First Fitna

First Fitna
Part of the Islamic Civil Wars
Region under the control of the Rashidun (Ali ibn Abi Talib)   Region under the control of Muawiyah I   Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As
Date 656 – 661 CE Location Arabian peninsula Result Rebellion successful, peace treaty signed; Muawiya I begins the Umayyad dynasty
Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate	Aisha's forces Muawiya's forces
Commanders and leaders
Ali ibn Abi Talib Malik al-Ashtar	Aisha bint Abu Bakr Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah Zubair ibn al-Awam Muawiya I 'Amr ibn al-'As[b]
The Kharijites were a portion of Ali's supporters that defected and later opposed both parties.

The First Islamic Civil War (656–661), also called the First Fitna (Template:Lang-ar-at "The Fitna of the killing of Uthman"), was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate. It arose as a result of the death of the previous Caliph Uthman.

The Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth of the Sunni Rightly Guided Caliphs and first Imam of Shia'a. It was caused by the controversial assassination of his predecessor, Uthman Ibn Affan. It lasted for the entirety of Ali's reign, and its end is marked by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate (founding the Umayyad dynasty), and the subsequent recorded peace treaty between him and Hassan ibn Ali.

Events Leading To The Battle of The Camel

Conflicts with the Governor of Kufa

In 644 AD, Uthman ibn Affan became caliph after Umar ibn Khattab was assassinated. As the new caliph, Uthman appointed some of his family members, who were seen in a negative view due to character issues, as governors. The most controversial governor Uthman appointed was Waleed ibn Uqba, his half-brother, as the governor of the city of Kufa. Dissatisfaction and resistance had openly risen since 650-651 AD (30 AH) throughout most of the empire. In the year 30 AH (after Hijra), 650 AD, many Muslims living in the city of Kufa were angered over Waleed's action/character. Primarily because he was a Fasiq (open sinner). Even the Quran, exposes his character by stating that he is an evil man. In addition, the Prophet Muhammad described him as a Fasiq (open sinner).

He (Prophet Muhammad) said, "He is an open sinner (Fasiq), get him out of the Islamic state."

The Prophet himself exiled Waleed from the Islamic State due to his character. Only to be brought back as a governor by Uthman, his half brother. Waleed was known to be an alcoholic and publicly consumed alcohol even though Islam prohibits the consumption of alcohol. According to al-Mizzi, a sunni scholar, Waleed not only drank alcohol but he also practised witchcraft. The tipping point came when al-Waleed one day entered the mosque drunk to lead Fajr Namaz (morning prayer). He was so intoxicated that he read four Raka'ats. In fact, Ibn Taymiya, a 13th-century Sunni Islamic scholar stated,

"The Companions would pray behind people whom they knew to be open transgressors, such as when Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and other companions would pray behind Walid ibn 'Uqba ibn Abi Mu'it, who may have recently drunken alcohol (when he was praying) and would wind up praying four rakaats."

However, Fajr namaz (morning prayer) is only two raka'ats. By the end of his his fourth raka'at, Waleed turned around and asked the people if he should continue the prayer.This event enraged many Muslim citizens. They started to criticizes Waleed in markets, houses, and mosques. Furthermore, they started to question the leadership and judgement of Uthman bin Affan. Because clearly, Waleed was violating the teachings of Islam and the rights of the Muslims. Thus, Malik al-Ashtar, who would become Ali ibn Abi Talib's general in the Battle of Jamal, addressed the concerned Muslims by saying

"First we'd better advise him. Then we'll tell the Caliph about his bad behavior."

Malik al-Ashtar and a group of ten people, one of whom was Kumayl ibn Ziyad, went to the palace of Waleed to address the issues they were having with him. However, they found him drinking alcohol. The delegation told him to behave in a proper manner. However, Waleed took it the wrong way and scolded them, told them to leave, and exiled them to Shaam (modern day Damascus, Syria). When the delegation of men reached Shaam, they addressed the issue Mu'awiyah, who was the governor of Shaam. After listening to the complaints against Waleed, Muawiyah told Kumayl,

"How dare you speak out about the person in Kufa. How dare you disunity the religion of Allah."

Kumayl replied "Its that man (referring to al-Waleed) who is disuniting. And Allah tells us to be beware of corrupt rulers."

Mu'awiyah replied, "The Quran says obey Allah, obey the prophet, and obey the leaders from amongst you. I am from the leader amongst you."

Kumayl replied, "Your not my leader and nothing to do with my leader. My leader is someone else (referring to Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was appointed as successor by the Prophet Muhammad see event of Ghadeer). I will never obey you nor will I ever obey that man (Waleed)."

Mu'awiyah then told him and the delegation: "Very well, you been exiled from Kufa. I'll exile you and Malik al-Ashtar from Shaam as well."

The delegation was exiled to Homs (modern day Syria). But eventually, Malik al-Ashtar, Kumayl ibn Ziyad, and the delegation made it back to Kufa. After coming back to Kufa and failing to remove Waleed, the delegation of Muslims led by Malik al-Ashtar set off on a journey to Medina, the capital of the Muslim empire, to address the issue with Uthman. Kumayl ibn Ziyad, Malik al-Ashtar, Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhaifa, and Abdur Rahman ibn Udays were the ones who spoke out the most about Waleed and the corruption that was occurring. When they finally reached Medina, they communicated their concerns and Waleed's behaviors to Uthman. Unfortunately, Uthman took the same approach as Waleed did. Uthman scolded them and told them to leave mainly because he did not want to remove his half brother from power. As a result, the delegation became more disappointed. The dissatisfaction with Uthmans regime and the governors he appointed was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia. Even, Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, was upset with Uthman for not removing Waleed from power and called Uthman a long bearded Jew. After being dismissed by Uthman, the delegation went to seek the consultation of Ali ibn Abi Talib for guidance and help.

Public Outrage of Uthman

The public was not only upset at Waleed but Uthman as well. Since, Uthman appointed Waleed as governor and refused to depose him because Uthman preferred of his own relatives over others. And gave them lofty government position even if they were not qualified or fit to occupy any governmental jobs. In addition, the public was also outraged by the fact that Uthman mismanaged the public funds (Bayt al-Mal). Uthman lived a luxurious life. In the sense that he had mansions built, silk clothes (which were expensive at the time), and exotic perfumes that were imported for him and his wife, Na'ila. It is documented that Na'ila, the daughter of al-Qarafisah, wore an excessive amount of jewelry. To a point wear people could hear the jewelry jingling from a distance.

Downfall of Uthman

After meeting the delegation, Ali ibn Abi Talib was sad to hear the news however, he assured the delegation that he would visit Uthman personally regarding this issue. Ali went to visit Uthman regarding the issue with Waleed. In his meeting with Uthman, Ali said,

"Uthman, the Muslims are complaining of the rulers' persecution. And you know that very well I've heard Allah's Apostle (Prophet Muhammad) saying: On the Day of Judgement, the unjust imam will be brought to hell. And no one will support or excuse him. Then, he will be thrown into hell. He'll go round and round it till he gets into its intense heat."

The statement made Uthman realize his mistakes. And as a result, Uthman promised to seek God's forgiveness and apologize to the Muslims. However, Marwan bin al-Hakam, the cousin of Uthman, persuaded Uthman not to do so by saying,

"You'd better threaten the people so as no one would dare to say bad words against the Caliph (Uthman)."

Due to Marwan's influence, Uthman broke his promise and became stricter. Madelung states that when Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, Uthman lost control over his Caliphate, and many of the noble companions, including most of the members of the elector council, withdrew their support. It is documented that Uthman hit the noble companion Ammar ibn Yasir and whipped the companion Abdullah ibn Masoud. The stricter policies caused an uproar in the Muslim empire; people began writing letter such as the following below.

Muslims, come to us. And save the Caliphate. Allah's Book has been changed. And the Prophet's Sunnah has been changed. So, come to us if you believe in Allah and the Day of Judgement.

Once again, Malik al-Ashtar, in a democratic matter, represented the enraged Muslim in a meeting with Uthman. In the meeting, Malik asked Uthman to step down from power, but Uthman refused. Uthman's refusal to step down only led to increasing problems.

The Siege of Uthman

As Muawiyah and Caliph Uthman were preparing to besiege Constantinople, in 656 AD, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq, showed some Egyptians the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. The rebels from Egypt began the siege of Uthman Ibn Affan. They managed to successfully put Uthman under house arrest. While the siege instilled, Muawiyah asked Uthman ibn Affan if he could send guards to defend him. But Uthman ibn Affan refused saying,

"I do not want to spill the blood of Muslims to save my own neck."

During the siege of Uthman, Aisha was asked to stay in Medina, but she left the city without paying attention. Aisha believed Uthman had become an apostate due to neglecting the Islamic traditions during his caliphate, and she encouraged people to kill him. Her exact words that were recorded verbatim were أقتلوا نعثلا فقد كفر "Uqtulu Nathal faqad Kufar" translated into english as "Kill Nathal, for he has committed apostasy." According to Yasin al-Jibouri,

"Nathal was a contemporary Jew famous for his untidy and too long beard; hence, Aisha was comparing Uthman with a Jew."

Furthermore, the rebels refused to provide Uthman with food or water, and kept him imprisoned, hoping to force his abdication. Ali intervened, in order to help Uthman, when he was informed that the rebels were preventing the delivery of water to the besieged caliph. He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by insisting that Uthman should be allowed water. Ali would get water and food and deliver it to Uthman’s mansion during the night. He would pass the food and water from one person to another on the flat rooftop to another till they reached Uthman’s mansion. In addition, Ali went to the extent of even sending his own sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali, to protect Uthman's house, from angry protester, when he was in danger of being attacked. Rebels protested against it and committed excess therein. Protesters found the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters and the sons of Ali. It is documented that Hasan, the eldest son of Ali, received a wound on his forehead while defending Uthman's palace from being ransacked. Despite this, protesters (the Qurra) climbed the back wall and sneaked inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside. They broke into Uthman's room and struck blows at his head, thus killing Uthman. Na’ila, the wife of Uthman, tried to defend him with her bare hands. Unfortunately, four of her fingers cut off while trying to defend Uthman.

According to Encyclopedia of Islam, Muawiyah had sent a relief force led by Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri to protect Uthman, but events moved so fast that Uthman got killed before they arrived. So they turned back from the wadi I kura (is this spelled correctly). In 655 AD, Uthman was murdered provoking the First Fitna. After Uthman's death, Na’ila sent her severed fingers along with the blood stained copy of the Holy Qur’an which Uthman was reciting during the attack to Mu'awiyah, the governor of Damascus. In order to use them (the severed finger and the blood stained Quran) to rally people and urge them to take revenge for Uthman’s murder.

Ali Elected as Caliph

1212

After Uthman was murdered, many Muslim (from Medina and the Islamic Empire) went to Ali ibn Abi Talib asking him to become the new caliph (leader). It is documented that the people said,

"This man is killed. The public have to have a leader. No one we have found is more deserving to the position than you! You are the oldest in the faith and the nearest to the prophet by relationship."

But Ali refused the caliphate. He replied to their request by saying,

"Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and colours, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of your affairs. I am better for you as a counsellor than as chief."

In addition, Ali wrote in a letter,

"I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance (bay'ah) to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me".

Even though he refused, Malik, Kumayl, and others insisted for him to become the caliph. To which Malik addressed,

"People, this is the Prophet's Regent. He has learnt the Prophet's knowledge. Allah's Book has mentioned his belief. Allah's Apostle [s] has told him that he will enter al-Ridhwan Garden. His personality is perfect The people in the past and present are certain of his behaviour and knowledge."

Madelung states that Malik al-Ashtar, the Kufan leader, had a major role in securing the election for Ali. Malik and Kumayl were one of the first to appoint Ali as the new caliph. After the people kept insisting, Ali accepted the caliphate and sought to remove unjust governors/leaders. While the overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures did not. Umayyads, kins of Uthman, escaped to Levant or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance to Ali. But, both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't do anything against him. Aisha, another prominent figure who was in Mecca at that time, opposed Ali as caliph.

Ali as Caliph

Ali was very religious and had worked very well in partnership with Umar as his advisor. Umar had consulted him on all the major issues. Ali had also been the chief judge in Madina. Ali had decisive beliefs that he shouldn't start a war with other Muslims but when the enemy started it his army wouldn't retreat unless they wanted to attack again. He ordered his soldiers not to kill who would become injured, or not be able to defend himself, or escape from the battlefield and injuries and wanted his warriors not to injure women. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa. They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa.

Allegations Against Ali

After Ali had been elected as caliph by a vast majority of Muslims in the Islamic Empire, certain individuals sought to somehow obtain the caliphate for themselves. The minority, who opposed Ali as the new caliph, began concocting allegation against him. The primary allegation by Aisha accused Ali of having collaborated with the rebel forces who killed Uthman, her relative. Even though, Aisha urged people to kill Uthman. According to al-Jibouri, Aisha's motives were to get either Talhah ibn Ubaydullah, her cousin who aspired to marry her after the demise of the Prophet (something which Islam prohibited) or Zubair ibn al-Awwam, the son of her older sister Asma and the cousin to Ali, to become caliph instead of Ali. In fact after the murder of Uthman, Zubair ibn al-Awwam declared himself as the new caliph of the Islamic Empire. In addition, Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested.

However, many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. German historian Wilferd Madelung is of the opinion that there is no evidence to suggest that Ali had a close relationship with the rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. On the other hand, Ali himself said in numerous cases that he had done everything he could to defend him but that he didn't agree with Uthman's policies. Some other sources say that Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. However, Madelung narrates that Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali: "No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master."

Nevertheless, Marwan I and the rebels in Ali's army manipulated everyone and created conflict. (awkward sentence and also needs a reference)

Battle of the Camel

Main article: Battle of the Camel

Talhah, Al-Zubayr, and Muhammad's wife Aisha bint Abu Bakr gathered in Mecca and then went to Basra. They encamped close to Basra, and the subsequent heated exchange and protests during the parley turned from words to blows. Ali asked them for obedience and a pledge of allegiance. Ali tried to negotiate with Aisha, considering her the venerated wife of Muhammad, but she refused. Zubair was Ali's and Muhammad's cousin and did not want people to fight. He said to Ali "What a tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the strength of a rock are going to be smashed by colliding with one another". After talking with Ali before the Battle of the Camel, Zubair did not want to fight and left the battlefield, and was killed in an adjoining valley. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he performed Salat. Talhah also left. On seeing this Marwan shot Talhah with a poisoned arrow. In the confusion, one night the Battle of the Camel started in 656. Aisha was approached by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was ‘Ali's commander. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was the son of Abu Bakr, the adopted son of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the great-grandfather of Ja‘far al-Sadiq. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was raised by Ali alongside Hasan and Husein. ‘Ali, with respect, sent her back to Medina, escorted by her brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Hassan also accompanied her part of the way. ‘Ali and Aisha were said to have become friends after the battle. Aisha then started teaching in Medina.

Marwan and some of Ali's supporters who later became the Kawarij caused a lot of the trouble. Marwan was arrested but he later asked Hassan and Hussein for assistance and was released. Marwan later became an Umayyad ruler, as did his son.

Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was later killed by the Umayyads in Egypt. His son Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was then raised and taught by Aisha. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was the mother of Ja'far al-Sadiq. After this battle Marwan and Aisha did not get on.

Al-Zubayr's widow Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr the first caliph, and her sons Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and Urwah ibn Zubayr continued to get on well with Ali and held the Kawarij responsible for their father's killing. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was the second cousin on Hussein and the grandson of Abu Bakr. Many years later Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr confronted the oppressive Umayyad rulers Yazid after Ali's son Hussein ibn Ali was betrayed by the people of Kufa and killed by Syrian Roman Army which was then under the control of Yazid I, an Umayyad ruler. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr removed the forces of Yazid from Iraq, southern Arabia, the greater part of Syria, and parts of Egypt. After a lengthy campaign, on his last hour Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr asked his mother Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr the first caliph, for advice. Asma' bint Abu Bakr replied to her son, saying: "You know better in your own self, that if you are upon the truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you have been killed, and if you are not upon the truth, then what an evil son you are and you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If you say what you say, that you are upon the truth and you will be killed at the hands of others, then you will not truly be free for this is not the statement of someone who is free... How long will you live in this world, death is more beloved to me than this state you are on, this state of weakness". Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr left and was later also killed and crucified by the Syrian Roman Army now under the control of the Umayyads.

Battle of Siffin

Main article: Battle of Siffin

Muawiyah I called for Uthman's killers to be arrested. Ali opened negotiations with him with the hope of regaining his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule.

Ali strongly felt that as a Caliph, it was also his responsibility to account for every penny and on the day of judgement he would be answerable to God and therefore money should be spent on the poor. Muawiyah argued that due to his situation on Syria, where the vast majority of the population was not Muslim, he had to pay the wages to his administrative staff and the army, and had to retain the Roman administration and had to run a professional administration and tax collection system.

Salman said that 'Umar asked him, "Am I a king or a khalif?" Salman answered, "If you have taxed the lands one dirham, or more or less, and applied it to unlawful purposes, then you are a king, not a khalif." And 'Umar wept. (At-Tabari, Tarikh, p. 2754)

Many years later after Hassan signed a treaty with Mu'awiya. Muawiya came to Madina and spoke to the people, saying "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I have followed a course with you which contains fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so be pleased with what comes to you from me even if it is little. When good is continuous, even if it is little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim."

He also said in an address which he delivered to the people "O people! By Allah, it is easier to move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed their way of conduct falling short of those before me, but none after me will equal me in it."

Az-Zuhri said "Mu'awiya acted for two years (in Syria) as 'Umar had acted without altering it." Mu'awiya himself said that he had done his best to follow the behaviour of Abu Bakr and 'Uthman. But when he realised that the environment and circumstances in Syria were different from those in Madina, and that the prevailing culture and people were different, he modified his style of governance accordingly. The vast majority of the population in Syria at the time was not Muslim. The people adhered to many different religions and there were also many Christian and Jewish sects.

Muawiyah also refused to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. A week of combat culminated in a violent battle known as the laylat al-harir (the "night of clamor"). Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mushaf (thin parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army; this resulted in many of Ali's troops agreeing with Muawiyah's calling for the conflict to be resolved via arbitration, despite having had what many modern observers believe to have been the upper hand in the battle. This is supposed to be the first battle fought by Al-Abbas, the son of Ali.

Arbitration

The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, since he had earlier remained neutral. Finally, Ali was forced to accept Abu Musa.

After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles northwest of Maan in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and a new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision, which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire, the Kharijites. They felt that Abu Musa Ashaari was too neutral. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing, and in the following years some Syrians seem to have acclaimed Muawiyah as a rival caliph.

Battle of Nahrawan

Main article: Battle of Nahrawan

Kharijites (schismatics), who initially asked Ali to fight and then forced Ali to accept Abu Musa Ashari's role in the arbitration, were disgruntled when the arbitration resulted in what they believed was Abu Musa having been tricked by Amr bin Aas, as when Amr subsequently propagated from the arbitration pulpit his support for the Caliphate of Muawiya. The Kharijites (or Khwarij), having seen that the arbitration had not gone in their favour, turned rebellious toward Ali and argued against Ali's original decision to give in to their own demand for arbitration. Their rebellion turned bloody when they started killing Ali's supporters, including their reported killing of the pregnant wife of one of Ali's supporters; reportedly, they also tore the mother's womb to bring out and kill the unborn child. Not compromising on their open enmity, Ali had to fight against the Kharijites in the Battle of Nahrawan, where Ali’s army slayed all Kharijites except nine men.

According to both the Sunnis and the Shias Ali said: "With regard to me, two categories of people will be ruined, namely he who loves me too much and the love takes him away from rightfulness, and he who hates me too much and the hatred takes him away from rightfulness. The best man with regard to me is he who is on the middle course. So be with him and be with the great majority of Muslims because Allah’s hand of protection is on keeping unity. You should beware of division because the one isolated from the group is a prey to Satan just as the one isolated from the flock of sheep is a prey to the wolf. Beware! Whoever calls to this course of sectarianism, even though he may be under this headband of mine".

Precious breathing pause for Byzantium

When Ali moved his forces north against Muawiyah during the outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 656, it bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences and initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The themata would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come.

Loss of All Provinces Except Kufa

Ali was very religious, but unlike many of the other companions of Muhammad, had not been involved in the camel caravan trade and therefore had less business and administrative experience. While dealing with the Iraqis, he was unable to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions to exert control over his areas, and as a result he later spent a lot of time fighting elements of his own army in the form of the Kharijites. As a result, on the Eastern front Ali was unable to expand the state.

Muawiyah's army moved south and occupied many territories and cities, which Ali's governors could not prevent; it seems that in many cases the populations did not support Ali and/or refused to oppose Muawiyah, who went on to overpower Egypt, Yemen and other areas.

Last days of Ali

On the 19th of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated him with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661.

Caliphate of Hasan

Upon the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute.

Byzantine Empire

After the Battle of the Masts Emperor Constans II was still in shock. Had Ali not been challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman, and not confronted and depleted his forces, and had he made a peace treaty with him before the Battle of Siffin rather that after the battle and joined him to the Siege of Constantinople, it would have been a very dangerous situation for the Byzantine Empire. The Battle of Siffin gave Emperor Constans II time to shore up his defences and depleted Muawiyah forces. Additionally, the Kharijites would not have appeared and it is possible the splits between the Sunni and Shia would not have appeared.

Now with a much depleted force, after making peace with Ali, Muawiyah shifted his focus back towards Constantinople. A massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus; from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally, in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to Constantinople from land as well, beginning the First Arab Siege of the city. Constantine IV (r. 661–685), however, used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "Greek fire", invented by a Christian refugee from Syria named Kallinikos of Heliopolis, to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara, resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back. Eyup was killed in the siege; he was the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions. His tomb is in Istanbul.

References

• Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0-940368-43-9.
• Holt, P. M. (1977). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
• Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Encyclopedia

• Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1-56859-050-4. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

• Djaït, Hichem (2008-10-30). La Grande Discorde: Religion et politique dans l'Islam des origines. Editions Gallimard. ISBN 2070358666. Arabic translation by Khalil Ahmad Khalil, Beirut, 2000, Dar al-Tali'a.