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Native Americans and reservation inequality

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Native American Reservation inequality underlies a range of societal issues that affect the lives of Native American populations residing on reservations in the United States. About one third of the Native American population lives on reservations in the United States, comprising of about 700,000 individuals.[1] Reservation poverty and other discriminatory factors have lead to the persistence of social inequality on Native American reservations.

Bureau of Indian Affairs map of reservations in the continental United States

Historical discrimination

The reservation system was created following the expansion of the United States into tribal lands. This effort started with the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which created the first reservations.[2] As forced relocation progressed, many tribes lost their traditional lifestyles, which centered around community living and hunting and gathering.[3] Reservations were created on lands that were deemed worthless to white settlers, meaning they were often uncultivatable, resource deficient, and isolated from urban centers and transportation networks.[2] The history of the reservation system has resulted in concentrated poverty. Regardless of urbanicity, areas of concentrated poverty tend to have higher crime rates, underperforming schools, poor housing, poor health conditions, limited private services, and few job opportunities.[4].

Teenage pregnancy

Teenage Pregnancy among the Native American population represents the third highest birth rate in the United States with 59 per 1,000 births in 2007.[5] Between 2005 and 2007 the birth rate among Native Indian teen girls increased 12%, more than twice the national increase in teenage pregnancy.[5] Rates of teenage pregnancy however differ by geographic region and tribal affiliation. Teen pregnancy of 15-19 year old women in the Navajo Tribe have among the highest rates of teenage pregnancy, 15.8% higher than the national average.[6]

Contraceptive use among Native American teenagers

Native American populations show some of the lowest documented rates of contraceptive use in the United States.[7] A recent health study shows that 65% of males and 57% of females report having sexual intercourse by the 12th grade. Only 40% and 50% respectively report always using contraceptives and more than one third of males and one half of females had sex without contraceptives between the 7th and 9th grade. 7% of females in a study of Native American schools report incidences of pregnancy but rates are skewed due to school drop out rates.[8] Data from the ADD Health Survey conducted on students of Bureau of Indian Affairs schools show that high school students from schools on Native American land are more likely to have had sexual intercourse when compared to the national rates of high school students. In general Native youth are more likely to have sexual intercourse at a younger age compared to their peers and are less likely to have used contraception the last time they had sex compared to their peers.[5]

The low rates of contraceptive use are attributed to a historical disinclination of public discussions of sexuality and perceptions of shame associated with sexual behavior.[7] Additionally access to sexual health organizations and family planning centers on Native American reservations remains limited.[9]

Consequences of teenage pregnancy in Native youth

The high concentration of poverty and extreme poverty on Native American reservations has potentially severe consequences for pregnant teenagers. These negative consequences include educational deficits, economic strain, poor marital outcomes, as well as slowed cognitive, social, and physical development in children of adolescent parents.[6] In 2006, 90% of teenage pregnancies among Native teenagers aged 15 to 19 were to unmarried mothers.[5] Single parent, female headed households are at higher risk of impoverishment with almost 41% of all single parent female headed households in the United States residing below the national poverty line.[10]

The recent rise in teenage pregnancy in Native Teen populations coupled with the already high rates of poverty on Native American Reservations has potentially detrimental consequences for Native families. A Study completed by the United States Department of Agriculture found Native American young mothers on reservations show a tendency to begin prenatal care later than their peers. They were also found to have higher rates of substance abuse during pregnancy and are more likely to have diabetes during pregnancy.[11] Native Americans on reservations in particular showed greater rates of participation in public assistance services and their children suffered higher rates of nutritional, dietary, and clinical risks than children not born on the reservation.[12] Advocates suggest the implementation of policies and programs that will delay sexual initiation and improve contraceptive use among Native teenagers as a possible solution to the rising rates of teen pregnancy.[13]

Violence against Native women

Native American women have the highest rates of violent crime victimization, more than double that of other racial groups.[14] In the violent acts committed against Native women, Native American women are more likely to have injuries that require medical attention than crimes committed against other races. They are also more likely to face an armed assailant than female victims of violent acts of other races.[15] On a number of Native American reservations Native Women are murdered at a rate representing ten times the national average. Violent crime rates over all on Native American reservations are 2.5 times the national average while some individual reservations reach 20 times the national average of violent crime.[15]

These high rates of gendered violence have in recent years been the subject of international attention. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples cited the rates of violence against women as one of the most pervasive human rights violations in the world and represented an international human rights crisis.[9]

Historical factors

Scholars suggest that historically, physical and sexual violence in Native American communities was rare in Pre-Colonial society. Traditional gender roles advocated co-dependence, where women's contributions were honored and respected and where violence against Native women was heavily punished by Native justice systems.[16]

Colonial and Post-colonial changes in Native American society spurred transformations in these traditional perceptions of gender norms and Native American societal structure. The General Allotment Act of 1887 allocated private lands to male heads of household that belied many traditions of maternal land inheritance.[17] Women also were denied access to farming responsibilities that took away venues for accruing leadership and honor within the community.[18] The conversion of traditional names to Christian names in the evangelical movement to Christianize Native populations also decreased female gender status. The historical tracing of lineage through maternal lines were changed to follow kinship ties through the father's last name.[19] These changes in gender norms are suggested to contribute to the high rates of violent crimes against Native American women.

Sexual assault and Native women

According to the National Violence Against Women Survey, 34% of American Indian and Alaskan Native women have suffered attempted or completed rape within their lifetimes. This is greater than the 18% of white women, 19% of African American women and 7% of Asian and Pacific Islander women that completed the survey. In South Dakota, the population comprises of only 10% Native Americans but Native women make up 40% of all sexual assault cases in the state. Similarly, Alaska Natives make up only 15% of the population but represent 61% of victims of reported sexual assault cases.[20]

While nationwide most sexual offences are intra-racial or between members of the same race, the sexual offences against Native American women and Alaskan Native women are more often committed by white offenders.[15] 1/3 of sexual offences committed against Native women are intra-racial.[15]

Although violent crime and sexual assault rates are high in Native American reservations, prosecution for these crimes is relatively low. In 2007, on the Navajo Nation, of the 329 rape cases reported among a population of 180,000 individuals, only 17 arrests were made in five years. In 2011, of all rape cases reported on Native American reservations the Justice Department only prosecuted 65%.[20] Correspondingly, Native American reservations have a high proportion of sex offenders within the population.[20]

The low prosecution rates and rates of arrest result from numerous factors. Native American women have extremely low rates of reporting sexual assault. Some women's advocacy groups in Native American communities suggest that only 10% of all sexual offences are reported.[20] Many Native women report feelings of betraying the community by coming forward, especially if the non-Native court systems are involved. Native Women also report a lack of faith in the local law enforcement to make arrests and prosecute offenders.[17]

Even when sexual assaults are reported to the authorities, prosecution is not certain. According to a study by Amnesty International in 2006, the local police often either do not respond to a sexual assault case or take hours or days to respond to the victims reports.[14] Additionally due to the overlapping jurisdiction of tribal, state, and federal authorities, enforcement of protection orders for victims remains largely unreliable. Tension between these three groups hinders responsiveness and efficiency in the prosecution of sexual offenders and the protection of the victims.[17]

Tribal authorities also have limited jurisdiction over the prosecution of non-native offenders. 46% of the Native American reservation population are non-natives.[17] As of 1978, under the Supreme Court case Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, tribal courts are denied inherent jurisdiction to criminally prosecute non-natives.[21] Tribal governments therefore have limited powers of legal processes over a significant portion of the resident population. This has negative impacts due to the high rates of intra-racial sexual assaults against Native American women.

Re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA)

The re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act spurred controversy among the Native American community in 2012. The act, having expired, lent itself to revisions in the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Senate's re-authorization worked to eliminate some of the limitations on criminal jurisdiction of the tribal courts. In the summer of 2012, the Republican majority in the House of Representatives proffered a separate re-authorization of VAWA. The House re-authorization stripped tribal protections from the jurisdiction of tribal courts.[14] The House's Bill would disallow Indian tribal courts from accusing non-natives on the grounds of domestic violence within reservations.[22] President Obama's White House administration vowed to veto any re-authorization of VAWA that failed to include the tribal protection clause. On February 28, 2013 President Barack Obama received the Senate's re-authorization of VAWA after a vote passing the act in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.[23]

Substance abuse

The use of drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes on reservations is higher on Native American reservations than the national averages.[24] Native American youth show higher rates of drinking and drug use than most other racial or ethnic groups and those that live on reservations are at the highest risk of developing alcohol related problems.[25] Marijuana and prescription drug use for Native American teens are twice the national average and young people have been shown to start experimenting with alcohol at the age of 14.[26] The onset of alcohol usage before the age of 15 has been found to be associated with lower achievement, academic problems, drug use and alcoholism later in life.[27] Alchoholism in Native American populations has been shown to be associated with development of disease, including sprains and muscle strains, hearing and vision problems, kidney and bladder problems, head injuries, pneumonia, tuberculosis, dental problems, liver problems, and pancreatitis.[28] Alcoholism death rates among young Native Americans is 3.4 deaths per 100,000, over ten times the national average of 0.3 deaths per 100,000 of the general population.[29] Though alcohol usage varies by region and tribal affiliation, there remains a high risk factor for all Native American populations and particularly those on Native American reservations.[9]

Suicide Rates

Native American and Alaskan Native populations have disproportionately high rates of homicide and suicide, particularly among younger populations. Between 1979 -1992, 2,394 individuals who lived in or near a reservation committed suicide. This represents 1.5 times the national average during these 14 years.[30] Since 1950 the suicide rate among 15-24 year old Native American youths has increased between 200% and 300%. This rate is higher than other racial groups, making Indian youth suicide rates 2 to 3 times the rates nationwide. Suicide rates are greatest especially among Native American males following the general trends of gender and suicide.[31] Suicide rates vary depending on region and tribal affiliation but rates are particularly high in the Southwestern United States, the northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains, and in Alaska.[30] High suicide rates are often correlated with drug use, alcoholism, depression, and poverty, widespread in many native American reservations.[32] Studies have shown that early substance abuse can lead to higher homicide and suicide rates among a population group.

Risk factors for suicide often include a sense of hopelessness, alcohol abuse, depression, poverty and a triggering conflict or event which can include conflict or loss. Among 77% of males that attempted or completed suicide had incomes of less than 10,000 dollars and 79% were unemployed.[31] Native American youth also report higher rates of exposure to violence and sexual and physical abuse, both correlated to suicide rates.[31] Other possible contributing factors include the mother's age at delivery, family conflict, and financial instability.[25] Additionally 20% of all individuals who attempted or completed suicide had a parent who had also attempted or completed suicide.[31]

Community based programming has been shown to effectively alleviate some of the risk factors on Native American reservations associated with suicide. These programs have been proven to decrease substance abuse and increase communal connections and support.[33]

References

  1. ^ Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development (2008). The State of Native Nations: Conditions Under U.S. Policies of Self-Determination. New York: Oxford University Press.(accessed April 18, 2013).
  2. ^ a b McCormick, Anita (1996). Native Americans and the Reservation in American History. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers.
  3. ^ Wilson, James (2000). The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native Aemrica. New York: Grove Press.
  4. ^ Kneebone, Elizabeth (2011). The Re-Emergence of Concentrated Poverty: Metropolitan Trends in the 2000s (PDF). Washington, DC: Brookings Institute. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b c d The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. "The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy." American Indian/Alaska Native Youth and Teen Pregnancy Prevention. http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/SS/SS39_NativeAmericans.pdf (accessed February 20, 2013).
  6. ^ a b Exploring Factors Related to Parenting Competence among Navajo Teenage Mothers: Dual Techniques of Inquiry Rochelle L. Dalla and Wendy C. Gamble Family Relations , Vol. 46, No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pp. 113-121 Published by: National Council on Family Relations Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/585035
  7. ^ a b Snag Bags': Adapting Condoms to Community Values in Native American Communities Brian Joseph Gilley Culture, Health & Sexuality , Vol. 8, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 2006), pp. 559-570 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/4005565
  8. ^ Among Native American Teenagers, Sex Without Contraceptives is Common S. Edwards Family Planning Perspectives , Vol. 24, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1992), pp. 189-191 Published by: Guttmacher Institute Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/2136026
  9. ^ a b c Danforth, Jessica. "Stop the Shaming and Blaming of 'Teen Pregnancy' in Indian Country ." Indian Country , May 8, 2012. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/mobile/article/stop-the-shaming-and-blaming-of-teen-pregnancy-in-indian-country-101980 (accessed February 20, 2013). Cite error: The named reference "name" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ National Women’s Law Center “POVERTY AMONG WOMEN AND FAMILIES, 2000-2010: EXTREME POVERTY REACHES RECORD LEVELS AS CONGRESS FACES CRITICAL CHOICE.” Rep. National Women's Law Center, Sept. 2011. Web. 8 Feb. 2013.
  11. ^ United States Department of Agriculture. "THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NATIVE AMERICAN WIC PARTICIPANTS, ON AND OFF RESERVATIONS." United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service. http://www.fns.usda.gov/ora/MENU/Published/WIC/FILES/CharNativeAmer_Summary.pdf (accessed February 21, 2013).
  12. ^ name=usda
  13. ^ name=usda
  14. ^ a b c Dreveskracht, Ryan. "Revictimizing Native women for political purposes | Crosscut.com." Seattle News Online | Pacific Northwest News Online | Crosscut.com.http://crosscut.com/2012/08/23/gender/110172/revictimizing-native-women-political-purposes/ (accessed February 21, 2013).
  15. ^ a b c d Bachman, Ronet, Heather Zaykowski, Rachel Kallmyer, Margarita Poteyeva, and Christina Lanier. U.S. Department of Justice, "Violence Against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and the Criminal Justice." Last modified 2008. Accessed March 18, 2013. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/223691.pdf.
  16. ^ "Violence Against Native Women." Network News. Nevada Network Against Domestic Violence, 2009. Web. 17 Mar. 2013.
  17. ^ a b c d Harper, Shelby S., and Christina M. Entrekin. Violence Against Native Women: A Guide for Practitioner Action. Publication. N.p.: n.p., 2006. Violence Against Native Women. Office on Violence Against Women and National Center of Full Faith and Credit, Fall 2006. Web. 8 Feb. 2013.
  18. ^ name=harper
  19. ^ name=harper
  20. ^ a b c d Williams, Timothy . "For Native American Women, Scourge of Rape, Rare Justice."New York Times, May 22, 2012, New York edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/23/us/native-americans-struggle-with-high-rate-of-rape.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (accessed February 21, 2012).
  21. ^ "FindLaw | Cases and Codes." FindLaw | Cases and Codes. Thomson Reuters, 2013. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
  22. ^ Pear, Robert. "House Vote Sets Up Battle on Domestic Violence Bill." New York Times, May 16, 2012, New York edition, sec. U.S..http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/17/us/politics/house-passes-domestic-violence-bill.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1361423461-rbDFX8RfxR6/SWDPbGB5mQ (accessed February 21, 2013).
  23. ^ Davis, Susan. "Congress Sends Violence Against Women Act to Obama." USA Today. Gannett, 28 Feb. 2013. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.
  24. ^ Clarke, Ardy (2002). "Social and Emotional Distress among American Indian and Alaska Native Students: Research Findings". ERIC Digest. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ^ a b Early-Onset Alcohol Use among Native American Youth: Examining Female Caretaker Influence Melissa L. Walls, Les B. Whitbeck, Dan R. Hoyt and Kurt D. Johnson Journal of Marriage and Family , Vol. 69, No. 2 (May, 2007), pp. 451-464 Published by: National Council on Family Relations
  26. ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "Behavioral Health." Indian Health Service (IHS). http://www.ihs.gov/behavioral/index.cfm (accessed February 21, 2013).
  27. ^ name=onset
  28. ^ "American Indians with alcohol problems have more medical conditions" Jay Shore, M.D., M.P.H., University of Colorado Health Sciences Center March 26, 2006, accessed October 7, 2009
  29. ^ name=onset
  30. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control. "Homicide and Suicide Among Native Americans, 1979-1992." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/pub-res/natam.htm (accessed February 21, 2013).
  31. ^ a b c d Suicide Among American Indian, Alaskan Native, and Canadian Aboriginal Youth: Advancing the Research Agenda C. June Strickland International Journal of Mental Health , Vol. 25, No. 4 (Winter 1996-97), pp. 11-32 Published by: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Article Stable URL:http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/41344797
  32. ^ Wisconsin Center for Investigative Jounalism. "A Tribal Tragedy: High Native American suicide rates persist."Wisconsin WatchSeptember 21, 2010, sec. Health and Welfare. http://www.wisconsinwatch.org/2010/11/21/a-tribal-tragedy-state%E2%80%99s-native-peoples-have-alarmingly-high-suicide-rates/ (accessed February 20, 2013).
  33. ^ A Community-Based Approach to Preventing Alcohol Use among Adolescents on an American Indian Reservation Allen Cheadle, David Pearson, Edward Wagner, Bruce M. Psaty, Paula Diehr and Thomas Koepsell Public Health Reports (1974-) , Vol. 110, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1995), pp. 439-447 Published by: Association of Schools of Public Health Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.rice.edu/stable/4597872
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