Jump to content

Anal cancer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Patho~enwiki (talk | contribs) at 15:14, 28 February 2014 (→Prevention). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Anal cancer
SpecialtyOncology Edit this on Wikidata

Anal cancer is a type of cancer which arises from the anus, the distal orifice of the gastrointestinal tract. It is a distinct entity from the more common colorectal cancer. The etiology, risk factors, clinical progression, staging, and treatment are all different. Anal cancer is typically a squamous cell carcinoma that arises near the squamocolumnar junction. It may be keratinizing (basaloid) or non-keratinizing (cloacogenic). Other types of anal carcinoma are adenocarcinoma, lymphoma, sarcoma or melanoma.

Epidemiology

The American Cancer Society estimated that in 2014 about 2,500 new cases of anal cancer would be diagnosed in the United States (1,000 in women and 1,500 in men) .[1] It is typically found in adults, average age early 60s.[1]

In the United States, an estimated 800 to 900 people die of anal cancer annually.[1]

Worldwide in 2002 there were an estimated 30,400 new cases of anal cancer.[2] With approximately equal fractions in the developing (15,900) and developed (14,500) countries.[2] An estimated 90% (27,400) were attributable to Human papillomavirus (HPV).[2]

Symptoms

Symptoms of anal cancer include bloating and change in bowel habits, a lump near the anus, rectal bleeding, itching or discharge. Bleeding may be severe.[3]

Risk factors

  • Human papillomavirus: Examination of squamous cell carcinoma tumor tissues from patients in Denmark and Sweden showed a high proportion of anal cancers to be positive for the types of HPV that are also associated with high risk of cervical cancer.[4] In another study done, high-risk types of HPV, notably HPV-16, were detected in 84 percent of anal cancer specimens examined.[5] Based on the study in Denmark and Sweden, Parkin estimated that 90% of anal cancers are attributable to HPV.[2]
  • Sexual activity: Having multiple sex partners due to the increased risk of exposure to the HPV virus.[6][7] Receptive anal intercourse, whether male or female, increases the chances of anal cancer sevenfold due to Human papillomavirus.[7] Those who engage in anal intercourse with multiple partners are 17 times more likely to develop anal cancer than those who don't, if their insertive partners are infected with the HPV virus.[8]
  • Smoking: Current smokers are several times more likely to develop anal cancer compared with nonsmokers.[6] Epidemiologist Janet Daling, Ph.D., a member of Fred Hutchinson's Public Health Sciences Division, and her team found that smoking appears to play a significant role in anal-cancer development that's independent of other behavioral risk factors, such as sexual activity. More than half of the anal-cancer patients studied were current smokers at the time of diagnosis, as compared to a smoking rate of about 23 percent among the controls. "Current smoking is a very important promoter of the disease," said Daling. "There's a fourfold increase in risk if you're a current smoker, regardless of whether you're male or female." They explained that the mechanism behind smoking and anal-cancer development is unknown, but researchers speculate that smoking interferes with a process called apoptosis, or programmed cell death, which helps rid the body of abnormal cells that could turn cancerous. Another possibility is that smoking suppresses the immune system, which can decrease the body's ability to clear persistent infection or abnormal cells.[7]

Pathology

Most anal cancers are epidermoid carcinomas.

Prevention

Since many, if not most, anal cancers derive from human papillomavirus infections, and since the HPV vaccine before exposure to HPV prevents infection by some strains of the virus and has been shown to reduce the incidence of potentially precancerous lesions,[11] scientists surmise that HPV vaccination may reduce the incidence of anal cancer.[12]

On 22 December 2010, the FDA approved Gardasil vaccine to prevent anal cancer and pre-cancerous lesions in males and females aged 9 to 26 years. The vaccine has been used before to help prevent cervical, vulvar, and vaginal cancer, and associated lesions caused by HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18 in women.[13]

Screening

Anal Pap smears similar to those used in cervical cancer screening have been studied for early detection of anal cancer in high-risk individuals.[14][15] In 2011, the HIV clinic at Jackson Memorial Hospital implemented a program to enhance access to anal cancer screening for HIV-positive men. Nurse practitioners perform anal Papanicolaou screening, and men with abnormal results receive further evaluation with high-resolution anoscopy. The program has helped identify many precancerous growths, allowing them to be safely removed.[16]

Treatment

Localised disease

Localised disease (carcinoma-in-situ) and the precursor condition, anal intraepithelial neoplasia (anal dysplasia or AIN) can be ablated with minimally invasive methods such as Infrared Photocoagulation.[17]

Previously, anal cancer was treated with surgery, and in early stage disease (i.e., localised cancer of the anus without metastasis to the inguinal lymph nodes), surgery is often curative. The difficulty with surgery has been the necessity of removing the anal sphincter, with concomitant fecal incontinence. For this reason, many patients with anal cancer have required permanent colostomies.

Current gold-standard therapy is chemotherapy and radiation treatment to reduce the necessity of debilitating surgery.[18] This "combined modality" approach has led to the increased preservation of an intact anal sphincter, and therefore improved quality of life after definitive treatment. Survival and cure rates are excellent, and many patients are left with a functional sphincter. Some patients have fecal incontinence after combined chemotherapy and radiation. Biopsies to document disease regression after chemotherapy and radiation were commonly advised, but are not as frequent any longer. Current chemotherapy consists of continuous infusion 5-FU over four days with bolus mitomycin given concurrently with radiation. 5-FU and cisplatin are recommended for metastatic anal cancer.

Metastatic or recurrent disease

Up to 10% of patients treated for anal cancer will develop distant metastatic disease. Metastatic or recurrent anal cancer is difficult to treat, and usually requires chemotherapy. Radiation is also employed to palliate specific locations of disease that may be causing symptoms. Chemotherapy commonly used is similar to other squamous cell epithelial neoplasms, such as platinum analogues, anthracyclines such as doxorubicin, and antimetabolites such as 5-FU and capecitabine. J.D. Hainsworth developed a protocol that includes Taxol and Carboplatinum along with 5-FU.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "Detailed Guide: Anal Cancer What Are the Key Statistics About Anal Cancer?". Retrieved 2008-11-18. {{cite web}}: Check |archiveurl= value (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help) [dead link‍]
  2. ^ a b c d Parkin DM (2006). "The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002". Int. J. Cancer. 118 (12): 3030–44. doi:10.1002/ijc.21731. PMID 16404738.
  3. ^ National Cancer Institute. Anal Cancer Treatment (PDQ) Patient Version. 13 June 2008. Accessed 26 June 2009.
  4. ^ Frisch M (August 2002). "On the etiology of anal squamous carcinoma". Danish Medical Bulletin. 49 (3): 194–209. PMID 12238281.
  5. ^ Frisch M, Glimelius B, van den Brule AJ; et al. (November 1997). "Sexually transmitted infection as a cause of anal cancer". N. Engl. J. Med. 337 (19): 1350–8. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711063371904. PMID 9358129. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c "What Are the Risk Factors for Anal Cancer". American Cancer Society. Retrieved 2010-04-21. [dead link‍]
  7. ^ a b c "Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Changing Trends in Sexual Behavior May Explain Rising Incidence of Anal Cancer Among American Men and Women". Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (fhcrc.org). 2004-07-06. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
  8. ^ "STD Facts — HPV and Men". Archived from the original on 14 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Natia Esiashvili, Jerome Landry, Richard H. Matthews (2007). "Carcinoma of the Anus Management". Armenian Health Network, Health.am. Archived from the original on 5 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Lin AY, Gridley G, Tucker M (January 1995). "Benign anal lesions and anal cancer". N. Engl. J. Med. 332 (3): 190–1. doi:10.1056/NEJM199501193320314. PMID 7695719.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ ""Gardasil, Merck's Cervical Cancer Vaccine, Demonstrated Efficacy in Preventing HPV-Related Disease in Males in Phase III Study: Pivotal Study Evaluating Efficacy of Gardasil in Males in Preventing HPV 6, 11, 16 and 18-Related External Genital Lesions"". Merck Research and Development News. (www.merck.com). Archived from the original on 15 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Tuller, David (2007-01-31). "HPV vaccine may help to prevent anal cancer". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2009-al03-23. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  13. ^ US approves anal cancer vaccine http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/health/view/1100843/1/.html
  14. ^ Cichoki, Mark. "Anal Papilloma Screening" on About.com
  15. ^ Chiao EY, Giordano TP, Palefsky JM, Tyring S, El Serag H (2006). "Screening HIV-infected individuals for anal cancer precursor lesions: a systematic review". Clin. Infect. Dis. 43 (2): 223–33. doi:10.1086/505219. PMID 16779751.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ "Hospital HIV Clinic Offers Convenient, Proactive Screening for Anal Cancer, Enabling Identification and Treatment of Precancerous Lesions". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2013-04-10. Retrieved 2013-05-10.
  17. ^ Goldstone, SE, Kawalek, AZ, Huyett, JW "Infrared Photocoagulator: A useful tool for treating anal squamous intraepithelial lesions". 2005. Diseases of the Colon & Rectum 58(5), 1042–1053.
  18. ^ National Comprehensive Cancer Network. "NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Anal Carcinoma. V 1.2013" (PDF).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Anal_cancer&oldid=597530566"