User:Hintha/Sandbox

Burmese
Template:My (written Burmese) Template:My (spoken Burmese)
Pronunciation	IPA: [mjəmàzà] or IPA: [mjəmà zəɡá]
Native to	Burma
Region	Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore
Ethnicity	Bamar people
Native speakers	33 million (2007) Second language: 10 million
Language family	Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) Lolo–Burmese Burmish Southern Burmese
Early forms	Old Burmese Middle Burmese
Writing system	Burmese script
Official status
Official language in	Myanmar
Regulated by	Myanmar Language Commission
Language codes
ISO 639-1	my
ISO 639-2	bur (B) mya (T)
ISO 639-3	mya
Geographic distribution of the Bamar (yellow)

The Burmese language (Template:Lang-my; pronounced [mjəmà bàðà]; MLCTS: myanma bhasa) is the official language of Burma. Burmese is the native language of the Bamar and related sub-ethnic groups of the Bamar, as well as that of some ethnic minorities in Burma like the Mon. Burmese is spoken by 32 million as a first language and as a second language by 10 million, particularly ethnic minorities in Burma and those in neighboring countries. (Although the Constitution of Burma officially recognizes the English name of the language as the Myanmar language, most English speakers continue to refer to the language as Burmese.)

Burmese is a tonal, pitch-register, and syllable-timed language, largely monosyllabic and analytic language, with a subject–object–verb word order. It is a member of the Tibeto-Burman language family, which is a subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. The language uses the Burmese script, derived from the Old Mon script and ultimately from the Brāhmī script.

Classification

Burmese is a Sino-Tibetan language belonging to the Southern Burmish branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages. Burmese is the most widely spoken of the Tibeto-Burman languages.

Dialects

Burmese has a number of mutually intelligible dialects, with a largely uniform standard dialect used by most Burmese speakers, who live throughout the Irrawaddy River valley and more distinctive non-standard dialects that emerge as one toward peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include Palaw, Beik/Myeik (Merguese), and Dawei (Tavoyan) in Taninthayi Division, Yaw in Magway Division, Intha and Danu in Shan State, Rakhine (Arakanese) in Rakhine State and Marma in Bangladesh. Despite vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among Burmese dialects, as for the most part, they share the same four tones, consonant clusters and the Burmese script. However, several dialects differ in Burmese with respect to vocabulary, lexical particles, and rhymes.

Upper Burmese and Lower Burmese

Despite its Upper Burmese origins, the standard dialect of Burmese today comes from Yangon, because of the largest city's media influence. It used to be that the speech from Mandalay represented standard Burmese. Most differences between Yangon (Lower Burma) and Mandalay (Upper Burma) are in vocabulary usage, not in the accent or pronunciation. The most noticeable feature of the Mandalay dialect is its use of the first person pronoun Template:My (kya.nau [tɕənɔ]) for both males and females, whereas in Yangon, Template:My (kya.ma. [tɕəma̰]) is used by females. Moreover, Upper Burmese speech still differentiates maternal and paternal sides of relatives whereas Lower Burmese speech does not. Minor pronunciation differences do exist within regions of Irrawaddy valley. For example, the pronunciation [sʰʊ́ɴ] of Template:My ("food offering [to a monk]") is preferred in Lower Burma, instead of [sʰwáɴ], which is preferred in Upper Burma.

Spoken Burmese is remarkably uniform among Burmese speakers, particularly those living in the Irrawaddy River valley, who all use variants of Standard Burmese. The first major reason for the uniformity is the traditional Burmese Buddhist monastic education system, which encouraged education and uniformity in language throughout the Upper Irrawaddy valley, the traditional homeland of the Burmans. Secondly, the spread of Burmese speakers (and of Burman ethnicity) in Lower Burma is relatively recent. As late as mid-18th century, Mon was the principal language of Lower Burma. After the Burmese-speaking Konbaung dynasty's victory over the Mon-speaking Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom in 1757, the shift to Burmese language (and to Burman ethnicity) began throughout Lower Burma. By 1830, due to assimilation, the migration of Burmese speakers from north and intermarriage, it is estimated that about 90% of the population in the region identified themselves as Burman (and Burmese speakers). In the British colonial era, British incentives, particularly geared toward rice production, as well as political instability in Upper Burma accelerated this migration.

Outside the Irrawaddy basin

Main articles: Arakanese language, Tavoyan dialects, Intha dialect, and Yaw dialect

More distinctive non-standard dialects emerge as one moves farther away from the Ayeyarwady River valley toward peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include Yaw, Palaw, Beik/Myeik (Merguese), Dawei (Tavoyan), Intha, Danu, Rakhine (Arakanese) and Marma. Despite vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among most Burmese dialects.

The Rakhine dialect (Arakanese) has retained the [ɹ] sound, which has become a [j] sound in standard Burmese. Also, sound changes from standard Burmese to the Rakhine dialect include the vowel merging of Template:My ([e]) to Template:My ([i]). Hence, a word like "blood" is Template:My ([θwé]) in standard Burmese while it is Template:My ([θwí]) in Rakhine.

Dialects in Tanintharyi Division, including Myeik/Beik (Merguese) and Dawei (Tavoyan), are especially conservative in comparison to Standard Burmese. The Dawei and Intha dialects have preserved the /l/ medial, which is only found in Old Burmese inscriptions. They also often reduce the intensity of the glottal stop.

Merguese is spoken by around 250,000 people. A second, well-known, dialect called Tavoyan (Dawei) is spoken by 400,000.

History

Open Syllable Rhymes

Old Burmese	1800s	British	Modern
Template:My (i. / i)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (iy)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (y / ay)	Template:My (y / )	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (u. / u)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (uiw)	Template:My (')	Template:My (ui)	Template:My (')
Template:My (au)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (a)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (uy)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (wy / way)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')
Template:My (w / wa)	Template:My (')	Template:My (')	Template:My (')

Registers

Burmese language, literary and spoken, is called Template:My (mranma bhasa [mjəmà bàðà]), with Template:My (from Pali bhasa, "language"). The language is classified into two categories. One is formal, used in literary works, official publications, radio broadcasts, and formal speeches. The other is colloquial, used in daily conversation and spoken. This is reflected in the Burmese words for "language": Template:My (ca [sà]) refers to written, literary language, and Template:My (ca.ka: [zəɡá]) refers to spoken language. Burmese therefore can mean either Template:My mranma ca (written Burmese), or Template:My mranma ca.ka: (spoken Burmese). The Template:My (mranma) portion of these names may be pronounced [mjəmà] or, more colloquially, Template:My ([bəmà]).

Diglossia

Diglossia occurs to a large extent in Burmese and is fairly noticeable in writing and speech. The written/literary form of Burmese has undergone only a few changes and tends not to accommodate the spoken/colloquial phonology of standard Burmese today. The Burmese saying "the pronunciation is merely the sound, whilst the orthography is correct" (Template:My [jé dɔ̰ ʔəm̥àɴ pʰaʔ tɔ̰ ʔəθàɴ]) reflects the differences between spoken and written Burmese, as spelling is often not an accurate reflection of pronunciation.

In addition, different particles (to modify nouns and verbs) are used in the literary form from those used in the spoken form. Literate Burmese speakers are able to intuitively interpret ancient Burmese despite the potentially ancient nature of the inscriptions. For example, the postposition after nouns is Template:My (hnai. [n̥aɪʔ] in formal Burmese, and Template:My (hma [m̥à]) in colloquial Burmese.

A newer system of orthography for Burmese (one based on phonology) has been proposed to accommodate such differences, but an obstacle in reforming Burmese orthography lies in the existence of conservative Burmese dialects that retain older pronunciations more similar to formal Burmese, which primarily come from coastal areas like Rakhine State. Moreover, some Burmese linguists such as Minn Latt, a Czech academic, have proposed shifting away from formal Burmese, as seen in television broadcasts, which use the colloquial form. However, formal Burmese remains well-established in Burmese society.

In the mid-1960s some Burmese writers, who believed that laymen's language ought to be used, started a reform movement to abandon the formal style in writing, which had maintained its position as the preferred form of Burmese writing, since many claimed that "the spoken style lacks gravity, authority, dignity". Although the formal written style is still used in Burmese literature, radio news broadcasts, formal letters, novels, journalism and scholarly works, the reading comprehension rate may be substantially lower than the literacy rate, especially among younger readers and common people without higher education. In recent years, there has been an increasing trend to use a simpler, more colloquial language in many contexts, and modern commercial publications often use the spoken style or a mix of both spoken style and a simpler formal style, depending on the subject and target audience. Likewise, many popular sermons of prominent contemporary Buddhist monks are widely published and printed in the spoken or colloquial style of Burmese.

A sample sentence below reveals that much of the differences between formal and colloquial Burmese occurs in grammatical particles and lexical items:

Formal (Written)	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My	Template:My
Colloquial (Spoken)			Template:My		Template:My		Template:My	Template:My		-	Template:My
Gloss	noun	verb	part.	noun	part.	adj.	part.	verb	part.	part.	part.
	(The Four Eight Uprising)	(happen)	(when it occurred)	(people)	(counter word)	(three thousand)	(approx.)	(die)	(past tense)	(plural marker)	(sentence final)
Translation	When the 8888 Uprising occurred, approximately three thousand people died.

Colloquial Burmese has various politeness levels that take status and age of the speaker in relation to the audience into consideration. For instance, the first and second person pronouns Template:My (nga [ŋà]; "I; me") and Template:My (nang [nɪ̀ɴ]; "you") are used with only close people of the same or younger age. The use of these two pronouns with the elders and strangers is considered extremely rude or vulgar. To address elders, teachers and strangers, polite speech employs feudal-era third person pronouns in lieu of first and second person pronouns.

Furthermore, some vocabulary are reserved for Buddhist monks, such as "to sleep", which is Template:My (kyin: [tɕéɪɴ]) for monks and Template:My (ip' [eɪʔ]) for laypersons and "to die", which is Template:My (pyam tau mu [pjàɴ dɔ̀ mù]) for monks and Template:My (se [θè]) for laypersons.

Despite the large differences, Burmese speakers rarely distinguish formal and colloquial Burmese as separate languages, but rather as two registers of the same language.

Vocabulary

The majority of Burmese vocabulary is monosyllabic and is of Tibeto-Burman stock, although many words, especially those loaned from other languages, are polysyllabic. Burmese has been influenced greatly by Pali, English, and Mon, and to a lesser extent, by Chinese, Sanskrit and Hindi.

• Pali loan words are often related to religion, government, arts, and science.
• English loan words are often related to technology, measurements and modern institutions.
• Mon has heavily influenced Burmese. Many Mon loan words have become so well incorporated in the Burmese language that they are not distinguished as loan words. Mon loans are often related to flora, fauna, administration, textiles, foods, boats, crafts, architecture, and music.
• Sanskrit (religion), Chinese (games and food), and Hindi (food, administration, and shipping) loan words are also found (albeit to a much lesser degree) in Burmese.
• Various other languages have also contributed vocabulary

Here is a sample of loan words found in Burmese:

• suffering: Template:My ([doʊʔkʰa̰]), from Pāli dukkha
• radio: Template:My ([ɹèdìjò]), from English "radio"
• method: Template:My ([sənɪʔ]), from Mon
• eggroll: Template:My ([kɔ̀pja̰ɴ]), from Hokkien 潤餅 (jūn-piáⁿ)
• wife: Template:My ([zəní]), from Hindi jani
• noodle: Template:My ([kʰaʊʔ sʰwɛ́]), from Shan Template:My ([kʰāu sʰɔi])
• foot (unit of measurement): Template:My ([pè]), from Portuguese pé
• flag: Template:My ([əlàɴ]), from Arabic علم ʕalam
• storeroom: ([ɡòdàʊɴ]), from Malay gudang

Some words in Burmese may have many synonyms, each having certain usages, such as formal, literary, colloquial, and poetic. One example is the word "moon", which can be Template:My (la̰; Tibeto-Burman), Template:My ([sàɴdà]/[sáɴ]); Pali derivatives of chanda), or Template:My ([θɔ̀ dà] (Sanskrit).

Burmese also has a tendency to 'double-loan' from Pali, where it adopts two different terms based on the same Pali root. An example is the Pali word mana, which has two derivatives in Burmese: Template:My ([màna̰] "arrogance") and Template:My ([màɴ] "pride").

Furthermore, Burmese loan words, especially from Pali, combine native Burmese words to Pali roots. An example is "airplane" Template:My ([lè jɪ̀ɴ bjàɴ], lit. "air machine fly"), made up of Template:My (native Burmese word, "air"), Template:My (Pali loan from yana, "vehicle") and Template:My (native Burmese word, "fly"). A similar trend is seen in English, where native Burmese words are attached to English loans, such as the verb "to sign" Template:My ([sʰáɪɴ tʰó], lit. "sign inscribe"), with Template:My (English loan "sign") and Template:My (native Burmese word, "inscribe"). In the case of Mon loans, they are indistinguishable in most cases because they were more often borrowed from speech rather than writing, since Burmese and Mon were used interchangeably for several centuries in modern-day Burma.

At times, the Burmese government has attempted to limit usage of Western loans, especially from English. For example, in Burma, publications containing the word Template:My (directly transliterated from English "television") must be replaced with a Burmese substitute Template:My, literally "see picture, hear sound." Another example is the Burmese word for vehicle, which is officially Template:My ([jɪ̀ɴ] Pali derivative, "vehicle") but Template:My ([ká] English loan, "car") in spoken Burmese. Some common English word loans have fallen out of usage, like Template:My ([jùnìbàsətì]), which has been replaced with a recent Pali loan Template:My ([teʔkəðò]), created by the Burmese government and derived from Template:My (takkasila) the Pali spelling of Taxila, an ancient university town in modern-day Pakistan.

Phonology

The transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Consonants

The consonants of Burmese are as follows:

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar and palatal	Velar and labiovelar	Glottal	Placeless
Plosive and affricate	pʰ p b	tʰ t d		tɕʰ tɕ dʑ	kʰ k ɡ	ʔ
Nasal	m̥ m	n̥ n		ɲ̥ ɲ	ŋ̊ ŋ		ɴ
Fricative		θ (ð)	sʰ s z	ʃ		h
Approximant		(ɹ)		j	(w̥) w
Lateral		l̥ l

The approximant /ɹ/ is rare, and is only used in place names that have preserved Sanskrit or Pali pronunciations (e.g. Amarapura, which is pronounced [àməɹa̰pùɹa̰]) and in English-derived words. Historically, /ɹ/ became /j/ in Burmese, and is usually replaced by /j/ in Pāli loanwords, e.g. Template:My (ra.hanta) /jəhàɴdà/ "monk", Template:My (raja.) /jàza̰/ "king". Occasionally it is replaced with /l/, as in the case of the Pali-derived word for "animal" Template:My (ti.rac hcan), which can be pronounced [təɹeɪʔ sʰàɴ] or [təleɪʔ sʰàɴ]. Likewise, /w̥/ is rare, having disappeared from modern Burmese, except in transcriptions of foreign names and a handful of native words. [ð] is also uncommon, except as a voiced allophone of /θ/.

Furthermore, there is a voicing rule found in Burmese. When two syllables are joined to form a compound word, the initial consonant of the second syllable becomes voiced. This shift occurs in the following phones:

• /kʰ, k/ → /ɡ/
• /tɕʰ, tɕ/ → /dʑ/
• /sʰ, s/ → /z/
• /tʰ, t/ → /d/
• /pʰ, p/ → /b/

The phoneme /dʑ/, when following the nasalized final /ɴ/, can become a /j/ sound in compound words. For example, "blouse" (Template:My angkyi) can be pronounced /èɪɴdʑí/ or /èɪɴjí/.

The phonemes /p, pʰ, b, t, tʰ, d/, when following the nasalized final /ɴ/, can become /m/ in compound words. Examples include Template:My ("to consult" [tàɪɴ pɪ̀ɴ], commonly pronounced [tàɪɴ mɪ̀ɴ]), Template:My ("to apologize" [táʊɴ bàɴ], commonly pronounced [táʊɴ màɴ]), Template:My ("airplane" [lèi jɪ̀ɴ pjàɴ], commonly pronounced [lèɪɴ mjàɴ]).

The placeless nasal /ɴ/ is realized as nasalization of the preceding vowel or as a nasal homorganic to the following consonant; thus /mòʊɴdáɪɴ/ "storm" is pronounced [mõ̀ũndã́ĩ].

In many Burmese words, aspirated consonants indicate active voice or a transitive verb, while unaspirated consonants indicate passive voice or an intransitive verb. Examples include the verb "cook", where the aspirated version Template:My ([tɕʰɛʔ]) means "cook", while the unaspirated Template:My([tɕɛʔ]) means "to be cooked". Another example is "lessen", where the aspirated version Template:My ([pʰjè]) means "lessen" (transitive) while the unaspirated version Template:My ([pjè]) means "lessen" (intransitive).

Vowels

The vowels of Burmese are:

	Monophthongs		Diphthongs
	Front	Back	Front offglide	Back offglide
Close	i	u
Close-mid	e	o	ei	ou
Mid	ə
Open-mid	ɛ	ɔ
Open		a	ai	au

The monophthongs /e/, /o/, /ə/, and /ɔ/ occur only in open syllables (those without a syllable coda); the diphthongs /ei/, /ou/, /ai/, and /au/ occur only in closed syllables (those with a syllable coda). /ə/ only occurs in a minor syllable, and is the only vowel that is permitted in a minor syllable (see below).

The close vowels /i/ and /u/ and the close portions of the diphthongs are slightly centered to [ɪ] and [ʊ] in closed syllables, i.e. before /ɴ/ and /ʔ/. Thus နှစ် /n̥iʔ/ "two" is phonetically [n̥ɪʔ] and ကြောင် /tɕàuɴ/ "cat" is phonetically [tɕàʊɴ].

Tones

Burmese is a tonal language, which means phonemic contrasts can be made on the basis of the tone of a vowel. In Burmese, these contrasts involve not only pitch, but also phonation, intensity (loudness), duration, and vowel quality. However, some linguists consider Burmese a pitch-register language like Shanghainese.

There are four contrastive tones in Burmese. In the following table the tones are shown marked on the vowel /a/ as an example; the phonetic descriptions are from Wheatley (1987).

Tone	Burmese	Symbol (shown on a)	Description
Low	Template:My	à	Normal phonation, medium duration, low intensity, low (often slightly rising) pitch
High	Template:My	á	Sometimes slightly breathy, relatively long, high intensity, high pitch; often with a fall before a pause
Creaky	Template:My	a̰	tense or creaky phonation (sometimes with lax glottal stop), medium duration, high intensity, high (often slightly falling) pitch
Checked	Template:My	aʔ	Centralized vowel quality, final glottal stop, short duration, high pitch (in citation; can vary in context)

For example, the following words are distinguished from each other only on the basis of tone:

• Low /kʰà/ "shake"
• High /kʰá/ "be bitter"
• Creaky /kʰa̰/ "fee"
• Checked /kʰaʔ/ "draw off"

In syllables ending with /ɴ/, the checked tone is excluded:

• Low /kʰàɴ/ "undergo"
• High /kʰáɴ/ "dry up"
• Creaky /kʰa̰ɴ/ "appoint"

In present-day spoken Burmese, some linguists classify two real tones (there are four nominal tones transcribed in written Burmese), "high" (applied to words that terminate with a stop or check, high-rising pitch) and "ordinary" (unchecked and non-glottal words, with falling or lower pitch), with those tones encompassing a variety of pitches. The "ordinary" tone consists of a range of pitches. Linguist L. F. Taylor has concluded that "conversational rhythm and euphonic intonation possess importance" not found in related tonal languages and that "its tonal system is now in an advanced state of decay."

Syllable structure

The syllable structure of Burmese is C(G)V((V)C), which is to say the onset consists of a consonant optionally followed by a glide, and the rime consists of a monophthong alone, a monophthong with a consonant, or a diphthong with a consonant. The only consonants that can stand in the coda are /ʔ/ and /ɴ/. Some representative words are:

• CV /mè/ 'girl'
• CVC /mɛʔ/ 'crave'
• CGV /mjè/ 'earth'
• CGVC /mjɛʔ/ 'eye'
• CVVC /màʊɴ/ (term of address for young men)
• CGVVC /mjáʊɴ/ 'ditch'

A minor syllable has some restrictions:

• It contains /ə/ as its only vowel
• It must be an open syllable (no coda consonant)
• It cannot bear tone
• It has only a simple (C) onset (no glide after the consonant)
• It must not be the final syllable of the word

Some examples of words containing minor syllables:

• /kʰə.loʊʔ/ 'knob'
• /pə.lwè/ 'flute'
• /θə.jɔ̀/ 'mock'
• /kə.lɛʔ/ 'be wanton'
• /tʰə.mə.jè/ 'rice-water'

Writing system

Main article: Burmese alphabet

Sampling of various Burmese script styles

The Burmese alphabet consists of 33 letters and 12 vowels, and is written from left to right. It requires no spaces between words, although modern writing usually contains spaces after each clause to enhance readability. Characterized by its circular letters and diacritics, the script is an abugida, with all letters having an inherent vowel Template:My (a. [a̰] or [ə]). The consonants are arranged into six consonant groups (called Template:My) based on articulation, like other Brahmi scripts. Tone markings and vowel modifications are written as diacritics placed to the left, right, top, and bottom of letters.

The development of the script followed that of the language, which is generally divided into Old Burmese, Middle Burmese and modern Burmese. Old Burmese dates from the 11th to the 16th century (Pagan and Ava dynasties); Middle Burmese from the 16th to the 18th century (Toungoo to early Konbaung dynasties); modern Burmese from the mid-18th century to the present. Orthographic changes followed shifts in phonology (such as the merging of the [-l-] and [-ɹ-] medials) rather than transformations in Burmese grammatical structure and phonology, which has not changed much from Old Burmese to modern Burmese. For example, during the Pagan era, the medial [-l-] (Template:My) was transcribed in writing, which has been replaced by medials [-j-] (Template:My) and [-ɹ-] (Template:My) in modern Burmese (e.g. "school" in old Burmese Template:My ([klɔŋ] → Template:My ([tɕáʊɴ] in modern Burmese). Likewise written Burmese has preserved all nasalized finals ([-n, -m, -ŋ]), which have merged to [-ɴ] in spoken Burmese. (The exception is [-ɲ], which, in spoken Burmese, can be one of many open vowels ([i, e, ɛ]). Likewise, other consonantal finals ([-s, -p, -t, -k]) have been reduced to [-ʔ]. Similar mergers are seen in other Sino-Tibetan languages like Shanghainese, and to a lesser extent, Cantonese.)

Written Burmese dates to the early Pagan period. The script was developed from either the Mon script in 1058 or the Pyu script in the 10th century. (Both Mon and Pyu scripts are derivatives of the Brāhmī script.) Burmese orthography originally followed a square format but the cursive format took hold from the 17th century when popular writing led to the wider use of palm leaves and folded paper known as parabaiks (Template:My). Much of the orthography in written Burmese today can be traced back to Middle Burmese. Standardized tone marking was not achieved until the 18th century. From the 19th century onward, orthographers created spellers to reform Burmese spelling, because ambiguities arose over spelling sounds that had been merged. During colonial rule under the British, Burmese spelling was standardized through dictionaries and spellers. The latest spelling authority, named the Myanma Salonpaung Thatpon Kyan (Template:My), was compiled in 1978 at the request of the Burmese government.

Grammar

The basic word order of the Burmese language is subject-object-verb. Pronouns in Burmese vary according to the gender and status of the audience. Burmese is monosyllabic (i.e., every word is a root to which a particle but not another word may be prefixed). Sentence structure determines syntactical relations and verbs are not conjugated. Instead they have particles suffixed to them. For example, the verb "to eat," Template:My (ca: [sà]) is itself unchanged when modified.

Adjectives

Burmese does not have adjectives per se. Rather, it has verbs that carry the meaning "to be X", where X is an English adjective. These verbs can modify a noun by means of the grammatical particle Template:My (tai. [dɛ̰]) in colloquial Burmese (literary form: Template:My sau: [θɔ́]), which is suffixed as follows:

Colloquial: Template:My hkyau: tai. lu [tɕʰɔ́ dɛ̰ lù]

Formal: Template:My hkyau: so: lu

Gloss: "beautiful" + adjective particle + "person"

Adjectives may also form a compound with the noun (e.g. Template:My lu hkyau: [lù tɕʰɔ́] "person" + "be beautiful").

Comparatives are usually ordered: X + Template:My (htak pui [tʰeʔ pò]) + adjective, where X is the object being compared to. Superlatives are indicated with the prefix Template:My (a. [ʔə]) + adjective + Template:My (hcum: [zóʊɴ]).

Numerals follow the nouns they modify. Moreover, numerals follow several pronunciation rules that involve tone changes (low tone → creaky tone) and voicing shifts depending on the pronunciation of surrounding words. A more thorough explanation is found on Burmese numerals.

Verbs

The roots of Burmese verbs are almost always suffixed with at least one particle which conveys such information as tense, intention, politeness, mood, etc. Many of these particles also have formal/literary and colloquial equivalents. In fact, the only time in which no particle is attached to a verb is in imperative commands. However, Burmese verbs are not conjugated in the same way as most European languages; the root of the Burmese verb always remains unchanged and does not have to agree with the subject in person, number or gender.

The most commonly used verb particles and their usage are shown below with an example verb root Template:My (ca: [sá] "to eat"). Alone, the statement Template:My is imperative.

The suffix Template:My tai [dɛ̀] (literary form: Template:My sany [ðì]) can be viewed as a particle marking the present tense and/or a factual statement:

Template:My (ca: tai [sá dɛ̀]) - "I eat"

The suffix Template:My (hkai. [ɡɛ̰]) denotes that the action took place in the past. However, this particle is not always necessary to indicate the past tense such that it can convey the same information without it. But to emphasize that the action happened before another event that is also currently being discussed, the particle becomes imperative. Note that the suffix Template:My (tai [dɛ̀]) in this case denotes a factual statement rather than the present tense:

Template:My (ca: hkai. tai [sá ɡɛ̰ dɛ̀]) - I ate

The particle Template:My (ne [nè]) is used to denote an action in progression. It is equivalent to the English '-ing'"

Template:My (ca: ne tai [sá nè dɛ̀]) - I am eating

This particle Template:My (pri [bjì]), which is used when an action that had been expected to be performed by the subject is now finally being performed, has no equivalent in English. So in the above example, if someone had been expecting you to eat and you have finally started eating, the particle Template:My is used as follows:

Template:My ((ca.) ca: pri [(sə) sá bjì]) - I am (now) eating

The particle Template:My mai [mɛ̀] (literary form: Template:My many [mjì]) is used to indicate the future tense or an action which is yet to be performed:

Template:My (ca: mai [sá mɛ̀]) - I will eat

The particle Template:My (tau. [dɔ̰]) is used when the action is about to be performed immediately when used in conjunction with Template:My. Therefore it could be termed as the "immediate future tense particle".

Template:My (ca: tau. mai [sá dɔ̰ mɛ̀]) - I will eat (straight-away)

When Template:My is used alone, however, it is imperative:

Template:My (ca: tau. [sá dɔ̰]) - Eat (now)

Verbs are negated by the particle Template:My (ma. [mə]), which is prefixed to the verb. Generally speaking, other particles are suffixed to that verb, along with Template:My.

The verb suffix particle Template:My nai. [nɛ̰] (literary form: Template:My hnang. [n̥ɪ̰ɴ]) indicates a command:

Template:My (ma.ca: nai. [məsá nɛ̰] Don't eat

The verb suffix particle Template:My (bhu: [bú]) indicates a statement:

Template:My (ma.ca: bhu: [məsá bú]) - [I] don't eat

Nouns

Nouns in Burmese are pluralized by suffixing the particle Template:My (twe [dè] or [tè] if the word ends in a glottal stop) in colloquial Burmese or Template:My (mya: [mjà]) in formal Burmese. The particle Template:My (tou. [to̰]), which indicates a group of persons or things, is also suffixed to the modified noun. An example is below:

• Template:My (mrac [mjɪʔ]) - river
• Template:My (mrac twe [mjɪʔ tè]) - rivers (colloquial)
• Template:My (mrac mya: [mjɪʔ mjá]) - rivers (formal)
• Template:My (mrac tou: [mjɪʔ to̰]) - rivers

Plural suffixes are not used when the noun is quantified with a number.

"five children"

Template:My	Template:My	Template:My
hka.le:	nga:	yauk
/kʰəlé	ŋá	jaʊʔ/
child	five	classifier

Although Burmese does not have grammatical gender (e.g. masculine or feminine nouns), a distinction is made between the sexes, especially in animals and plants, by means of suffix particles. Nouns are masculinized with the following particles: Template:My (hti: [tʰí]), Template:My (hpa [pʰa̰]), or Template:My (hpui [pʰò]), depending on the noun, and feminized with the particle Template:My (ma. [ma̰]). Examples of usage are below:

• Template:My (kraung hti: [tɕàʊɴ tʰí]) - male cat
• Template:My (kraung ma. [tɕàʊɴ ma̰]) - female cat
• Template:My (krak hpa. [tɕɛʔ pʰa̰]) - rooster/cock
• Template:My (htan: hpui [tʰáɴ pʰò]) - male toddy palm plant

Numerical classifiers

Main article: Burmese numerical classifiers

Like its neighboring languages such as Thai, Bengali, and Chinese, Burmese uses numerical classifiers (also called measure words) when nouns are counted or quantified. This approximately equates to English expressions such as "two slices of bread" or "a cup of coffee". Classifiers are required when counting nouns, so Template:My (hka.le: nga: [kʰəlé ŋà], lit. "child five") is ungrammatical, because the measure word for people Template:My (yauk [jaʊʔ]) needs to suffix the numeral.

The standard word order of quantified words is: quantified noun + numeral adjective + classifier, except in round numbers (numbers that end in zero), in which the word order is flipped, where the quantified noun precedes the classifier: quantified noun + classifier + numeral adjective. The only exception to this rule is the number 10, which follows the standard word order.

Measurements of time, such as "hour," (Template:My) "day," (Template:My) or "month," (Template:My) do not require classifiers.

Below are some of the most commonly used classifiers in Burmese.

Burmese	MLC	IPA	Usage	Remarks
Template:My	yauk	[jaʊʔ]	for people	Used in informal context
Template:My	u:	[ʔú]	for people	Used in formal context and also used for monks and nuns
Template:My	pa:	[bá]	for people	Used exclusively for monks and nuns of the Buddhist order
Template:My	kaung	[kàʊɴ]	for animals
Template:My	hku.	[kʰṵ]	general classifier	Used with almost all nouns except for animate objects
Template:My	lum:	[lóʊɴ]	for round objects
Template:My	pra:	[pjá]	for flat objects
Template:My	cu.	[sṵ]	for groups	Can be [zṵ].

Particles

The Burmese language makes prominent usage of particles (called Template:My in Burmese), which are untranslatable words that are suffixed or prefixed to words to indicate level of respect, grammatical tense, or mood. According to the Myanmar–English Dictionary (1993), there are 449 particles in the Burmese language. For example, Template:My ([sáɴ]) is a grammatical particle used to indicate the imperative mood. While Template:My ("work" + particle indicating politeness) does not indicate the imperative, Template:My ("work" + particle indicating imperative mood + particle indicating politeness) does. Particles may be combined in some cases, especially those modifying verbs.

Some particles modify the word's part of speech. Among the most prominent of these is the particle Template:My ([ə]), which is prefixed to verbs and adjectives to form nouns or adverbs. For instance, the word Template:My means "to enter," but combined with Template:My, it means "entrance" (Template:My). Also, in colloquial Burmese, there is a tendency to omit the second Template:My in words that follow the pattern Template:My + noun/adverb + Template:My + noun/adverb, like Template:My, which is pronounced [əsʰaʊʔ ú] and formally pronounced [əsʰaʊʔ əòʊɴ].

Pronouns

Subject pronouns begin sentences, though the subject is generally omitted in the imperative forms and in conversation. Grammatically speaking, subject marker particles (Template:My ([ɡa̰] in colloquial, Template:My [θì] in formal) must be attached to the subject pronoun, although they are also generally omitted in conversation. Object pronouns must have an object marker particle (Template:My [ɡò] in colloquial, Template:My [á] in formal) attached immediately after the pronoun. Proper nouns are often substituted for pronouns. One's status in relation to the audience determines the pronouns used, with certain pronouns used for different audiences.

Polite pronouns are used to address elders, teachers and strangers, through the use of feudal-era third person pronouns in lieu of first and second person pronouns. In such situations, one refers to oneself in third person: Template:My (kya. nau [tɕənɔ̀]) for males, and Template:My (kya. ma. [tɕəma̰]) for females, both meaning "your servant") and refer to the addressee as Template:My (min [mɪ́ɴ]; "your highness"), Template:My (khang bya: [kʰəmjá]; "master lord") or Template:My (hrang [ʃɪ̀ɴ]; "ruler/master"). So ingrained are these terms in the daily polite speech that people use them as the first and second person pronouns without giving a second thought to the root meaning of these pronouns.

When speaking to a person of the same status or of younger age, Template:My (nga [ŋà]; "I/me") and Template:My (nang [nɪ̀ɴ]; "you") may be used, although most speakers choose to use third person pronouns. For example, an older person may use Template:My (dau le: [dɔ̀ lé]; "aunt") or Template:My (u: lei: [ʔú lé]; "uncle") to refer to himself, while a younger person may use either သား (sa: [θá]; son) or Template:My (sa.mi: [θəmí]; daughter).

The basic pronouns are:

Person	Singular		Plural*
	Informal	Formal	Informal	Formal
First person	Template:My nga ([ŋà])	Template:My‡ kywan to ([tɕənɔ̀]) Template:My† kywan ma. ([tɕəma̰])	Template:My nga tui. ([ŋà do̰])	Template:My‡ kywan to tui. ([tɕənɔ̀ do̰]) Template:My† kywan ma. tui. ([tɕəma̰ do̰])
Second person	Template:My nang ([nɪ̀ɴ]) Template:My mang: ([mɪ́ɴ])	Template:My‡ khang bya: ([kʰəmjá]) Template:My† hrang ([ʃɪ̀ɴ])	Template:My nang tui. ([nɪ̀ɴ do̰])	Template:My‡ khang bya: tui. ([kʰəmjá]) Template:My† hrang tui. ([ʃɪ̀ɴ])
Third person	Template:My su ([θù])	Template:My (a.) sang ([(ə)θìɴ])	Template:My su tui. ([θù do̰])	Template:My sang tui. ([θìɴ])

* The basic particle to indicate plurality is တို့ (tui.), colloquial ဒို့ (dui.).

^‡ Used by males.

^† Used by females.

Other pronouns are reserved for speaking with Buddhist monks. When speaking to a monk, pronouns like Template:My bhun: bhun: (from Template:My phun: kri:, "monk"), Template:My (chara dau [sʰəjàdɔ̀]; "royal teacher"), and Template:My (a.hrang bhu.ra:; [ʔəʃɪ̀ɴ pʰəjá]; "your lordship") are used depending on their status (Template:My); when referring to oneself, terms like Template:My (ta. pany. tau ; "royal disciple") or Template:My (da. ka [dəɡà], "donor") are used. When speaking to a monk, the following pronouns are used:

Person	Singular
	Informal	Formal
First person	Template:My† ta.pany. do	Template:My† da. ka [dəɡà]
Second person	Template:My bhun: bhun: ([pʰóʊɴ pʰóʊɴ]) Template:My (u:) pasang: ([(ú) bəzín])	Template:My a.hrang bhu.ra: ([ʔəʃɪ̀ɴ pʰəjá]) Template:My‡ chara dau ([sʰəjàdɔ̀])

^† The particle ma. (Template:My) is suffixed for females.

^‡ Typically reserved for the chief monk of a monastery.

In colloquial Burmese, possessive pronouns are contracted when the root pronoun itself is low toned. This does not occur in literary Burmese, which uses ၏ ([ḭ]) as postpositional marker for possessive case instead of Template:My ([jɛ̰]). Examples include the following:

• Template:My ([ŋà] "I") + Template:My (postpositional marker for possessive case) = Template:My ([ŋa̰] "my")
• Template:My ([nɪ̀ɴ] "you") + Template:My (postpositional marker for possessive case) = Template:My ([nɪ̰ɴ] "your")
• Template:My ([θù] "he, she") + Template:My (postpositional marker for possessive case) = Template:My ([θṵ] "his, her")

The contraction also occurs in some low toned nouns, making them possessive nouns (e.g. Template:My or Template:My, "mother's" and "Burma's" respectively).

Family terms

Main article: Burmese kinship

The most obvious difference between Upper Burmese and Lower Burmese is that Upper Burmese speech still differentiates maternal and paternal sides of a family:

Term	Upper Burmese	Lower Burmese	Myeik dialect
Paternal aunt (older) Paternal aunt (younger)	Template:My ([ʔəjí dʑí]) (or [jí dʑí]) Template:My ([ʔəjí lé]) (or [jí lé])	Template:My ([dɔ̀ dʑí]) (or [tɕí tɕí]) Template:My ([dɔ̀ lé])	Template:My ([mḭ dʑí]) Template:My ([mḭ ŋɛ̀])
Maternal aunt (older) Maternal aunt (younger)	Template:My ([dɔ̀ dʑí]) (or [tɕí tɕí]) Template:My ([dɔ̀ lé])
Paternal uncle (older) Paternal uncle (younger)	Template:My ([ba̰ dʑí]) Template:My ([ba̰ lé])1	Template:My ([ba̰ dʑí]) Template:My ([ʔú lé])	Template:My ([pʰa̰ dʑí]) Template:My ([pʰa̰ ŋɛ̀])
Maternal uncle (older) Maternal uncle (younger)	Template:My ([ʔú dʑí]) Template:My ([ʔú lé])

¹ The youngest (paternal or maternal) aunt may be called Template:My [dwé lé], and the youngest paternal uncle Template:My [ba̰ dwé].

In a testament to the power of media, the Yangon-based speech is gaining currency even in Upper Burma. Upper Burmese-specific usage, while historically and technically accurate, is increasingly viewed as countrified speech, or at best regional speech. In fact, some usages are already considered strictly regional Upper Burmese speech, and are likely dying out. For example:

Term	Upper Burmese	Standard Burmese
Elder brother (to a male) Elder brother (to a female)	Template:My ([nàʊɴ]) Template:My ([kò])	Template:My ([kò])
Younger brother (to a male) Younger brother (to a female)	Template:My ([ɲì]) Template:My ([màʊɴ])
Elder sister (to a male) Elder sister (to a female)	Template:My ([ma̰])
Younger sister (to a male) Younger sister (to a female)	Template:My ([ɲəma̰]) Template:My ([ɲì ma̰])	Template:My ([ɲì ma̰])

In general, the male-centric names of old Burmese for familial terms have been replaced in standard Burmese with formerly female-centric terms, which are now used by both sexes. One holdover is the use of Template:My (younger brother to a male) and Template:My (younger brother to a female). Terms like Template:My (elder brother to a male) and Template:My (younger sister to a male) now are used in standard Burmese only as part of compound words like Template:My (brothers) or Template:My (brother and sister).

Reduplication

Reduplication is prevalent in Burmese and is used to intensify or weaken adjectives' meanings. For example, Template:My ([tɕʰɔ́] "beautiful") is reduplicated, the intensity of the adjective's meaning increases. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives with two syllables, such as Template:My ([l̥a̰pa̰] "beautiful"), when reduplicated (Template:My → Template:My [l̥a̰l̥a̰ pa̰pa̰]) become adverbs. This is also true of some Burmese verbs and nouns (e.g. Template:My "a moment" → Template:My "frequently"), which become adverbs when reduplicated.

Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, Template:My ([pjì] "country"), but when reduplicated to Template:My ([əpjì pjì] "country"), means "many countries," as in Template:My ([əpjì pjì sʰàɪɴ jà] "international"). Another example is Template:My, which means "a kind," but the reduplicated form Template:My means "multiple kinds."

A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other":

• Template:My (measure word for people) → Template:My (someone)
• Template:My (measure word for things) → Template:My (something)

Romanization and transcription

Main article: Romanization of Burmese

There is no official romanization system for Burmese. There have been attempts to make one, but none have been successful. Replicating Burmese sounds in the Latin script is complicated. There is a Pāli-based transcription system in existence, MLC Transcription System, which was devised by the Myanmar Language Commission (MLC). However, it only transcribes sounds in formal Burmese and is based on the orthography rather than the phonology.

Several colloquial transcription systems have been proposed, but none is overwhelmingly preferred over others.

Transcription of Burmese is not standardized, as seen in the varying English transcriptions of Burmese names. For instance, a Burmese personal name like Template:My ([wɪ́ɴ]) may be variously romanized as Win, Winn, Wyn, or Wynn, while Template:My ([kʰàɪɴ]) may be romanized as Khaing, Khine, or Khain.

Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout

The Burmese script can be entered from the standard QWERTY keyboard. The most popular Burmese font, Zawgyi, is not Unicode-compliant, though a number of Unicode-compliant fonts are available. Microsoft Windows 8 supports Burmese Unicode and supplies a font, Myanmar Text, that is Unicode-compliant.

References

• Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005). The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824828868. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bala, Aung (1981). "Contemporary Burmese literature". Contributions to Asian Studies. 16. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Barron, Sandy; Okell, John; Yin, Saw Myat; VanBik, Kenneth; Swain, Arthur; Larkin, Emma; Allott, Anna J.; Ewers, Kirsten (2007). Refugees from Burma: Their Backgrounds and Refugee Experiences (PDF) (Report). Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved 2010-08-20. {{cite report}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Benedict, Paul K. (1948). "Tonal Systems in Southeast Asia". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 68 (4). American Oriental Society. doi:10.2307/595942. JSTOR 595942. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Bradley, David (Spring 1993). "Pronouns in Burmese–Lolo" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman area. 16 (1). Melbourne: La Trobe University. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bradley, David (May 2011). "Changes in Burmese Phonology and Orthography". SEALS Conference. Kasetsart University. Retrieved 19 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bradley, David (2012). "The Characteristics of the Burmic Family of Tibeto-Burman". Language and Linguistics. 13 (1): 171–192. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chang, Charles Bond (2003). “High-Interest Loans”: The Phonology of English Loanword Adaptation in Burmese (B.A. thesis). Harvard University. Retrieved 2011-05-24. {{cite thesis}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chang, Charles B. (2009). "English loanword adaptation in Burmese" (PDF). Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 1: 77–94. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Herbert, Patricia M.; Milner, Anthony (1989). South-East Asia Languages and Literatures: A Select Guide. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1267-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hill, Nathan W. (2012). "Evolution of the Burmese Vowel System" (PDF). Transactions of the Philological Society. 110 (1): 64–79.
• Jones, Robert (1986). McCoy, John; Light, Timothy (eds.). Pitch register languages. E. J. Brill. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Khin Min, Maung (1987). "Old Usage Styles of Myanmar Script". Myanmar Unicode & NLP Research Center. Retrieved 2008-07-29. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Myanmar–English Dictionary. Myanmar Language Commission. 1993. ISBN 1-881265-47-1. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Taw, Sein Ko (1924). Elementary Handbook of the Burmese Language. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Taylor, L. F. (1920). "On the tones of certain languages of Burma". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 1 (4). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00101685. JSTOR 607065. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Wheatley, Julian; Tun, San San Hnin (1999). "Languages in contact: The case of English and Burmese". The Journal of Burma Studies. 4. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Zaw, Aung (September 2010). "Tell the World the Truth". The Irrawaddy. 18 (9). Chiang Mai. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• Becker, Alton L. (1984). "Biography of a sentence: A Burmese proverb". In E. M. Bruner (ed.) (ed.). Text, play, and story: The construction and reconstruction of self and society. Washington, D.C.: American Ethnological Society. pp. 135–55. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
• Bernot, Denise (1980). Le prédicat en birman parlé (in French). Paris: SELAF. ISBN 2-85297-072-4.
• Cornyn, William Stewart (1944). Outline of Burmese grammar. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
• Cornyn, William Stewart (1968). Beginning Burmese. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Green, Antony D. (2005). "Word, foot, and syllable structure in Burmese". In J. Watkins (ed.) (ed.). Studies in Burmese linguistics. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 1–25. ISBN 0-85883-559-2. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
• Okell, John (1969). A reference grammar of colloquial Burmese. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-7007-1136-8.
• Roop, D. Haigh (1972). An introduction to the Burmese writing system. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01528-3.
• Taw Sein Ko (1924). Elementary handbook of the Burmese language. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press.
• Watkins, Justin W. (2001). "Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 31 (2): 291–95. doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122.
• Wheatley, Julian K. (1987). "Burmese". In B. Comrie (ed.) (ed.). Handbook of the world's major languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 834–54. ISBN 0-19-520521-9. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
• Patricia M Herbert, Anthony Milner, ed. (1989). South East Asia Languages and Literatures: Languages and Literatures: A Select Guide. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1267-0.

External links

• Omniglot: Burmese Language
• Online Burmese lessons
• Burmese language resources from SOAS
• Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center
• Myanmar 3 font and keyboard
• Burmese online dictionary (Unicode)