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Silent Valley National Park

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Silent Valley National Park
File:FOREST BY NIHAL JABIN.jpg
Map showing the location of Silent Valley National Park
Map showing the location of Silent Valley National Park
Location in Kerala, India
LocationPalakkad District, Kerala, India
Nearest cityCoimbatore
Area236.74
Established26 December 1980
Governing bodyKerala Forest Department

Silent Valley National Park (Malayalam: സൈലന്‍റ് വാലീ നാഷണല്‍ പാര്‍ക്ക്), (Core zone: 236.74 square kilometres (91 sq mi)) is located in the Nilgiri Hills, Palakkad District in Kerala, South India. The area in this national park was historically explored in 1847 by the botanist Robert Wight,[1] and is associated with Hindu legend.[2]

The park is one of the last undisturbed tracts of South Western Ghats mountain rain forests and tropical moist evergreen forest in India. Contiguous with the proposed Karimpuzha National Park (225 km²) to the north and Mukurthi National Park (78.46 km²) to the north-east, it is the core of the Nilgiri International Biosphere Reserve (1,455.4 km²), and is part of The Western Ghats World Heritage Site, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²) THUNDER consideration by UNESCO.[3]

Plans for a hydroelectric project that threatened the parks high diversity of wildlife stimulated an environmentalist Social Movement in the 1970s called Save Silent Valley which resulted in cancellation of the project and creation of the park in 1980. The visitors' centre for the park is at Sairandhri.

Map of Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, showing Silent Valley National Park in relation to multiple contiguous protected areas

History

The area is locally known as "Sairandhrivanam" literally, in Malayalam: Sairandhri's Forest. In local Hindu legend, Sairandhri is Draupadi, the polyandrous wife of the five Pandavas, who disguised herself as Sairandhri, queen Sudeshna's assistant, while they were in exile.[4] The Pandavas, deprived of their kingdom, set out on a 14-year exile. They wandered south, into what is now Kerala, until one day they came upon a magical valley where rolling grasslands met wooded ravines, a deep green river bubbled its course through impenetrable forest, where at dawn and twilight the tiger and elephant would drink together at the water's edge, where all was harmonious and man unknown. Beside that river, in a cave on a hill slope, the Pandavas halted.[2]

English exploration

The first English investigation of the watersheds of the Silent Valley area was in 1857 by the botanist Robert Wight.[1] The British named the area Silent Valley because of a perceived absence of noisy Cicadas. Another story attributes the name to the anglicisation of Sairandhri. A third story, refers to the presence there of many Lion-Tailed Macaques Macaca silenus.[5] In 1914 the forest of the Silent Valley area was declared a Reserve Forest, however, from 1927 to 1976 portions of the Silent Valley forest area were subjected to forestry operations. In 1928 the location on the Kunthipuzha River at Sairandhri was identified as an ideal site for electricity generation and in 1958 a study and survey of the area was conducted and a hydroelectric project of 120 MV costing Rs. 17 Crore was proposed by the Kerala State Electricity Board.[6]

Environmental concerns

Main article: Save Silent Valley.
Lion-tailed Macaque

Silent Valley is home to the largest population of Lion-tailed Macaque, an endangered species of Primate. Public controversy over their habitat led to establishment of Silent Valley National Park.

In 1973 the valley became the focal point of "Save Silent Valley", India's fiercest environmental movement of the decade, when the Kerala State Electricity Board decided to implement the Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project (SVHEP) centered on a dam across the Kunthipuzha River. The resulting reservoir would flood 8.3 km² of virgin rainforest and threaten the Lion-tailed Macaque. In 1976 the Kerala State Electricity Board announced plans to begin dam construction and the issue was brought to public attention. Romulus Whitaker, founder of the Madras Snake Park and the Madras Crocodile Bank, was probably the first person to draw public attention to the small and remote area.[7]

In 1983 the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, decided to abandon the Project and on November 15 the Silent Valley forests were declared as a National Park. On September 7, 1985 the Silent Valley National Park was formally inaugurated and a memorial at Sairandhri to Indira Gandhi was unveiled by Sri. Rajiv Gandhi, the next Prime Minister of India. On September 1, 1986 Silent Valley National Park was designated as the core area of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Since then, a long-term conservation effort has been undertaken to preserve the Silent Valley ecosystem.[6]

In 2001 a new hydro project was proposed and the "Man vs. Monkey debate" was revived. The proposed site of the dam (64.5 m high and 275 m long) is just 3.5 km downstream of the old dam site at Sairandhiri, 500 m outside the National Park boundary.[8] The Kerala Minister for Electricity called The Pathrakkadavu dam (PHEP) an "eco-friendly alternative" to the old Silent Valley project. The claim was that the submergence area of the PHEP would be a negligible .041 km² compared to 8.30 km² submergence of the 1970s (SVHEP).[9] During January to May 2003 a rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out. Little more was heard till November 15, 2006 when Kerala Minister for Forest Binoy Viswam said that the proposed buffer zone for Silent Valley would be declared soon.[10]

On February 21, 2007 ex-Chief Minister A. K. Antony told reporters after a cabinet meeting that "when the Silent Valley proposal was dropped, the centre had promised to give clearance to the Pooyamkutty project. This promise, however, had not been honoured. The Kerala government has not taken any decision on reviving the Silent Valley Hydel Project".[11]

On April 18, 2007, Kerala Chief Minister V S Achuthanandan and his cabinet approved the Pathrakkadavu Hydro-electric project and sent it to the Union Government for environmental approval.[12][13]

Buffer zone

Territorial forests located around the national park have been subject to a working-plan to accomplish revenue oriented objectives such as extraction of bamboo and reed which affect the long-term conservation of the park. In addition Illegal activities such as ganja cultivation, setting forest fires, trapping and poaching wild animals, frequently occur in the territorial forests located in the immediate vicinity of the national park. This has resulted in degradation of habitat and reduced forest cover, which has adverse effects on the long term survival of the core area of the national park.[14]

On November 21, 2009, Union Minister of Forest and Environment Jairam Ramesh and Kerala Forest Minister Binoy Viswam declared, while inaugurating the silver jubilee celebration of Silent Valley National Park in Palakkad, that the buffer zone of the Park would be made an integral part of it in order to ensure better protection of the area.[15] This means that the total park area is now increased to 236.74 square kilometres (91 sq mi).

On June 6, 2007 the Kerala cabinet approved the buffer zone proposal. The new 147.22 km² zone will include 80.75 km² taken from Attapady Forest Range, 27.09 km² from Mannarkkad Forest Range and 39.38 km² from Kalikavu Forest range and consolidated to form a new range, Bhavani Forest Range, of 94 km² and 54 km² would be brought under the existing Silent Valley Range of the National Park. The Cabinet also sanctioned 35 staff to protect the area and two new forest stations in Bhavani range at Anavai and Thudukki. Forest Minister Benoy Viswom said "the zone would have reserve forest status and tribals in the area would not be affected. The decision reaffirmed the commitment of the LDF Government to protection of environment. The zone is a necessity, not just of the State but also of the nation."[16]

The proposal was then sent to Kerala Minister for Electricity, Mr. A.K. Balan, who has voiced the need for setting up the Pathrakadavu hydroelectric project in the proposed southwest buffer zone of the National Park, the Thenkara Range of the Mannarkkad Forest Division. As of May 9, 2007 Mr. Balan has not given his opinion on the buffer zone proposal.[17]

In August 2006, the new Minister for Forests, Benoy Viswom, approved a proposal from the Conservator of Forests for a 148 km² buffer zone around the core area of the park. The proposal says: "It is felt absolutely essential that an effective buffer of forests should be immediately formed around the national park in order to save the world famous Silent Valley National Park from all potential dangers. This can only be achieved by bringing the management of Silent Valley National Park as well as the proposed buffer zone under one management umbrella to insulate the park from all possible dangers." The proposed buffer zone will have 94 km² in Attappady Reserve Forest east of the Kunthipuzha and 54 km² taken from the Mannarkaad range and Nilambur south division west of the river.

In January 2006, the former Kerala Minister for Forest and Environment, A. Sujanapal, said the Government would consider the demand for a 600 km² buffer zone for Silent Valley National Park made by Bharathapuzha Protection Committee, Malampuzha Protection Committee, One Earth One Life and Jana Jagratha. A buffer zone proposal was made in the 1986 park management plan but not implemented.[18]

In 1979, Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, then Secretary to the Department of Agriculture, visited the Silent Valley area and suggested that 389.52 km² including the Silent Valley (89.52 km²), New Amarambalam (80 km²), Attappadi (120 km²) in Kerala and Kunda in Coimbatore (100 km²) reserve forests, should be developed into a National Rainforest Biosphere Reserve.[19]

Geography

Hanging Bridge across the Kuntipuzha River – Silent Valley National Park (SVNP)
Silent Valley National Park
Topography 1:250,000., 1959'.

Silent Valley is rectangular, 7 km (east-west) X 12 km (north-south). Located between 11°03' to 11°13' N latitude and 76°21' to 76°35' E longitude it is separated from the eastern and northern high altitude plateaus of the (Nilgiris Mountains) by high continuous ridges including Sispara Peak (2,206 m) at the north end of the park. The park gradually slopes southward down to the Palakkad plains and to the west it is bounded by irregular ridges. The altitude of the park ranges from 658 m to 2328 m at Anginda Peak, but most of the park lies within the altitude range of 880 m to 1200 m. Soils are blackish and slightly acidic in evergreen forests where there is good accumulation of organic matter. The underlying rock in the area is granite with schists and gneiss, which give rise to the loamy laterite soils on slopes.[20]

Rivers

The Kuntipuzha River drains the entire 15 km length of the park from north to south into the Bharathapuzha River. Kuntipuzha River divides the park into a narrow eastern sector of width 2 kilometers and a wide western sector of 5 kilometers. The river is characterized by its crystal clear and perennial nature. The main tributaries of the river, kunthancholapuzha, Karingathodu, Madrimaranthodu, Valiaparathodu and Kummaathanthodu originate on the upper slopes of the eastern side of the valley. The river is uniformly shallow, with no flood plains or meanders. Its bed falls from 1,861 m to 900 m over a distance of 12 km, the last 8 km being particularly level with a fall of only 60 m. Kuntipuzha is one of the less torrential rivers of the Western Ghats, with a pesticide-free catchment area.[21]

Climate

Silent Valley from JPL Map server.

Silent Valley gets copious amounts of rainfall during the monsoons, but the actual amount varies within the region due the varied topography. In general the rainfall is higher at higher altitude and decreases from the west to east due to the rain shadow effect. Eighty per cent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west monsoon between June and September. It also receives significant amount of rainfall during the north-east monsoon between October and November.[22]

The park being completely enclosed within a ring of hills, has its own micro-climate and probably receives some convectional rainfall, in addition to rain from two monsoons. In the remaining months, condensation on vegetation of mist shrouding the valley is estimated to yield 15 per cent of the total water generated in the rainforest.[15]

In 2006, the Walakkad area of the park received the highest ever annual rainfall of 9,569.6 mm. In 2000, the figure was 7,788 mm; in 2001, 8,351.9 mm; in 2004, 8465.3 mm; and in 2005, 9,347.8 mm. The annual rainfall received in the valley (at Sairandhri?) was 7,788.8 mm in 2000; 8,361.9 mm in 2001. In 2002, 4,262.5 mm; in 2003, 3,499.65 mm; in 2004, 6,521.27 mm, in 2005, 6,919.38 mm; in 2006, 6,845.05 mm; in 2007, 6,009.35 mm; and in 2008 it was 4386.5 mm. The figure till October 2009 was 5,477.4 mm. Average annual rainfall in the park between 2000 and 2008 was thus 6,066 mm.[15]

The mean annual temperature is 20.2 °C. The hottest months are April and May when the mean temperature is 23 °C and the coolest months are January and February when the mean temperature is 18 °C. Because of the high rainfall, the relative humidity is consistently high (above 95%) between June and December.[21]

File:Attappadi Tribal Chief.jpg
Attappadi tribal chief
at Kuntipuzha River

Tribes

There is no record the valley has ever been settled, but the Mudugar and Irula[23] tribal people are indigenous to the area and do live in the adjacent valley of Attappady Reserved Forest.[24] Also, the Kurumbar people occupy the highest range outside the park bordering on the Nilgiris.[25]

Many of the Mudugar and Irula and kurumbar now work as day laborers and porters. Some work for the Forest Department in the park as forest guards and visitor guides. 16 out of 21 tribal colonies in the Attappady range are notorious for ganja cultivation. Many Mudugar are in abject poverty and easily recruited by the so-called ganja mafia, There is a plan to employ 50 additional men from these 21 tribal settlements as forest guards for Rs.500/man/month.[14]

Fauna and flora

Valley areas of the park are in a Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregion. Hilly areas above 1,000 m are in a South Western Ghats montane rain forests region. Above 1,500 m, the evergreen forests begin to give way to stunted forests, called sholas, interspersed with open grassland. Both are very important to naturalists, biologists and other researchers because the rich biodiversity here has never been disturbed by human settlements. Several threatened species are endemic here. New plant and animal species are often discovered here.[21]

A Nilgiri Wood-pigeon

Fauna

Birds

Birdlife International lists 16 bird species in Silent Valley as threatened or restricted: Nilgiri Wood-pigeon, Malabar Parakeet, Malabar Grey Hornbill, White-bellied Treepie, Grey-headed Bulbul, Broad-tailed Grassbird, Rufous Babbler, Wynaad Laughing Thrush, Nilgiri Laughing Thrush, Nilgiri Blue Robin, Black-and-rufous Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, White-bellied Blue-flycatcher, Crimson-backed Sunbird and Nilgiri pipit.[26]

Rare bird species found here include Ceylon Frogmouth and Great Indian Hornbill. The 2006 winter bird survey discovered Long-legged Buzzard, a new species of raptor at Sispara, the park's highest peak. The survey found 10 endangered species recorded in the IUCN Red List including the Red winged crested cuckoo, Malabar Pied Hornbill, Pale harrier. The area is home to 15 endemic species including the Black-and-orange Flycatcher. It recorded 138 species of birds including 17 species that were newly observed in the Silent Valley area. The most abundant bird was the Black bulbul.[27]

Mammals

There are at least 34 species of mammals at Silent Valley including the threatened Lion-tailed Macaque, Niligiri Langur, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Tahr, Peshwa’s Bat (Myotis peshwa) and Hairy-winged Bat. There are nine species of bats, rats and mice.[28]

Distribution and demography of all diurnal primates were studied in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas for a period of three years from 1993 to 1996. Fourteen troops of lion-tailed macaque, eighty-five troops of Nilgiri langur, fifteen troops of bonnet macaque and seven troops of Hanuman langur were observed. Of these, the Nilgiri langur was randomly distributed, whereas the lion-tailed macaque troops were confined to the southern sector of the Park. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs were occasional visitors. The Silent Valley forest remains one of the most undisturbed viable habitats left for the endemic and endangered primates lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur.[29]

The tiger, leopard, (panther), leopard cat, jungle cat, fishing cat, Common Palm Civet, Small Indian Civet, Brown Palm Civet, Ruddy Mongoose, Stripe-necked Mongoose, Dhole, clawless otter, sloth bear, small travancore flying squirrel, Indian pangolin (scaly anteater), porcupine, wild boar, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, mouse deer, elephant and gaur also live here.

Female Southern Birdwing nectaring at Silent Valley.

Insects

There are at least 730 identified species of insects in the park. The maximum number of species belong to the orders Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Many unclassified species have been collected and there is a need for further studies.[30]

33 species of crickets and grasshoppers have been recorded of which one was new. 39 species of true bugs (six new) and two species of Homoptera (both new) have been recorded. 128 species of beetles including 10 new species have been recorded.[31]

Over 128 species of butterflies and 400 species of moths live here. A 1993 study found butterflies belonging to 9 families. The families Nymphalidae and Papilionidae contained the maximum number of species. 13 species were endemic to South India, including 5 species having protected status.[32] 7 species of Butterflies were observed migrating in a mixed swarm of thousands of butterflies towards the Silent Valley National Park. In one instance an observer noted several birds attempting to catch these butterflies. The bird species included the Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata, Nilgiri Pipit Anthus nilghiriensis, Tickell's Warbler Phylloscopus affinis, Greenish Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides and the Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa.[33]

At least 500 species of earthworms and leeches have also been identified in the park.[28]

Flora

The flora of the valley include about a 1000 species of flowering plants, 108 species of orchids, 100 ferns and fern allies, 200 liverworts, 75 lichens and about 200 algae. A majority Of these plants are endemic to the Western Ghats.[34]

In addition to facilitating recharge of the aquifer, water retention of the catchment basin and preventing soil erosion, every plant in the park from the smallest one celled algae to the largest tree in the forest has unknown potential for beneficial innovations in biotechnology.

Tailed Jay nectoring on a Daisy

Flowering plants

Angiosperm flora currently identified here include 966 species belonging to 134 families and 599 genera. There are 701 Dicotyledons distributed among 113 families and 420 genera. There are 265 Monocotyledons here distributed among 21 families and 139 genera. Families best represented are the Orchids with 108 species including the rare, endemic and highly endangered orchids Ipsea malabarica, Bulbophyllum silentvalliensis and Eria tiagii, Grasses (56), Legumes (55), Rubiaceae (49) and Asters (45). There are many rare, endemic and economically valuable species, such as cardamom Ellettaria cardamomum, black pepper Piper nigrum, yams Dioscorea spp., beans Phaseolus sp., a pest-resistant strain of rice Oryza Pittambi, and 110 plant species of importance in Ayurvedic medicine.[35] Seven new plant species have been recorded from Silent Valley, including in 1996, Impatiens sivarajanii, a new species of Balsaminaceae.[36]

Trees

Occurrence of lion-tailed macaque is dependent on the flowering of Cullenia exarillata in the forest.[37]

Six distinct tree associations have been described in the valley. Three are restricted to the southern sector: (Cullenia exarillata & Palaquium ellipticum), (Palaquium ellipticum & Mesua ferrea(Indian rose chestnut) and (Mesua ferrea & Calophyllum elatum). The remainder are confined to the central and northern parts of the Park: (Palaquium ellipticum & Poeciloneuron indicum), (Calophyllum elatum & Ochlandra sp.) and (Poeciloneuron indicum & Ochlandra sp.).[38]

A study of natural regeneration of 12 important tree species of Silent Valley tropical rain forests showed good natural regeneration of all 12 species. The species studied were Palaquium ellipticum, Cullenia exarillata, Poeciloneuron indicum, Myristica dactyloides, Elaeocarpus glandulosus, Litsea floribunda, Mesua nagassarium, Cinnamomum malabatrum, Agrostistachys meeboldii, Calophyllum polyanthum, Garcinia morella and Actinodaphne campanulata.[39]

Recent selective felling of three trees per acre, has led to the cutting of 48,000 m³ of timber from about 20 km².[40]

There is a huge hollow Kattualying tree here which can fit 12 people inside.[41]

Genetic resources

Throughout human history about 10% of the genetic stock found in the wild has been bred into palatable and higher yielding cereals, fruits and vegetables. Future food security depends on the preservation of the remaining 90% of the stock through protection of high biodiversity habitats like Silent valley.[42]

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources of ICAR (India), Plant Exploration and Collection Division[43] has identified Silent Valley as high in bio-diversity and an important Gene Pool resource for Recombinant DNA innovations. An important example of use of wild germplasm is gene selection from the wild varieties of rice Oryza nivara (Central India) and Oryza Pittambi found in Silent Valley for the traits of broad spectrum disease resistance in high yielding hybrid rice varieties including IR-36, which are responsible for much of the Green Revolution throughout Asia.[44]

Also, genetic evaluation of plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria obtained from Silent Valley indicated that strain, IISR 331, could increase the growth of black pepper cuttings by 228% and showed 82.7% inhibition of the common plant wilting disease Phytopthora capsici in laboratory tests (in vitro).[45]

Challenges

Forest fire

Fire is one of the major threats facing the forests of Kerala. People engaged in grazing livestock often burn an area to get fresh grass shoots for their cattle, especially during dry season when fire danger is greatest. Also, illicit activities like ganja cultivation, poaching, tree felling, non timber forest products (NTFP) collection and very often careless tourists and pilgrims are responsible for big forest fires.[46] Some extent of the Mesua - Calophyllum tree association areas in the higher reaches are degraded due to previous fire and the area is now fast regenerating.[47]

Cannabis cultivation

The cannabis mafia has cut hundreds of acres of evergreen tropical forest in the Attappady Hills, including Silent Valley buffer zones, for illegal cultivation of the cash crop. The Forest Department had an ambitious plan to root out ganja cultivation from the Attappady forests by April 2006.[14]

External sources

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silent Valley National Park.

This volume is a tribute to nature and vouches for what can be achieved when naturalists, forestry experts and scientists join hands for the cause of conservation.

  • Aiyappan A. (1988), Tribal Culture and Tribal Welfare By, Uma Charan Mohanty, University of Madras Dept. of Anthropology.
  • From Mukkali to Sairandhri in Silent Valley National Park 37 photos
  • Silent Valley National Park A Travel Blog
  • silentvalley.gov.in
  • "Only An Axe Away" This 40 minute, 2004, documentary film narrates the history of the unique campaign to save the Silent Valley from destructive development. The threat to Silent Valley does not cease! Direction: P Baburaj & C Saratchandran

Notes

  1. ^ a b Kumar, N. Shiva (August 2004). "Silent Valley: Trekking through the Amazon of India" (PDF). Corporate House Journal of Indian Oil Corporation Limited. XXXXI. Indian Oil Corporation Limited: 15–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 28, 2006. Retrieved 2007-07-02. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; September 28, 2007 suggested (help) [dead link‍]
  2. ^ a b Ullash, R.K. Kumar (May 2006). "Stolen Generation - SilentValley". Retrieved 2007-07-02.
  3. ^ "Research: UNESCO, World Heritage sites, Tentative lists, Western Ghats sub cluster, Niligiris". UNESCO. 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  4. ^ Narayanan P. J. (1996). "Keechaka Vadham, "Slaying of Keechaka", story from the Hindu epic Mahabharatham". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
  5. ^ Krishnan, Vinoo (2007-01-03). "Into the Jungle". Sunday Express. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
  6. ^ a b Gledhill, Laurence (Winter 1996). "Silent Valley - A masterplan for The Indian Ex-situ Population of Lion-tailed Macaques, Macaca silenus and A Historical Profile of Habitat Conservation in Kerala, India". Newsletter for the Old World Monkey Taxon Advisory Group. 3 (2). American Zoo and Aquarium Association. Retrieved 2007-10-18. Reprinted from the 1995 Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, the Wildlife Disease Association, and the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians
  7. ^ "Storm over Silent Valley, A Peoples Movement Saves A Valley". Ministry of Environment and Forests (India). Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  8. ^ Kumar, K.G. (2004-05-24). "Silent Valley redux?". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  9. ^ Surendranath, C.; Suchitra, M. (2004-08-01). "New whispers in Silent Valley". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  10. ^ "Kerala minister of Forests: "Proposed buffer Zone to be declared soon". The Hindu. 2006-11-17. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  11. ^ "No decision yet on Silent Valley: Antony". Times of India. 2007-02-23. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  12. ^ "Green Marxist succumbs to 'Power' needs". newindpress.com. 2007-04-19. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
  13. ^ Suchitra, M. (2007-06-12). "Kerala clears Pathrakkadavu hydroelectric project near national park". Down to Earth. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
  14. ^ a b c Prabhakaran, G (2006-03-12). "Plan afoot to uproot ganja from Silent Valley". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
  15. ^ a b c Prabhakaran, G. (December 3, 2009). "A rainforest's saga of survival". The Hindu, Op-Ed. Chennai: Kasturi and Sons Ltd. Retrieved 27 December 2009. Cite error: The named reference "Prabhakaran" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  16. ^ "Cabinet approves buffer zone for Silent Valley". The Hindu. 2007-06-06. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
  17. ^ Prabhakaran, G. (2007-05-09). "Cabinet yet to get proposal for Silent Valley buffer zone". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
  18. ^ "Government will consider plea for Silent Valley buffer zone: Minister". The Hindu. 2003-01-09. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  19. ^ Surendranath, C. (2007-02-13). "Silent Valley: threatened again". India Together. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  20. ^ Unnikrishnan, P.N. (1989). Silent Valley National Park Management Plan 1990.91-99.2000. Silent Valley National Park Division, Mannarghat. pp. 1–83.
  21. ^ a b c United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1991). "Silent Valley National Park". UNEP-WCMC report. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
  22. ^ ANCF (2006). "Nilambur-Silent Valley-Coimbatore, Perspective for the Reserve". Asian Nature Conservation Foundation. Archived from the original on 2007-02-02. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
  23. ^ Suchitra, M. (2005-07-25). "Remote adivasis face health care chasm". India Together. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
  24. ^ "National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, Silent Valley National Park". palghat.net. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
  25. ^ Balford, Edward (1873). "Kurumbar people". Cyclopædia of India and of eastern and southern Asia. 3. Scottish and Adelphi Presses: 341. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
  26. ^ BirdLife International 2005 World Bird Database, Version 2.0. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. Available: World Bird Database, accessed 3/24/2007
  27. ^ Prabhakaran, G. (2006-12-13). "New species of bird sighted in Silent Valley". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
  28. ^ a b Gopalakrishnan, C.V. (2001-07-29). "Silent Valley, 'world's natural heritage site'". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
  29. ^ Ramchandaran, K.K.; Joseph, Gigi, K. (2001). "Distribution and demography of diurnal primates in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas, Kerala, India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 98 (2). Bombay Natural History Society: 191–196. Retrieved 2007-03-03.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [dead link‍]
  30. ^ Rugmini P., Binoy C. F. (2003). "Impact of forest fire on insect species diversity - a study in the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India" (PDF). Entomon (abstract). 28 (2). Division of Entomology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.: 105–114. Retrieved 2014-04-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Z.S.I. (1986). "Silent Valley". Records of the Zoological Survey of India. 84 (Silent Valley Special Issue). Zoological Survey of India: 1–4. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-09-29. cited by Mathew George and Binoy C.F., Chapter 3, AN OVERVIEW OF INSECT DIVERSITY OF WESTERN GHATS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA STATE
  32. ^ Mathew, G.; Rahamathulla, VK (1993). "Studies on the butterflies of Silent Valley National Park". Entomon. 18 (3–4): 185–192. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  33. ^ Senthilmurugan, B. (2005-8). "Mukurthi National Park: A migratory route for butterflies". Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 102 (2). Bombay Natural History Society: 241–242. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ^ "Flora and Fauna of Silent Valley National Park". silentvalleynationalpark.com. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  35. ^ Manilal, K.S. (1988). Flora of Silent Valley tropical rainforests of India. Calicut: The Mathrubhumi (MM) Press. p. 398.
  36. ^ Kumar, M.; S. (1996). "Impatiens sivarajanii - a new species of Balsaminaceae from Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India". Rheedea. 6: 51. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
  37. ^ ATREE. "Cullenia exarillata- atree.org, Projects-2". atree.org. Archived from the original on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  38. ^ Joseph, Gigi K.; Ramachandarn, K.K. (2003). "Distribution and Demography of the Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii) in Silent Valley National Park and Adjacent Areas, Kerala, India" (PDF). Primate Conservation. 19. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group: 78–82. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
  39. ^ Manilal, K.S.; Kandya, A.; Sabu, T. (1989). "A study of natural regeneration of 12 important tree species of Silent Valley tropical rain forests, Kerala, India". Journal of Tropical Forestry. 5 (1): 43–50. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-10-18. [dead link‍]
  40. ^ Gopalakrishnan, C.V. (2001-08-16). "Bio-diversity facing extinction threat". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-02-08.
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  47. ^ Ramachandaran, K.K.; Joseph, G.K. (November 2000). "Habitat Utilization of Lion-tailed Macaque in Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India" (PDF). Primate Report 58,. Retrieved 2007-10-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link), p.22
  48. ^ Kerala Forest Dept. in association with Kerala Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (1999). Manoharan, T. M. (ed.). Silent Valley: Whispers of Reason. Thiruvananthapuram: Natraj Publishers. ISBN 6190097814. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
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