericans.pdf (accessed February 20, 2013).
  3. ^ a b Exploring Factors Related to Parenting Competence among Navajo Teenage Mothers: Dual Techniques of Inquiry Rochelle L. Dalla and Wendy C. Gamble Family Relations , Vol. 46, No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pp. 113-121 Published by: National Council on Family Relations Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/585035
  4. ^ a b Snag Bags': Adapting Condoms to Community Values in Native American Communities Brian Joseph Gilley Culture, Health & Sexuality , Vol. 8, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 2006), pp. 559-570 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/4005565
  5. ^ Among Native American Teenagers, Sex Without Contraceptives is Common S. Edwards Family Planning Perspectives , Vol. 24, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1992), pp. 189-191 Published by: Guttmacher Institute Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/2136026
  6. ^ a b c Danforth, Jessica. "Stop the Shaming and Blaming of 'Teen Pregnancy' in Indian Country ." Indian Country , May 8, 2012. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/mobile/article/stop-the-shaming-and-blaming-of-teen-pregnancy-in-indian-country-101980 (accessed February 20, 2013). Cite error: The named reference "name" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ National Women’s Law Center “POVERTY AMONG WOMEN AND FAMILIES, 2000-2010: EXTREME POVERTY REACHES RECORD LEVELS AS CONGRESS FACES CRITICAL CHOICE.” Rep. National Women's Law Center, Sept. 2011. Web. 8 Feb. 2013.
  8. ^ a b United States Department of Agriculture. "THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NATIVE AMERICAN WIC PARTICIPANTS, ON AND OFF RESERVATIONS." United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service. http://www.fns.usda.gov/ora/MENU/Published/WIC/FILES/CharNativeAmer_Summary.pdf (accessed February 21, 2013).
  9. ^ a b c Dreveskracht, Ryan. "Revictimizing Native women for political purposes | Crosscut.com." Seattle News Online | Pacific Northwest News Online | Crosscut.com.http://crosscut.com/2012/08/23/gender/110172/revictimizing-native-women-political-purposes/ (accessed February 21, 2013).
  10. ^ a b c Bachman, Ronet, Heather Zaykowski, Rachel Kallmyer, Margarita Poteyeva, and Christina Lanier. U.S. Department of Justice, "Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and the Criminal Justice." Last modified 2008. Accessed March 18, 2013. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/223691.pdf.
  11. ^ "Violence Against Native Women." Network News. Nevada Network Against Domestic Violence, 2009. Web. 17 Mar. 2013.
  12. ^ a b c d Harper, Shelby S., and Christina M. Entrekin. Violence Against Native Women: A Guide for Practitioner Action. Publication. N.p.: n.p., 2006. Violence Against Native Women. Office on Violence Against Women and National Center of Full Faith and Credit, Fall 2006. Web. 8 Feb. 2013.
  13. ^ a b c Williams, Timothy . "For Native American Women, Scourge of Rape, Rare Justice."New York Times, May 22, 2012, New York edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/23/us/native-americans-struggle-with-high-rate-of-rape.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (accessed February 21, 2012).
  14. ^ "FindLaw | Cases and Codes." FindLaw | Cases and Codes. Thomson Reuters, 2013. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
  15. ^ Pear, Robert. "House Vote Sets Up Battle on Domestic Violence Bill." New York Times, May 16, 2012, New York edition, sec. U.S..http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/17/us/politics/house-passes-domestic-violence-bill.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1361423461-rbDFX8RfxR6/SWDPbGB5mQ (accessed February 21, 2013).
  16. ^ Davis, Susan. "Congress Sends Violence Against Women Act to Obama." USA Today. Gannett, 28 Feb. 2013. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
  17. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control. "Homicide and Suicide Among Native Americans, 1979-1992." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/pub-res/natam.htm (accessed February 21, 2013).
  18. ^ a b c d Suicide Among American Indian, Alaskan Native, and Canadian Aboriginal Youth: Advancing the Research Agenda C. June Strickland International Journal of Mental Health , Vol. 25, No. 4 (Winter 1996-97), pp. 11-32 Published by: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Article Stable URL:http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/41344797
  19. ^ Wisconsin Center for Investigative Jounalism. "A Tribal Tragedy: High Native American suicide rates persist."Wisconsin WatchSeptember 21, 2010, sec. Health and Welfare. http://www.wisconsinwatch.org/2010/11/21/a-tribal-tragedy-state%E2%80%99s-native-peoples-have-alarmingly-high-suicide-rates/ (accessed February 20, 2013).
  20. ^ a b Early-Onset Alcohol Use among Native American Youth: Examining Female Caretaker Influence Melissa L. Walls, Les B. Whitbeck, Dan R. Hoyt and Kurt D. Johnson Journal of Marriage and Family , Vol. 69, No. 2 (May, 2007), pp. 451-464 Published by: National Council on Family Relations
  21. ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "Behavioral Health." Indian Health Service (IHS). http://www.ihs.gov/behavioral/index.cfm (accessed February 21, 2013).
  22. ^ A Community-Based Approach to Preventing Alcohol Use among Adolescents on an American Indian Reservation Allen Cheadle, David Pearson, Edward Wagner, Bruce M. Psaty, Paula Diehr and Thomas Koepsell Public Health Reports (1974-) , Vol. 110, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1995), pp. 439-447 Published by: Association of Schools of Public Health Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/4597872
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