Jump to content

Cuba

Edit links
Coordinates: 22°00′N 79°30′W / 22.000°N 79.500°W / 22.000; -79.500
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Nicotheawsome (talk | contribs) at 23:38, 7 May 2014 (→Prehistory). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Cuba (disambiguation).
Republic of Cuba
República de Cuba (Spanish)
Motto: "¡Patria o Muerte, Venceremos!" (Spanish)
"Homeland or Death, we will overcome!"[1]
Anthem: La Bayamesa
Bayamo Song [2]
Political map of the Caribbean region with Cuba in red. An inset shows a world map with the main map's edges outlined.
Capital
and largest city
Havana
Official languagesSpanish
Ethnic groups
(2012)
Demonym(s)Cuban
GovernmentSingle-party Marxist–Leninist republic
• President
Raúl Castro
Miguel Díaz-Canel[3]
Esteban Lazo Hernández
LegislatureNational Assembly
Independence from Spain
October 10,1868 – 1878
• Republic declared
May 20, 1902
January 1, 1959
Area
• Total
109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi) (106th)
• Water (%)
negligible[4]
Population
• 2012 census
11,167,325[5]
• Density
102/km2 (264.2/sq mi) (106th)
GDP (PPP)2012 estimate
• Total
$121 billion[6] (66th)
• Per capita
$10,200 (2010 est.) (92nd)
GDP (nominal)2012 estimate
• Total
$71.017 billion[7] (65th)
• Per capita
$6,301 (91st)
Gini (2000)Negative increase 38.0[8]
medium inequality
HDI (2013)Increase 0.780[9]
high (59th)
Currency
(CUC)
Time zoneUTC−5 (CST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC−4 (CDT)
Drives onright
Calling code+53
ISO 3166 codeCU
Internet TLD.cu
  1. From 1993 to 2004, the United States dollar was used alongside the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso.

Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba (/ˈkjuːbə/ ⓘ; Template:Lang-es, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa] ⓘ), is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba comprises the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the capital of Cuba and its largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba.[10][11][12] To the north of Cuba lies the United States (150 km or 93 mi away) and the Bahamas are to the northeast, Mexico is to the west (210 km or 130 mi away), the Cayman Islands and Jamaica are to the south, and Haiti and the Dominican Republic are to the southeast.

The island of Cuba was inhabited by numerous Mesoamerican tribes prior to the landing of Italian explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492, who claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, after which it was briefly administered by the United States until gaining nominal independence in 1902. The fragile republic endured increasingly radical politics and social strife, and despite efforts to strengthen its democratic system, Cuba came under the dictatorship of former president Fulgencio Batista in 1952.[13][14][15] Growing unrest and instability led to Batista's ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 movement, which afterwards established a new socialist administration under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Since 1965, the country has been governed as a single-party state by the Communist Party.

Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, and with over 11 million inhabitants, is the second-most populous after Hispaniola, albeit with a much lower population density than most nations in the region. A multiethnic country, its people, culture, and customs derive from diverse origins, including the aboriginal Taíno and Ciboney peoples, the long period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of African slaves, a close relationship with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, and proximity to the United States.

Cuba ranks high in metrics of health and education, with a high Human Development Index of 0.780 as of 2013. According to data it presents to the United Nations, Cuba was the only nation in the world in 2006 that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development, with an ecological footprint of less than 1.8 hectares per capita, 1.5 hectares, and a Human Development Index of over 0.855.[16][17]

Etymology

The name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant (cubao),[18] or great place (coabana).[19] Authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal.[20][21]

History

Main articles: History of Cuba and Timeline of Cuban history

Prehistory

Sketch of a Taíno woman, also known as the Arawak by the Spanish.

Cuba was inhabited by American Indian people known as the Taíno, also called Arawak by the Spanish, and Guanajatabey and Ciboney people before the arrival of the Spanish. The ancestors of these Native Americans migrated from the mainland of North, Central and South America several centuries earlier.[22] The native Taínos called the island Stupid.[23] The Taíno were farmers while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers.

Spanish colonization and rule (1492-1898)

Main article: Captaincy General of Cuba

After first landing on an island then called Guanahani, Bahamas on October 12, 1492,[24] La Pinta, La Niña and the Santa María, the first three European ships under the command of Christopher Columbus, landed on Cuba's northeastern coast near what is now Bariay, Holguin province on October 28, 1492.[25] He claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain[26] and named Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias.[27]

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, conquistador of Cuba.

In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa. Other towns soon followed including the future capital of San Cristobal de la Habana which was founded in 1515. The native Taínos were working under the encomienda system,[28] which resembled a feudal system in Medieval Europe.[29] Within a century the indigenous people were virtually wiped out due to multiple factors, including Eurasian infectious diseases aggravated in large part by a lack of natural resistance as well as privation stemming from repressive colonial subjugation.[30] In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived smallpox.[31][32]

On September 1, 1548, Dr. Gonzalo Perez de Angulo was appointed governor of Cuba. He arrived in Santiago, Cuba on November 4, 1549 and immediately declared the liberty of all natives.[33] He became Cuba's first permanent governor who resided in Havana instead of Santiago, and he built Havana's first church made of masonry.[34] After the French took Havana in 1555, the governor's son, Francisco de Angulo, went to Mexico.[35]

The population in 1817 was 630,980, of which 291,021 were white, 115,691 free men (mixed-race), and 224,268 black slaves.[36] In the 1820s, when the rest of Spain's empire in Latin America rebelled and formed independent states, Cuba remained loyal.

Slaves in Cuba unloading ice from Maine, c. 1832.

A series of slave rebellions and revolts took place during the 'sugar boom' under Spanish colonizing with the 1812 Aponte Slave Rebellion in Cuba against the Atlantic Slave Trade.[37] Independence from Spain was the motive for a rebellion in 1868 led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. De Céspedes, a sugar planter, freed his slaves to fight with him for a free Cuba. On 27 December 1868, he issued a decree condemning slavery in theory but accepting it in practice and declaring free any slaves whose masters present them for military service.[38] The 1868 rebellion resulted in a prolonged conflict known as the Ten Years' War. Two thousand Cuban Chinese joined the rebels. There is a monument in Havana that honours the Cuban Chinese who fell in the war.[39]

The United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government, although many European and Latin American nations did so.[40] In 1878, the Pact of Zanjón ended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba. In 1879–1880, Cuban patriot Calixto García attempted to start another war known as the Little War but received little support.[41] Abolition of slavery in Cuba began the final third of the 19th century, and was completed in the 1880s.[42][43]

Carlos Manuel de Céspedes is known as Father of the Homeland in Cuba, having declared the nation's independence from Spain in 1868.

An exiled dissident named José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York in 1892. The aim of the party was to achieve Cuban independence from Spain.[44] In January 1895 Martí traveled to Montecristi and Santo Domingo to join the efforts of Máximo Gómez.[44] Martí recorded his political views in the Manifesto of Montecristi.[45] Fighting against the Spanish army began in Cuba on 24 February 1895, but Martí was unable to reach Cuba until 11 April 1895.[44] Martí was killed in the battle of Dos Rios on 19 May 1895.[44] His death immortalized him as Cuba's national hero.[45]

Around 200,000 Spanish troops outnumbered the much smaller rebel army which relied mostly on guerrilla and sabotage tactics. The Spaniards began a campaign of suppression. General Valeriano Weyler, military governor of Cuba, herded the rural population into what he called reconcentrados, described by international observers as "fortified towns". These are often considered the prototype for 20th-century concentration camps.[46] Between 200,000 and 400,000 Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease in the camps, numbers verified by the Red Cross and United States Senator and former Secretary of War Redfield Proctor. American and European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed.[47]

The U.S. battleship Maine was sent to protect U.S. interests, but she exploded suddenly and sank quickly, killing nearly three quarters of her crew. The cause and responsibility for her sinking remained unclear after a board of inquiry, but popular opinion in the U.S., fueled by an active press, concluded that the Spanish were to blame and demanded action.[48] Spain and the United States declared war on each other in late April.

Over the decades, four US presidents—Polk, Buchanan, Grant, and McKinley—tried to buy the island from Spain.[49]

Independence (1902-1959)

Main article: History of Cuba (1902–1959)
Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's Palace at noon on May 20, 1902.

After the Spanish-American War, Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris (1898), by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States for the sum of $20 million.[50] Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.[51] Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.

Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces.[52] The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and named Charles Edward Magoon as Governor for three years. Cuban historians have attributed Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and social corruption.[53] In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was elected President, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,[54] but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.

In 1924, Gerardo Machado was elected president.[55] During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists.[55] The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and prostitution.[55] The Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to precipitous drops in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.[56] Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.[56] A general strike (in which the Communist Party sided with Machado),[57] uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada.[56]

The Pentarchy of 1933. Fulgencio Batista, who controlled the armed forces, appears at far right.

In September 1933, the Sergeants' Revolt, led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista, overthrew Cespedes.[58] A five-member executive committee (the Pentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.[59] Ramon Grau San Martin was then appointed as provisional president.[59] Grau resigned in 1934, leaving the way clear for Batista, who dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents.[58] The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".[60]

A new constitution was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labour and health care.[61] Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.[62] He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.[14][63][64] His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration.[65] Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain in order to overthrow its authoritarian regime.[66]

Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's strictures preventing his re-election.[67] Ramon Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944.[62] Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.[68] Carlos Prío Socarrás, a protege of Grau, became president in 1948.[62] The two terms of the Auténtico Party saw an influx of investment fueled a boom which raised living standards for all segments of society and created a prosperous middle class in most urban areas.[69]

After running unsuccessfully for the presidency in 1952, Batista staged a coup.[70] He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.[71] Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.[72]

In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.[73] On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[74] Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[14][15] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.[14] The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.[14][63] Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958.[70]

Revolution and Communist party rule (1959-present)

Main article: Cuban Revolution
Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, photographed by Alberto Korda in 1961.

In the 1950s, various organizations, including some advocating armed uprising, competed for the public's support in bringing about political change.[75] In 1956, Fidel Castro and about 80 other rebels aboard the Granma yacht launched a failed attempt to start a rebellion against the government.[75] It was not until 1958 that the July 26th Movement emerged as the leading revolutionary group.[75]

By late 1958, the rebels broke out of the Sierra Maestra and launched a general popular insurrection. After the fighters captured Santa Clara, Batista fled from Havana on 1 January 1959 to exile in Portugal. Fidel Castro's forces entered the capital on 8 January 1959. The liberal Manuel Urrutia Lleó became the provisional president.[76]

From 1959 to 1966 Cuban insurgents fought a six-year rebellion in the Escambray Mountains against the Castro government. The insurgency was eventually crushed by the government's use of vastly superior numbers. The rebellion lasted longer and involved more soldiers than the Cuban Revolution.[77][78] The U.S. State Department has estimated that 3,200 people were executed from 1959 to 1962.[79] Other estimates for the total number of political executions range from 4,000 to 33,000.[80][81][82]

The revolution was initially received positively in the United States, where it was seen as part of a movement to bring democracy to Latin America.[83] Castro's legalization of the Communist party and the public trials and executions of hundreds of Batista's supporters caused a deterioration in the relationship between the two countries.[83] The promulgation of the Agrarian Reform Law, expropriating farmlands of over 1,000 acres, further worsened relations.[83] In February 1960, Castro signed a commercial agreement with Soviet Vice-Premier Anastas Mikoyan.[83] In March 1960, Eisenhower gave his approval to a CIA plan to arm and train a group of Cuban refugees to overthrow the Castro regime.[84]

The invasion (known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion) took place on April 14, 1961.[85] About 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked at the Bay of Pigs, but failed in their attempt to overthrow Castro.[85] In January 1962, Cuba was suspended from the Organization of American States (OAS), and later the same year the OAS started to impose sanctions against Cuba of similar nature to the US sanctions.[86] The tense confrontation known as the Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in October, 1962. By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledged Communist system modeled on the USSR.[87]

Fidel Castro and members of the East German Politburo in 1972.

During the 1970s, Fidel Castro dispatched tens of thousands of troops in support of Soviet-supported wars in Africa, particularly the MPLA in Angola and Mengistu Haile Mariam in Ethiopia.[88]

The standard of living in 1970s was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife.[89] Fidel Castro admitted the failures of economic policies in a 1970 speech.[89]

In 1975 the OAS lifted its sanctions against Cuba, with the approval of 16 member states, including the U.S. The U.S., however, maintained its own sanctions.[86]

Castro's rule was severely tested in the aftermath of the Soviet collapse in 1991 (known in Cuba as the Special Period), when the country faced a severe economic downturn following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies worth $4 billion to $6 billion annually, resulting in effects such as food and fuel shortages.[90][91] The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines, and cash until 1993.[90] On 5 August 1994, state security dispersed protesters in a spontaneous protest in Havana.[92]

Cuba has found a new source of aid and support in the People's Republic of China, and new allies in Hugo Chávez, former President of Venezuela and Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, both major oil and gas exporters. In 2003, the government arrested and imprisoned a large number of civil activists, a period known as the "Black Spring".[93][94]

In February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his resignation as President of Cuba,[95] and on 24 February his brother, Raúl Castro, was elected as the new President.[96] In his acceptance speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions that limit Cubans' daily lives would be removed.[97] In March 2009, Raúl Castro removed some of Fidel Castro's officials.[98]

On 3 June 2009, the Organization of American States adopted a resolution to end the 47-year ban on Cuban membership of the group.[99] The resolution stated, however, that full membership would be delayed until Cuba was "in conformity with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS."[86] Cuban leaders have repeatedly announced they are not interested in rejoining the OAS, and Fidel Castro restated this after the OAS resolution had been announced.[100]

Effective January 14, 2013, Cuba ended the requirement established in 1961 that any citizens who wish to travel abroad were required to obtain an expensive government permit and a letter of invitation.[101][102][103] The now-replaced travel ban dates to 1961, when the Cuban government imposed broad restrictions on travel starting to prevent the mass migration of people after the 1959 revolution[104] and only approved exit visas on rare occasions.[105] Henceforth, Cubans will only need a passport and a national ID card to leave; they will also be allowed for the first time to take their young children with them.[106] Despite the new policy, a passport will still cost on average five months' salary and it is expected that it will be mostly Cubans with paying relatives abroad that will be able to take advantage of the new policy.[107] In the first year of the program, over 180,000 left Cuba and returned.[108]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Cuba
Sign promoting the 2008 parliamentary election.

The Republic of Cuba is one of the world's remaining socialist states with Communist governments. The Constitution of 1976, which defined Cuba as a socialist republic, was replaced by the Constitution of 1992, which is "guided by the ideas of José Martí and the political and social ideas of Marx, Engels and Lenin."[109] The constitution describes the Communist Party of Cuba as the "leading force of society and of the state".[109]

The First Secretary of the Communist Party is concurrently President of the Council of State (President of Cuba) and President of the Council of Ministers (sometimes referred to as Premier of Cuba).[110] Members of both councils are elected by the National Assembly of People's Power.[109] The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves for five years and there is no limit to the number of terms of office.[109]

The headquarters of the Communist Party.

The People's Supreme Court serves as Cuba's highest judicial branch of government. It is also the court of last resort for all appeals against the decisions of provincial courts.

Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), is the supreme organ of power; 609 members serve five-year terms.[109] The assembly meets twice a year; between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member Council of Ministers. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. All Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been convicted of a criminal offense can vote. Article 131 of the Constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote".[109]

Article 136 states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts".[109] Votes are cast by secret ballot and counted in public view. Nominees are chosen at local gatherings from multiple candidates before gaining approval from election committees. In the subsequent election, there is only one candidate for each seat, who must gain a majority to be elected.[citation needed]

No political party is permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, including the Communist Party.[111] The Communist Party of Cuba has held six party congress meetings since 1975. In 2011, the party stated that there were 800,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally, while activity within Cuba by opposition groups is minimal.

The country's first ever transsexual municipal delegate was elected in the province of Villa Clara in early 2013. Adela Hernández is a resident of the town of Caibarien and works as a nurse electrocardiogram specialist. In Cuba, delegates are not professional politicians and, therefore, do not receive a government salary.[112] While very young, Adela was imprisoned for her sexual identity after her father pressed charges against her, but in a January 2014 interview states:

... nothing was able to make me renounce my ideals, neither the mistreatment, nor the insults nor the blows changed my feelings towards the revolution. I can’t continue to hold a grudge for the suffering I endured. Every country makes mistakes and Cuba made them in the way it treated us, but it has had the courage to acknowledge this.[112]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Cuba and Municipalities of Cuba

The country is subdivided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.

Provinces of Cuba
  1. Pinar del Río
  2. Artemisa
  3. Havana
  4. Mayabeque
  5. Matanzas
  6. Cienfuegos
  7. Villa Clara
  8. Sancti Spíritus
  1. Ciego de Ávila
  2. Camagüey
  3. Las Tunas
  4. Granma
  5. Holguín
  6. Santiago de Cuba
  7. Guantánamo
  8. Isla de la Juventud

Human rights

Main articles: Human rights in Cuba, Censorship in Cuba, and Cuban dissidents
Ladies in White demonstration in Havana (April 2012)

The Cuban government has been accused of numerous human rights abuses including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extrajudicial executions (also known as "El Paredón").[113][114] The Human Rights Watch alleges the government "represses nearly all forms of political dissent" and that "Cubans are systematically denied basic rights to free expression, association, assembly, privacy, movement, and due process of law".[115]

The European Union in 2003 accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[116] The United States continues an embargo against Cuba "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights".[117]

Cuba had the second-highest number of imprisoned journalists of any nation in 2008 (the People's Republic of China had the highest) according to various sources, including the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), an international NGO, and Human Rights Watch.[118][119]

Cuban dissidents who commit crimes face arrest and imprisonment. In the 1990s, Human Rights Watch reported that Cuba's extensive prison system, one of the largest in Latin America, consists of some 40 maximum-security prisons, 30 minimum-security prisons, and over 200 work camps.[120] According to Human Rights Watch, political prisoners, along with the rest of Cuba's prison population, are confined to jails with substandard and unhealthy conditions.[120]

Until 2013, citizens could not leave or return to Cuba without first obtaining official permission in addition to their passport and the visa requirements of their destination.[115] On January 13, 2014, Cuba lifted these restrictions for most citizens, allowing travel to anywhere in the world, including the US.[121] The membership of Cuba in the United Nations Human Rights Council has received criticism.[122]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Cuba
See also: Cuban medical internationalism
Propaganda sign in front of the United States Interests Section in Havana.

Cuba under Castro was a major contributor to anti-imperialist wars in Africa, Central America and Asia.

Cuban support for Algeria in 1961–5 achieved significant success.[123] Cuba sent tens of thousands of troops to Angola during the Angolan Civil War, where they fought against apartheid South Africa.[124] Other countries that featured Cuban involvement include Ethiopia,[125][126] Guinea,[127] Guinea-Bissau,[128] Mozambique,[129] and Yemen.[130]

Cuba is the only minor developing country to have projected influence on the world stage that is characteristic of a major global power.[131][132] Lesser known actions include the 1959 missions to the Dominican Republic.[133] The expedition failed, but a prominent monument to its members was erected in their memory in Santo Domingo by the Dominican government, and they feature prominently at the country's Memorial Museum of the Resistance.[134]

Cuba is a founding member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas.[135] At the end of 2012, tens of thousands of Cuban medical personnel worked abroad,[136] with as many as 30,000 doctors in Venezuela alone via the two countries' oil-for-doctors programme.[137]

In 1996, the United States, then under President Bill Clinton, brought in the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act, better known as the Helms–Burton Act.[138]

In 2008, the EU and Cuba agreed to resume full relations and cooperation activities.[139] United States President Barack Obama stated on April 17, 2009, in Trinidad and Tobago that "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba",[140] and reversed the Bush Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United States to Cuba.[141]

Crime and law enforcement

See also: Law enforcement in Cuba and Crime in Cuba
A police car in Holguín.

All law enforcement agencies are maintained under Cuba's Ministry of the Interior which is supervised by the Revolutionary Armed Forces. In Cuba, citizens can receive police assistance by dialing "106" on their telephones.[142] The police force, which is referred to as "Policía Nacional Revolucionaria" or PNR is then expected to provide help. The Cuban government also has an agency called the Intelligence Directorate that conducts intelligence operations and maintains close ties with the Russian Federal Security Service.

Military

Main article: Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces

As of 2009, Cuba spends about $91.8 million on its armed forces.[143] In 1985, Cuba devoted more than 10% of its GDP to military expenditures.[144] In response to American aggression, such as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Cuba built up one of the largest armed forces in Latin America, second only to that of Brazil.[145]

From 1975 until the late 1980s, Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. After the loss of Soviet subsidies, Cuba scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 60,000 in 2003.[146]

In February 2013, Raúl Castro, current Cuban President, announced his resignation for 2018, that will end his current 5-year term, and hope to implement permanent term limits for future Cuban Presidents, including age limits.[147]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Cuba, Rationing in Cuba, Sociolismo, and United States embargo against Cuba
Cuban export composition, 2009.

The Cuban state adheres to socialist principles in organizing its largely state-controlled planned economy. Most of the means of production are owned and run by the government and most of the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend toward more private sector employment. By 2006, public sector employment was 78% and private sector, mainly composed by personal property, 22%, compared to 91.8% to 8.2% in 1981.[148] Any firm wishing to hire a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn will pay the employee in Cuban pesos.[149] The average monthly wage as of July 2013 is 466 Cuban pesos, which are worth about US$19.[150]

Cuba has a dual currency system, whereby most wages and prices are set in Cuban pesos (CUP), while the tourist economy operates with Convertible pesos (CUC), set at par with the US dollar.[150] Every Cuban household has a ration book (known as libreta) entitling it to a monthly supply of food and other staples, which are provided at nominal cost.[151]

Cigar production in Santiago de Cuba.

Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba depended on Moscow for substantial aid and sheltered markets for its exports. The removal of these subsidies (for example the oil[152][153]) sent the Cuban economy into a rapid depression known in Cuba as the Special Period. Cuba took limited free market-oriented measures to alleviate severe shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. These steps included allowing some self-employment in certain retail and light manufacturing sectors, the legalization of the use of the US dollar in business, and the encouragement of tourism. Cuba has developed a unique urban farm system (the organopónicos) to compensate for the end of food imports from the Soviet Union.

The leadership of Cuba has called for reforms in the country's agricultural system. In 2008, Raúl Castro began enacting agrarian reforms to boost food production, as at that time 80% of food was imported. The reforms enacted are aimed at expanding land usage and increasing efficiency.[154] Venezuela supplies Cuba with an estimated 110,000 barrels (17,000 m3) a day of oil in exchange for money and the services of some 44,000 Cubans, most of them medical personnel, in Venezuela.[155] Estimates place Venezuelan assistance at over 20% of the Cuban GDP for 2008–2010, similar to the aid flows from the Soviet Union in 1985–1988.[156]

In 2005 Cuba had exports of $2.4 billion, ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imports of $6.9 billion, ranking 87 of 226 countries.[157] Its major export partners are Canada 17.7%, China 16.9%, Venezuela 12.5%, Netherlands 9%, and Spain 5.9% (2012).[6] Cuba's major exports are sugar, nickel, tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus, and coffee;[6] imports include food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated to be $13 billion,[158] approximately 38% of GDP.[159] According to the Heritage Foundation, Cuba is dependent on credit accounts that rotate from country to country.[160] Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price drop that made Cuba less competitive on world markets.[161]

In 2010, Cubans were allowed to build their own houses. According to Raul Castro, they will be able to improve their houses with this new permission, but the government will not endorse these new houses or improvements.[162]

On August 2, 2011, The New York Times reported Cuba as reaffirming their intent to legalize "buying and selling" of private property before the year ends. According to experts, the private sale of property could "transform Cuba more than any of the economic reforms announced by President Raúl Castro's government".[163] It will cut more than one million state jobs, including party bureaucrats who resist the changes.[164] The new economic reforms effectively created a new economic system, referred by some as the "New Cuban Economy".[165][166][167]

In August 2012, a specialist of the "Cubaenergia Company" announced the opening of Cuba's first Solar Power Plant. As a member of the Cubasolar Group, there was also a mention of 10 additional plants in 2013.[168]

In October 2013, as part of Raúl Castro's latest reforms, Cuba announced an end to the dual currency system.[169]

Resources

Cuba's most important mineral resource is nickel, with 21% of total exports in 2011.[170] The output of Cuba's nickel mines that year was 71,000 tons, approaching 4% of world production.[171] As of 2013, its reserves are estimated at 5.5 million tons, or over 7% of the world total.[171] Sherritt International of Canada operates a large nickel mining facility in Moa. Cuba is also a major producer of refined cobalt, a by-product of nickel mining operations.[172]

Oil exploration in 2005 by the US Geological Survey revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce approximately 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m3) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48×109 m3) of oil. In 2006, Cuba started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation.[173]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Cuba
Varadero beach.

Tourism was initially restricted to enclave resorts where tourists would be segregated from Cuban society, referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".[174] Contacts between foreign visitors and ordinary Cubans were de facto illegal between 1992 and 1997.[175] The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba, and led to speculation about the emergence of a two-tier economy.[176]

Cuba has tripled its market share of Caribbean tourism in the last decade;[when?] as a result of significant investment in tourism infrastructure, this growth rate is predicted to continue.[177] 1.9 million tourists visited Cuba in 2003, predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue of $2.1 billion.[178] Cuba recorded 2,688,000 international tourists in 2011, the third-highest figure in the Caribbean (behind the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico).[179]

The Medical tourism sector caters to thousands of European, Latin American, Canadian, and American consumers every year. Allegations of widespread sex tourism are downplayed by the Cuban Justice minister.[180] According to a Government of Canada travel advice website, "Cuba is actively working to prevent child sex tourism, and a number of tourists, including Canadians, have been convicted of offences related to the corruption of minors aged 16 and under. Prison sentences range from 7 to 25 years."[181]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Cuba
A general map of Cuba.

Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the northern Caribbean Sea at the confluence with the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between latitudes 19° and 24°N, and longitudes 74° and 85°W. The United States lies 90 miles across the Straits of Florida to the north and northwest (to the closest tip of Key West, Florida), and the Bahamas to the north. Mexico lies 217 kilometers or 135 miles across the Yucatán Channel to the west (to the closest tip of Cabo Catoche in the State of Quintana Roo).

Haiti is to the east, Jamaica and the Cayman Islands to the south. Cuba is the principal island, surrounded by four smaller groups of islands: the Colorados Archipelago on the northwestern coast, the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago on the north-central Atlantic coast, the Jardines de la Reina on the south-central coast and the Canarreos Archipelago on the southwestern coast.

The main island named Cuba is 1,250 km (780 mi) long, constituting most of the nation's land area (104,556 km2 (40,369 sq mi)) and is the largest island in the Caribbean and 17th-largest island in the world by land area. The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains apart from the Sierra Maestra mountains in the southeast, whose highest point is Pico Turquino (1,974 m (6,476 ft)).

The second-largest island is Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the Canarreos archipelago, with an area of 2,200 km2 (849 sq mi). Cuba has an official area (land area) of 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi). Its area is 110,860 km2 (42,803 sq mi) including coastal and territorial waters.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Cuba
Viñales Valley.

With most of the island south of the Tropic of Cancer, the local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterly trade winds that blow year-round. The temperature is also shaped by the Caribbean current, which brings in warm water from the equator. This makes the climate of Cuba warmer than Hong Kong, which is at around the same latitude as Cuba, but has a subtropical climate instead of a tropical climate. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (69.8 °F) in January and 27 °C (80.6 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make the country prone to frequent hurricanes. These are most common in September and October.

Biodiversity

Cuba signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 8 March 1994.[182] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision which was received by the convention on 24 January 2008.[183]

The revision comprises an action plan with time limits for each item, and an indication of the governmental body responsible for delivery. There is, however, virtually no information in that document about biodiversity itself. The country's fourth national report to the CBD, however, contains a detailed breakdown of the numbers of species of each kingdom of life recorded from Cuba, the main groups being: animals (17,801 species), bacteria (270 species), chromista (707 species), fungi, including lichen-forming species (5844 species), plants (9107 species) and protozoa (1440 species).[184]

As elsewhere in the world, vertebrate animals and flowering plants are well documented. The numbers recorded from Cuba for those groups are therefore likely to be close to the numbers which actually occur in Cuba. For most if not all of the other groups, however, the true numbers of species occurring in Cuba are likely to exceed, often considerably, the numbers of those recorded so far.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Cuba
Racial and Ethnic Composition in Cuba (2012 Census)[185][186]
Race/Colour
White
 
 64.1%
Black
 
 9.3%
Mulatto/Mestizo
 
 26.6%
Asian
 
 0.0%
Students of the Escuela Lenin

According to the official census of 2010, Cuba's population was 11,241,161, comprising 5,628,996 men and 5,612,165 women.[187] Its birth rate (9.88 births per thousand population in 2006)[188] is one of the lowest in the Western Hemisphere. Although the country has grown by around 4 million people since 1961, the rate of increase had simultaneously began to fall during that period, and the population began to decline in 2006, with a fertility rate of 1.43 children per woman.[189]

Indeed, this drop in fertility is among the largest in the Western Hemisphere,[190] and is attributed largely to unrestricted access to legal abortion: Cuba's abortion rate was 58.6 per 1000 pregnancies in 1996, compared to an average of 35 in the Caribbean, 27 in Latin America overall, and 48 in Europe. Similarly, the use of contraceptives is also widespread, estimated at 79 percent of the female population (in the upper third of countries in the Western Hemisphere).[191]

Ethnoracial groups

Cuba's population is multiethnic, reflecting its complex colonial origins. Intermarriage between diverse groups is widespread, and subsequently there is a discrepancy regarding the country's racial composition: whereas the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the University of Miami determined that 62 percent of Cubans are black,[192] the 2002 Cuban census found that a similar proportion of the population, 65.05 percent, was white.

Young boys in school uniform with soccer ball, Pinar del Río, December 2006.

In fact, the Minority Rights Group International determined that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".[193]

Asians make up about one percent of the population, and are largely of Chinese ancestry, followed by Filipinos, Koreans and Vietnamese. Many are descendants of farm laborers brought to the island by Spanish and American contractors during the 19th and early 20th century.[citation needed] Afro-Cubans are descended primarily from the Yoruba people,[citation needed] as well as several thousand North African refugees, most notably the Sahrawi Arabs of Western Sahara.[194]

Immigration and emigration

Main article: Spanish immigration to Cuba

Immigration and emigration have played a prominent part in Cuba's demographic profile. Between the 18th and early 20th century, large waves of Canarian, Catalan, Andalusian, Galician, and other Spanish people immigrated to Cuba. Between 1899 and 1930 alone, close to a million Spaniards entered the country, though many would eventually return to Spain.[195] Other prominent immigrant groups included French,[196] Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Dutch, Greek, British, and Irish, as well as small number of descendants of U.S. citizens who arrived in Cuba in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Post-revolution Cuba has been characterized by significant levels of emigration, which has led to a large and influential diaspora community. During the three decades since January 1959, more than one million Cubans of all social classes — constituting 10 percent of the total population — emigrated to the United States, a proportion that matches the extent of emigration to the U.S. from the Caribbean as a whole during that period.[197][198][199][200][201] Other common destinations include Spain, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, and Sweden, among others. Those who left the country typically did so by sea, in small boats and fragile rafts. Between 30,000 and 80,000 Cubans are estimated to have died trying to flee Cuba.[81] On 9 September 1994, the U.S. and Cuban governments agreed that the U.S. would grant at least 20,000 visas annually in exchange for Cuba's pledge to prevent further unlawful departures on boats.[202]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Cuba
Cathedral of Havana.

In 2010, the religious affiliation of the country was estimated by the Pew Forum to be 59.2 percent Christian (mostly Roman Catholic), 23.0 percent unaffiliated, 17.4 percent folk religion (such as santería), and the remaining 0.4 percent consisting of other religions.[203]

Cuba is officially a secular state. Religious freedom increased through the 1980s,[204] with the government amending the constitution in 1992 to drop the state's characterization as atheistic.[205]

Roman Catholicism is the largest religion, with its origins rooted in Spanish colonization. Despite less than half of the population identifying as Catholics in 2006, it nonetheless remains the dominant faith.[160]

The religious landscape of Cuba is also strongly defined by syncretisms of various kinds. Christianity is often practiced in tandem with Santería, a mixture of Catholicism and mostly African faiths, which include a number of cults. La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin of Cobre) is the Catholic patroness of Cuba, and a symbol of Cuban culture. In Santería, she has been syncretized with the goddess Oshun.

Cuba also hosts small communities of Jews (500 in 2012), Muslims, and members of the Bahá'í Faith.[206]

Languages

The official language of Cuba is Spanish and the vast majority of Cubans speak it. Spanish as spoken in Cuba is known as Cuban Spanish and is a form of Caribbean Spanish. Lucumi, a dialect of the West African language Yoruba, is also used as a liturgical language by practitioners of Santería,[207] and so only as a second language.[208] Haitian Creole is the second largest language in Cuba, and is spoken by Haitian immigrants and their descendants.[209] Other languages spoken by immigrants include Galician and Corsican.[210]

Largest cities

Template:Largest cities of Cuba

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Cuba and Sport in Cuba

Cuban culture is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those of Spain and Africa. After the 1959 revolution, the government started a national literacy campaign, offered free education to all and established rigorous sports, ballet and music programs.[211]

Due to historical associations with the United States, many Cubans participate in sports which are popular in North America, rather than sports traditionally promoted in other Spanish-speaking nations. Baseball is by far the most popular; other sports and pastimes include basketball, volleyball, cricket, and athletics. Cuba is a dominant force in amateur boxing, consistently achieving high medal tallies in major international competitions. Cuba also provides a national team that competes in the Olympic Games.[212]

Internet in Cuba has some of the lowest penetration rates in the Western hemisphere, and all content is subject to review by the Department of Revolutionary Orientation.[213] ETECSA operates 118 cybercafes in the country.[213] The government of Cuba provides an online encyclopedia website called EcuRed that operates in a "wiki" format.[214] Internet access is limited.[215] The sale of computer equipment is strictly regulated. Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[216]

Music

Main article: Music of Cuba
A local musical house, Casa de la Trova in Santiago de Cuba

Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The central form of this music is Son, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like salsa, rumba and mambo and an upbeat derivation of the rumba, the cha-cha-cha. Rumba music originated in early Afro-Cuban culture.[217] The Tres was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African origin, Taíno origin, or both, such as the maracas, güiro, marimba and various wooden drums including the mayohuacan.

Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers like Ernesto Lecuona. Havana was the heart of the rap scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s.

During that time, reggaetón was growing in popularity. In 2011, the Cuban state denounced reggaeton as degenerate, directed reduced "low-profile" airplay of the genre (but did not ban it entirely) and banned the megahit Chupi Chupi by Osmani García, characterizing its description of sex as "the sort which a prostitute would carry out".[218] In December 2012, the Cuban government officially banned sexually explicit reggaeton songs and music videos from radio and television.[219][220] Dance in Cuba has taken a major boost over the 1990s.

Cuisine

Main article: Cuban cuisine
A traditional meal of ropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans, yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer

Cuban cuisine is a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Food rationing, which has been the norm in Cuba for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes.[221] The traditional Cuban meal is not served in courses; all food items are served at the same time.

The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice, ropa vieja (shredded beef), Cuban bread, pork with onions, and tropical fruits. Black beans and rice, referred to as Moros y Cristianos (or moros for short), and plantains are staples of the Cuban diet. Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.

Literature

Main article: Cuban literature

Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century. Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such as Nicolás Guillén and Jose Z. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels of Dulce María Loynaz and José Lezama Lima have been influential. Romanticist Miguel Barnet, who wrote Everyone Dreamed of Cuba, reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[222]

Writers such as Reinaldo Arenas, Guillermo Cabrera Infante, and more recently Daína Chaviano, Pedro Juan Gutiérrez, Zoé Valdés, Guillermo Rosales and Leonardo Padura have earned international recognition in the post-revolutionary era, though many of these writers have felt compelled to continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities.

Education

Main article: Education in Cuba
A small school, in a village east of Santiago de Cuba.

The University of Havana was founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well-established colleges and universities. In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was fourth in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, higher than in Spain.[73][223] Castro created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education.[224] Cuba's literacy rate of 99.8 percent[6][225] is the tenth-highest globally, due largely to the provision of free education at every level.[226]

Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higher pedagogical institutes, and higher polytechnic institutes. The Cuban Ministry of Higher Education operates a scheme of distance education which provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of Cuba.[224] Cuba has provided state subsidized education to a limited number of foreign nationals at the Latin American School of Medicine.[227][228]

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Universidad de la Habana (1544th worldwide), Instituto Superior Politécnico José Antonio Echeverría (2603rd) and the Universidad Central Marta Abreu de la Villas (2947th).[229]

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Cuba
An old Sarra Pharmacy, Havana.

As a result of its universal health care system,[230] its life expectancy at birth is 78 years.[6] The quality of public healthcare offered to citizens is regarded as the "greatest triumph" of Cuba's socialist system.[231] Historically, Cuba has ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant contributions to world health since the 19th century.[73] Today, Cuba has universal health care and although shortages of medical supplies persist, there is no shortage of medical personnel.[232] Primary care is available throughout the island and infant and maternal mortality rates compare favorably with those in developed nations.[232]

Post-Revolution Cuba initially experienced an overall worsening in terms of disease and infant mortality rates in the 1960s when half its 6,000 doctors left the country.[233] Recovery occurred by the 1980s,[63] and the country's healthcare has been widely praised.[234] The Communist government asserted that universal health care was to become a priority of state planning and progress was made in rural areas.[235] Like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991, followed by a tightening of the U.S. embargo in 1992.[236]

Challenges include low pay of doctors (only $15 a month[237]), poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and frequent absence of essential drugs.[238] Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.[239]

According to the UN, the life expectancy in Cuba is 78.3 years (76.2 for males and 80.4 for females). This ranks Cuba 37th in the world and 3rd in the Americas, behind only Canada and Chile, and just ahead of the United States. Infant mortality in Cuba declined from 32 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1957, to 10 in 1990–95.[240] Infant mortality in 2000–2005 was 6.1 per 1,000 live births. Its infant mortality rate is 5.13.[6][225]

In Cuba, there is a need to import certain pharmaceutical drugs. Therefore, the Quimefa Pharmaceutical Business Group was developed under The Ministry of Basic Industry (MINBAS) called, "FARMACUBA." This group also handles the exporting of pharmaceuticals, and provide technical information for the production of these drugs.[241]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Cuban Peso Bills". Central Bank of Cuba. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  2. ^ "National symbols". Government of Cuba. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  3. ^ "Cuba's Raul Castro to retire in five years". Aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  4. ^ "Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 2010". Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  5. ^ "3.1 Población residente por sexo, tasa anual de crecimiento y relación de masculinidad". Anuario Estadístico de Cuba. Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  6. ^ a b c d e f "Cuba". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
  7. ^ [1][dead link‍]
  8. ^ "Cuba grapples with growing inequality". Reuters. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  9. ^ "Human development statistical annex" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  10. ^ "Cuba profile: Facts". BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  11. ^ Thomas 1998, p. ?.
  12. ^ Thomas 1997, p. ?.
  13. ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum – Jfklibrary.org. 1960-10-06. Retrieved 2010-11-07.[dead link‍]
  14. ^ a b c d e Horowitz 1988, p. 662
  15. ^ a b Thomas 1998, p. 1173.
  16. ^ "Living Planet Report 2006" (PDF). World Wide Fund for Nature, Zoological Society of London, Global Footprint Network. 24 October 2006. p. 19. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
  17. ^ "World failing on sustainable development". Science.org.au. 2007-10-03. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  18. ^ The Dictionary of the Taino Language (plate 8) Alfred Carrada[unreliable source?]
  19. ^ Dictionary – Taino indigenous peoples of the Caribbean Dictionary --[unreliable source?]
  20. ^ Augusto Mascarenhas Barreto: O Português. Cristóvão Colombo Agente Secreto do Rei Dom João II. Ed. Referendo, Lissabon 1988. English: The Portuguese Columbus: secret agent of King John II, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-56315-8
  21. ^ da Silva, Manuel L. and Silvia Jorge da Silva. (2008). Christopher Columbus was Portuguese, Express Printing, Fall River, MA. 396pp. ISBN 978-1-60702-824-6.
  22. ^ Ramón Dacal Moure, Manuel Rivero de la Calle (1996). Art and archaeology of pre-Columbian Cuba. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-8229-3955-X.
  23. ^ "Taino Name for the Islands". Indio.net. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  24. ^ Ted Henken (2008). Cuba: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-85109-984-9. (gives the landing date in Cuba as October 27)
  25. ^ Cuba Oficina Del Censo (2009). Cuba: Population, History and Resources 1907. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-110-28818-2. (gives the landing date in Cuba as October 28)
  26. ^ Gott 2004, p. 13
  27. ^ Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2005). "Letter by Christopher Columbus concerning recently discovered islands". The Human Record. Vol. 1. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 8. ISBN 0-618-37040-4.
  28. ^ "Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America" (PDF). Latin American Studies. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  29. ^ McAlister 1984, p. 164
  30. ^ Diamond, Jared M. (1998). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
  31. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 413. ISBN 0-313-34102-8.
  32. ^ J. N. Hays (2005). "Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history". p.82. ISBN 1-85109-658-2
  33. ^ Wright 1916, p. 183.
  34. ^ Wright 1916, p. 229.
  35. ^ Wright 1916, p. 246.
  36. ^ Scheina 2003, p. 352.
  37. ^ Childs, Matt D. (2006). The 1813 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the struggle against Atlantic Slavery. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 320 pages. ISBN 0-8078-5772-6.
  38. ^ Chomsky, Carr & Smorkaloff 2004, pp. 115–7.
  39. ^ Westad 2012, pp. 227–8
  40. ^ "Historia de las Guerras de Liberación de Cuba".[unreliable source?]
  41. ^ "The Little War (La Guerra Chiquita)".[unreliable source?]
  42. ^ Scott 2000, p. 3
  43. ^ Chomsky, Carr & Smorkaloff 2004, pp. 37–8.
  44. ^ a b c d Stanley Sandler, ed. (2002). Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia. Vol. Part 25, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 549. ISBN 1-57607-344-0. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  45. ^ a b David Arias (2005). Spanish-americans: Lives And Faces. Victoria, BC, Canada: Trafford Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 1-4120-4717-X. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  46. ^ Robert K. Home (1997). Of Planting and Planning: The Making of British Colonial Cities. Chapman and Hall. p. 195. ISBN 0-419-20230-7. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  47. ^ The Spanish-American War. "Cuban Reconcentration Policy and its Effects". Retrieved 2007-01-29.[unreliable source?]
  48. ^ Morison, Samuel Loring; Morison, Samuel Eliot; Polmar, Norman (2003). The American Battleship. St. Paul, Minn.: MBI Publishing Company. p. 18. ISBN 0-7603-0989-2. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
  49. ^ Falk 1988, p. 64.
  50. ^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. December 10, 1898.
  51. ^ Louis A. Pérez (1998). Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-8229-7197-9. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  52. ^ Diaz-Briquets, Sergio; Jorge F Pérez-López (2006). Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-292-71321-5. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  53. ^ Thomas 1998, pp. 283–7.
  54. ^ Benjamin Beede, ed. (1994). The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland. p. 134. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  55. ^ a b c Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D (2012-04-24). The Last American Rebel in Cuba. AuthorHouse. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4685-9430-0. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  56. ^ a b c Wilber Albert Chaffee; Gary Prevost (1992). Cuba: A Different America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8476-7694-1. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  57. ^ Argote-Freyre, Frank (2006). Fulgencio Batista. Vol. 1. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-8135-3701-0.
  58. ^ a b Jones, Melanie (2001). Jacqueline West (ed.). South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-85743-121-6. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  59. ^ a b Jaime Suchlicki (2002). Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-57488-436-4. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  60. ^ Domínguez 1978, p. 76
  61. ^ Domínguez 1978, p. ?.
  62. ^ a b c Frank R. Villafana (2011-12-31). Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence. Transaction Publishers. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4128-4656-1. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  63. ^ a b c Bethell, Leslie (1993). Cuba. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43682-3.
  64. ^ Sweig 2004, p. 4
  65. ^ Sweig 2004, p. ?.
  66. ^ "Batista's Boot". TIME. 18 January 1943. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  67. ^ Domínguez 1978, p. 101
  68. ^ Domínguez 1978, pp. 110–1
  69. ^ Alvarez 2004.
  70. ^ a b Maureen Ihrie; Salvador Oropesa (2011-10-31). World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-08083-8. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  71. ^ Sweig 2004, p. 6
  72. ^ Paul H. Lewis (2006). Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 186. ISBN 0-7425-3739-0. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
  73. ^ a b c Smith & Llorens 1998.
  74. ^ Baklanoff 1998.
  75. ^ a b c Aviva Chomsky (2010-11-23). A History of the Cuban Revolution. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-1-4443-2956-8. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  76. ^ Falk 1988, p. 67.
  77. ^ Ros (2006) pp. 159–201.
  78. ^ "Anti-Cuba Bandits: terrorism in past tense".
  79. ^ "Background Note: Cuba". State.gov. 2012-06-21. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  80. ^ "Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom Hugh Thomas". Longitudebooks.com. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  81. ^ a b R.J. Rummel. "Power Kills". University of Hawaii. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  82. ^ Black Book of Communism. p. 664.
  83. ^ a b c d Stephen G. Rabe (1988). Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism. UNC Press Books. pp. 123–125. ISBN 978-0-8078-4204-1. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  84. ^ "This Day in History — 7/9/1960". History.com. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  85. ^ a b Richard A. Crooker (2005). Cuba. Infobase Publishing. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-4381-0497-3. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  86. ^ a b c "Case Studies in Sanctions and Terrorism: Case 60-3, US v. Cuba". Peterson Institute for International Economics. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  87. ^ Faria, Miguel A. Cuba in Revolution – Escape From a Lost Paradise, 2002, Hacienda Publishing, Inc., Macon, Georgia, pp. 163–228
  88. ^ Domínguez 1989, p. ?.
  89. ^ a b Bethell, Leslie. The Cambridge History of Latin America. ISBN 0-521-62327-8.[page needed]
  90. ^ a b "Health consequences of Cuba's Special Period". CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association. 179 (3). Canadian Medical Association Journal: 257. 2008. doi:10.1503/cmaj.1080068. PMC 2474886. PMID 18663207. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  91. ^ "Cuba's Food & Agriculture Situation Report" (PDF).
  92. ^ Carl Gershman and Orlando Gutierrez. "Can Cuba Change?" (PDF). Journal of Democracy January 2009. 20 (1). {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  93. ^ Carlos Lauria, Monica Campbell, and María Salazar (March 18, 2008). "Cuba's Long Black Spring". The Committee to Protect Journalists.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  94. ^ "Cuba – No surrender by independent journalists, five years on from "black spring"" (PDF). Reporters Without Borders. March 2008.
  95. ^ "Castro resigns as Cuban president: official media". Agence France-Presse. 2008-02-19. Retrieved 2008-02-19.[dead link‍]
  96. ^ "Raul Castro named Cuban president". BBC News. 2008-02-24. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
  97. ^ "Byte by byte". The Economist. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
  98. ^ "Raúl Castro replaces top Cuban officials". The Guardian. London. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
  99. ^ "China View 2009-06-04: OAS plenary votes to end Cuba's exclusion". News.xinhuanet.com. 2009-06-04. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  100. ^ "China View 2009-06-04: Cuba's Fidel Castro calls OAS a "U.S. Trojan horse"". News.xinhuanet.com. 2009-06-04. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  101. ^ CNN: "Cuba eases travel restriction for citizens" by Ben Brumfield October 16, 2012 |Until now, Cubans had to pay $150 for an exit visa. A resident in the country that the Cuban wanted to visit would also have to write a letter of invitation. Fees associated with the letter ran as high as $200. That's a steep price in a country where the average official monthly income is about $20.
  102. ^ BBC: "Leaving Cuba: The difficult task of exiting the island" by Sarah Rainsford July 12, 2012
  103. ^ Washington Office on Latin America: "Cubans Allowed to Travel Abroad Without Exit Visas" By Geoff Thale and Clay Boggs October 16, 2012
  104. ^ Daily Mail: "Cubans will be free to travel abroad for first time in 51 years as expensive exit visa is abolished" By Jeff Franks October 16, 2012
  105. ^ USA Today: "Cubans line up for the chance to leave" by Girish Gupta January 14, 2013
  106. ^ PBS: "Cuba Opens Travel Abroad for Most Citizens, Eliminating Exit Visa Requirement" January 14, 2013
  107. ^ USA Today: "Cubans can leave, but to where and with what?" by Girish Gupta November 11, 2012
  108. ^ International Business Times: "Cuba's First Year Of Immigration Reform: 180,000 People Leave The Country ... And Come Back" By Patricia Rey Mallén January 14, 2014
  109. ^ a b c d e f g "The Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1976 (as Amended to 2002)" (PDF). National Assembly of People's Power. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
    For discussion of the 1992 amendments, see Domínguez 2003.
  110. ^ "Country profile: Cuba". BBC News. 20 August 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  111. ^ Cuba: Elections and Events 1991–2001 Latin American Election Statistics Home
  112. ^ a b Fernando Ravsberg (8 January 2014). "Cuba's First Transsexual Politician". Havana Times. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
  113. ^ "Information about human rights in Cuba" (in español). Comision Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. April 7, 1967. Retrieved 2006-07-09. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  114. ^ Bureau of Public Affairs (25 March 2010). "Cuba". United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
  115. ^ a b "Cuba". Human Rights Watch. 2006.
  116. ^ "EU-Cuba relations". European Communities. 2003-09-04. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  117. ^ "Cuban Democracy Act". U.S. Department of State. 1992. Retrieved 2009-09-06.[dead link‍]
  118. ^ "CPJ's 2008 prison census: Online and in jail". Committee to Protect Journalists.
  119. ^ Human Rights Watch (2008). World Report 2008: Events of 2007. Seven Stories Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-1-58322-774-9.
  120. ^ a b "Cuba's Repressive Machinery - V. General Prison Conditions". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
  121. ^ "Cuba Opens Travel Abroad for Most Citizens, Eliminating Exit Visa Requirement | PBS NewsHour". Pbs.org. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  122. ^ Hoge, Warren (3 February 2006). "Human Rights Council is now on UN agenda". nytimes.com. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  123. ^ Gleijeses 1996, pp. 159, 161: "Cuba's relationship with Algeria in 1961–5 ... clashes with the image of Cuban foreign policy—cynical ploys of a [Soviet] client state—that prevails not only in the United States but also in many European capitals. ... The aid Cuba gave Algeria in 1961–2 had nothing to do with the East-West conflict. Its roots predate Castro's victory in 1959 and lie in the Cubans' widespread identification with the struggle of the Algerian people."
  124. ^ Gleijeses 2010, p. 327: "The dispatch of 36,000 Cuban soldiers to Angola between November 1975 and April 1976 stunned the world; ... by 1988, there were 55,000 Cuban soldiers in Angola."
  125. ^ Gleijeses 2002, p. 392: "After Angola, Cuba's largest military intervention was in Ethiopia, where in 1978 16,000 Cuban troops helped repulse the invading Somali army."
  126. ^ Tareke 2009, pp. 62–3. Tareke refers here to the training given to 10 members of the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1968 during the Eritrean struggle for independence.
  127. ^ Gleijeses 1997, p. 50: "On 14–16 October 1960, [Guinean president Ahmed Sékou] Touré went to Havana. It was the first visit of an African chief of state to Cuba. The following year Cuba's foreign aid programme to Third World governments began when fifteen students from Guinea arrived in Havana to attend the university or technical institutes."
  128. ^ Gleijeses 1997, p. 45: "Joining the rebellion in 1966, and remaining through the war's end in 1974, this was the longest Cuban intervention in Africa before the despatch of troops to Angola in November 1975. It was also the most successful. As the Guinean paper Nõ Pintcha declared, 'The Cubans' solidarity was decisive for our struggle'".
  129. ^ Gleijeses 2002, p. 227. The Cuban contribution to the independence of Mozambique was not very important.
  130. ^ Ramazani 1975, p. 91.
  131. ^ Domínguez 1989, p. 6: "Cuba is a small country, but it has the foreign policy of a big power."
  132. ^ Feinsilver 1989, p. 2: "Cuba has projected disproportionately greater power and influence through military might ... through economic largesse ... as a mediator in regional conflicts, and as a forceful and persuasive advocate of Third World interests in international forums. Cuba's scientific achievements, while limited, are also being shared with other Third World countries, thereby furthering Cuban influence and prestige abroad."
  133. ^ "AP 1950 Invasion Wiped Out Says Trujillo". Waterloo, Iowa: Waterloo Daily Courier. 1959-06-24. p. 7.[unreliable source?]
  134. ^ "Resistencia 1916–1966". museodelaresistencia.org. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  135. ^ Hirst, Joel D. (2 December 2010). "The Bolivarian Alliance of the Americas". cfr.org. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  136. ^ Millman, Joel (15 January 2011). "New Prize in Cold War: Cuban Doctors". wsj.com. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  137. ^ Arsenault, Chris (31 December 2012). "Cuban doctors prescribe hope in Venezuela". aljazeera.com. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
    As the article discusses, the oil-for-doctors programme has not been welcomed uncritically in Venezuela. The initial impetus for Cuban doctors' going to Venezuela was a Chavez-government welfare project called Misión Barrio Adentro (Albornoz 2006).
  138. ^ Roy 2008.
    Roy's study was described as "systematic and fair" by Jorge Domínguez—see Domínguez, Jorge I. (2001). "Reviews: Cuba, the United States, and the Helms-Burton Doctrine: International Reactions by Joaquín Roy". Journal of Latin American Studies. 33 (4): 888–890. JSTOR 3653779.
  139. ^ "Joint declarations concerning areas and modalities provisionally identified for cooperation" (PDF). European Commission. 2008-11-26. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  140. ^ "Obama Says U.S., Cuba Taking Critical Steps Toward a New Day". Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. 2009-04-21. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  141. ^ "U.S. Administration Announcement on U.S. Policy Toward Cuba". Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. 2009-04-13. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  142. ^ "Emergency Phone Numbers". Whatlatinamerica.com. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  143. ^ "The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  144. ^ Williams, John Hoyt (1988-08-01). "Cuba: Havana's Military Machine". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  145. ^ "Cuban armed forces and the Soviet military presence" (PDF).
  146. ^ Cuban army called key in any post-Castro scenario Anthony Boadle Reuters 2006[unreliable source?]
  147. ^ "Cuba's Raul Castro announces retirement in 5 years". Usatoday.com. 2013-02-25. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  148. ^ "Social Policy at the crossroads" (PDF). oxfamamerica.org. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
  149. ^ "Cuba's repressive machinery: Summary and recommendations". Human Rights Watch. 1999.
  150. ^ a b "Cuba's economy: Money starts to talk". The Economist. 20 July 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  151. ^ "Inequality: The deal's off". The Economist. 2012-03-24. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  152. ^ "The power of community". Youtube.com. 2011-06-19. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  153. ^ "The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil Documentary". Powerofcommunity.org. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  154. ^ "Cuban leader looks to boost food production". CNN. 17 April 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
  155. ^ "Venezuela's Maduro pledges continued alliance with Cuba". Reuters. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  156. ^ "Cuba Ill-Prepared for Venezuelan Shock". Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
  157. ^ "Rank Order Exports". The World Factbook. CIA. June 29, 2006. Retrieved 30 April 2014. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  158. ^ Calzon, Frank (13 March 2005). "Cuba makes poor trade partner for Louisiana". Center for a Free Cuba. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  159. ^ "Rank Order – GDP (purchasing power parity)". CIA Fact Book. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  160. ^ a b David Einhorn (31 March 2006). "Catholic church in Cuba strives to re-establish the faith". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  161. ^ "Cuba's Sugar Industry and the Impact of Hurricane Michele" (PDF). International Agricultural Trade Report. 6 December 2001. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  162. ^ "Gobierno de Castro otorga a cubanos permiso para construir viviendas "por esfuerzo propio" en". Noticias24.com. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  163. ^ Cave, Damien (2011-08-02). "Cuba Prepares for Private Property". The New York Times.
  164. ^ "Cuba National Assembly approves economic reforms". BBC News. August 2, 2011.
  165. ^ Categoría: Lucha de nuestros pueblos (2014-04-01). "Los nuevos lineamientos económicos". Semanarioaqui.com. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  166. ^ Chossudovsky, Michel (2012-07-18). "Cuba implementing the nuevos lineamientos, making new economy". Globalresearch.ca. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  167. ^ "New Cuban Economy" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  168. ^ "Cuba to Open Solar Power Plant - Cuba's Havana Times.org". Havanatimes.org. 2012-08-09. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  169. ^ "Cuba to scrap two-currency system in latest reform". BBC News. 22 October 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
  170. ^ "World Competitiveness Map". International Trade Center. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
  171. ^ a b "Nickel" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
  172. ^ Ivette E. Torres (1997). "The Mineral Industry of Cuba" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  173. ^ Wayne S. Smith (1 November 2006). "After 46 years of failure, we must change course on Cuba". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
  174. ^ Espino 2000.
  175. ^ Corbett 2002, p. 33.
  176. ^ Facio, Elisa; Maura Toro-Morn, and Anne R. Roschelle (Spring 2004). "Tourism in Cuba During the Special Period" (PDF). Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems. 14. University of Iowa College of Law: 119. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  177. ^ Crespo & Negrón Díaz 1997.
  178. ^ "Background Note: Cuba". U.S. Department of State. December 2005. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  179. ^ "UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2013 Edition" (PDF). Tourism Trends and Marketing Strategies UNWTO. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  180. ^ Tamayo, Juan O. (16 October 2013). "Cuba's Justice Minister says the government fights prostitution". Miami Herald. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
  181. ^ "Travel Advice and Advisories for Cuba: Sex tourism". Government of Canada. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  182. ^ "List of Parties". Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  183. ^ "Plan de Acción Nacional 2006/2010 sobre la Diversidad Biológica. República de Cuba" (PDF). Retrieved 9 December 2012.
  184. ^ "IV Informe Nacional al Convento sobre la Diversidad Biológica. República de Cuba. 2009" (PDF). Retrieved 9 December 2012.
  185. ^ "2012 Cuban Census". One.cu. 2006-04-28. Retrieved 2014-04-23.
  186. ^ http://www.latercera.com/noticia/mundo/2013/11/678-550807-9-censo-en-cuba-concluye-que-la-poblacion-decrece-envejece-y-se-vuelve-cada-vez.shtml
  187. ^ "ANUARIO DEMOGRAFICO DE CUBA 2010" (PDF). Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas.
  188. ^ "Population, birth rate falling in Cuba: Official". The Peninsula On-line. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  189. ^ "Population Decrease Must be Reverted". Wayback.archive.org. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  190. ^ "United Nations World Fertility Patterns 1997". United Nations. 1997. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  191. ^ Stanley K. Henshaw, Susheela Singh and Taylor Haas. "The Incidence of Abortion Worldwide". International Family Planning Perspectives, 1999, 25(Supplement):S30 – S38. Retrieved May 11, 2006.
  192. ^ "A barrier for Cuba's blacks". Miami Herald.
  193. ^ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Cuba: Afro-Cubans".
  194. ^ "Sahrawi children inhumanely treated in Cuba, former Cuban official". MoroccoTimes.com. 31 March 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-11-25. Retrieved 2006-07-09. (archived from the original on 2006-11-25)
  195. ^ "La inmigración entre 1902 y 1920". Tau.ac.il. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  196. ^ "Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba". Cuban Genealogy Center. 2007-07-10. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  197. ^ "Cuban immigration - North American Immigration". Immigration-online.org. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  198. ^ Pedraza 2007, p. ?.
  199. ^ Falk 1988, p. 74: "[A] tenth of the entire Caribbean population has . . . [emigrated to the U.S.] over the past 30 years".
  200. ^ "US Census Press Releases". Wayback.archive.org. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  201. ^ Pedraza 2007, p. 5
  202. ^ "CUBA: U.S. Response to the 1994 Cuban Migration Crisis" (PDF). U.S. General Accounting Office. September 1995. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
  203. ^ "Religious Composition by Country" (PDF). Global Religious Landscape. Pew Forum. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  204. ^ Smith 1996, p. 105: "The expansion of religious liberty began more than a decade ago, for example, and Cuban citizens, by and large, are free to practice their faiths without fear of persecution."
  205. ^ Domínguez 2003, p. 4.
  206. ^ "Government officials visit Baha'i center". Baha'iWorldNewsService.com. June 13, 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  207. ^ George Brandon (1997-03-01). Santeria from Africa to the New World. Indiana University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-253-21114-9.
  208. ^ "Lucumi: A Language of Cuba (Ethnologue)". Retrieved 10 March 2010.
  209. ^ "Cuban Creole choir brings solace to Haiti's children". BBC News. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
  210. ^ "Languages of Cuba". Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  211. ^ "For Cuba, a Harsh Self-Assessment". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  212. ^ "Cuba | Comité Olímpico Cubano | National Olympic Committee". Olympic.org. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  213. ^ a b "Cuba's New Internet Service is Also No Bed of Roses". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  214. ^ "EcuRed - EcuRed" (in Template:Es icon). Ecured.cu. Retrieved 2013-06-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  215. ^ Resolución 120 del 2007 del Ministro del MIC la cual está vigente desde el ·0 de Septiembre de 2007
  216. ^ "Internet in Cuba". Reporters Without Borders.
  217. ^ Moore, Robin (1997). Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-5645-4.
  218. ^ Victor Kaonga, Malawi (2011-12-07). "Cuba: Reggaeton Hit 'Chupi Chupi' Denounced by Authorities". Global Voices. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  219. ^ Scott Shetler (2012-12-07). "Cuban Government to Censor Reggaeton For Being "Sexually Explict"". Popcrush.com. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  220. ^ "Cuban Government Censors Reggaeton and "Sexually Explicit" Songs". ABC News. 2012-12-06. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  221. ^ Alvarez 2001.
  222. ^ Costa Rica – Journey into the Tropical Garden of Eden, Tobias Hauser.[unreliable source?]
  223. ^ "Still Stuck on Castro – How the press handled a tyrant's farewell".[unreliable source?]
  224. ^ a b "The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas. Human Development Network Education. World Bank" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  225. ^ a b "unstats | Millennium Indicators". Mdgs.un.org. 2010-06-23. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  226. ^ "Latin lessons: What can we Learn from the World's most Ambitious Literacy Campaign?". The Independent. 2010-11-07. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  227. ^ "Students graduate from Cuban school – Americas – MSNBC.com". MSNBC. 2007-07-25. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
  228. ^ "Cuba-trained US doctors graduate". BBC News. 25 July 2007. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
  229. ^ "Cuba". Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
  230. ^ Harvard Public Health Review/Summer 2002 The Cuban Paradox
  231. ^ Foreign Affairs, July/August 2010.
  232. ^ a b Whiteford & Branch 2008, p. 2
  233. ^ Cuba: A Different America, By Wilber A. Chaffee, Gary Prevost, Rowland and Littlefield, 1992, p. 106
  234. ^ Feinsilver 1989, pp. 4–5: "Its success has been acclaimed by Dr. Halfdan Mahler, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO), and Dr. Carlysle Guerra de Macedo, Director-General of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), as well as by medical professionals from the United States and other capitalist countries who have observed the Cuban health system in action. Despite U.S. hostility toward Cuba, a U.S. government document stated in 1982 that the 'Cuban Revolution has managed social achievements, especially in education and health care, that are highly respected in the Third World ... , [including] a national health care program that is superior in the Third World and rivals that of numerous developed countries.'"
  235. ^ Lundy, Karen Saucier. Community Health Nursing: Caring for the Public's Health. Jones and Bartlett: 2005, p. 377.
  236. ^ Whiteford, Linda M.; Manderson, Lenore, eds. (2000). Global Health Policy, Local Realities: The Fallacy of the Level Playing Field. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 69. ISBN 1-55587-874-1. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
  237. ^ Jacob Laksin. "Castro's Doctors Plot".[unreliable source?]
  238. ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons (2001-03-28). "Cuban Health Care Systems and its implications for the NHS Plan". Select Committee on Health. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  239. ^ Mignonne Breier; Angelique Wildschut; Education, Science and Skills Development Research Programme (2007). Doctors in a Divided Society: The Profession and Education of Medical Practitioners in South Africa. HSRC Press. pp. 16, 81. ISBN 978-0-7969-2153-6.
  240. ^ "World population Prospects: The 2006 Revision: Highlights" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  241. ^ "Centro de Promoción del Comercio Exterior y la Inversión Extranjera de Cuba - CEPEC". Cepec.cu. Retrieved 2013-06-10.

Bibliography

Albornoz, Sara Carrillo de (2006). "On a mission: how Cuba uses its doctors abroad". BMJ. 333: 464. JSTOR 40700096. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Alvarez, José (2001). "Rationed Products and Something Else: Food Availability and Distribution in 2000". Cuba in Transition, Volume 11. Silver Spring, MD: ASCE. pp. 305–322. ISBN 0-9649082-0-4. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Alvarez, José (2004). Cuban Agriculture Before 1959: The Social Situation (PDF). Gainesville, FL: Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Florida. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Baklanoff, Eric N. (1998). "Cuba on the Eve of the Socialist Transition: A Reassessment of the Backwardness-Stagnation Thesis". Cuba in Transition, Volume 8. Silver Spring, MD: ASCE. pp. 260–272. ISBN 0-9649082-7-1. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Chomsky, Aviva; Carr, Barry; Smorkaloff, Pamela Maria, eds. (2004). The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3197-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Corbett, Ben (2002). This Is Cuba: An Outlaw Culture Survives. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3826-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Crespo, Nicolás; Negrón Díaz, Santos (1997). "Cuban Tourism in 2007: Economic Impact". Cuba in Transition, Volume 7. Silver Spring, MD: ASCE. pp. 150–161. ISBN 0-9649082-6-3. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Domínguez, Jorge I. (1978). Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-17925-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Domínguez, Jorge I. (1989). To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-89325-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Domínguez, Jorge I. (2003). A Constitution for Cuba's Political Transition: The Utility of Retaining (and Amending) the 1992 Constitution (PDF). Coral Gables, FL: Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies, University of Miami. ISBN 978-1-932385-04-5. Retrieved 19 August 2012.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Espino, María Dolores (2000). "Cuban Tourism During the Special Period". Cuba in Transition, Volume 10. Silver Spring, MD: ASCE. ISBN 0-9649082-8-X. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Falk, Pamela S. (1988). "Washing and Havana". The Wilson Quarterly. 12 (5): 64–74. JSTOR 40257732. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Feinsilver, Julie M. (1989). "Cuba as a 'World Medical Power': The Politics of Symbolism". Latin American Research Review. 24 (2): 1–34. JSTOR 2503679. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Gebru Tareke (2009). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14163-4.
Gleijeses, Piero (1994). "'Flee! The White Giants are Coming!': The United States, the Mercenaries, and the Congo, 1964–1965" (PDF). Diplomatic History. 18 (2): 207–237. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Gleijeses, Piero (1996). "Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961–1965". Journal of Latin American Studies. 28 (1): 159–195. JSTOR 157991.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Gleijeses, Piero (1997). "The First Ambassadors: Cuba's Contribution to Guinea-Bissau's War of Independence". Journal of Latin American Studies. 29 (1): 45–88. JSTOR 158071.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2647-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Gleijeses, Piero (2010). "Cuba and the Cold War, 1959–1980". In Melvyn P. Leffler & Odd Arne Westad, eds., The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Volume II: Crises and Détente. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–348. ISBN 978-0-521-83720-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Gleijeses, Piero (2013). Visions of Freedom: Havana, Washington, Pretoria, and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1976–1991. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-0968-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Gott, Richard (2004). Cuba: A New History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10411-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Horowitz, Irving Louis (1988). Cuban Communism. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. ISBN 0-88738-672-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Luxenberg, Alan H. (1988). "Did Eisenhower Push Castro into the Arms of the Soviets?". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 30 (1): 37–71. JSTOR 165789. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kolko, Gabriel (1994). Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914. New York, NY: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-191-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
McAlister, Lyle N. (1984). Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1216-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Pedraza, Silvia (2007). Political Disaffection in Cuba's Revolution and Exodus. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86787-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Pérez-López, Jorge F. (1996). "Cuban Military Expenditures: Concepts, Data and Burden Measures". Cuba in Transition, Volume 6. Washington, DC: ASCE. pp. 124–144. ISBN 0-9649082-5-5. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Ramazani, Rouhollah K. (1975). The Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff & Noordhoff. ISBN 90-286-0069-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Roberg, Jeffrey L.; Kuttruff, Alyson (2007). "Cuba: Ideological Success or Ideological Failure?". Human Rights Quarterly. 29 (3): 779–795. JSTOR 20072822. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Roy, Joaquín (2000). Cuba, the United States, and the Helms-Burton Doctrine: International Reactions. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. ISBN 978-0-8130-1760-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Scheina, Robert L. (2003). Latin America's Wars, Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899. Dulles, VA: Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-449-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Scott, Rebecca J. (2000) [1985]. Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-5735-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Smith, Wayne S. (1996). "Cuba's Long Reform". Foreign Affairs. 75 (2): 99–112. JSTOR 20047491. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Smith, Kirby; Llorens, Hugo (1998). "Renaisssance and Decay: A Comparison of Socioeconomic Indicators in Pre-Castro and Current-Day Cuba". Cuba in Transition, Volume 8. Silver Spring, MD: ASCE. pp. 247–259. ISBN 0-9649082-7-1. Retrieved 25 March 2013. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Sweig, Julia E. (2004) [2002]. Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground (New ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01612-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Thomas, Hugh (1997). The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-81063-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Thomas, Hugh (1998) [1971]. Cuba; or, The Pursuit of Freedom (updated ed.). Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80827-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Westad, Odd Arne (2012). Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750. London: The Bodley Head. ISBN 978-1-84792-197-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Whiteford, Linda M.; Branch, Laurence G. (2008). Primary Health Care in Cuba: The Other Revolution. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5994-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Wright, Irene Aloha (1916). The Early History of Cuba, 1492–1586. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

22°00′N 79°30′W / 22.000°N 79.500°W / 22.000; -79.500

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link GA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Cuba&oldid=607554344"