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Tenagino Probus

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Vir Perfectissimus
Tenagino Probus
Born
Northeast Italy (?)
Diedend-270 AD
Babylon, Egypt province
Cause of deathHeroic suicide
NationalityItalian (?)
CitizenshipRoman
Occupation(s)Soldier (general officer): Equestrian governor of Numidia and then Aegyptu
EmployerEmperors Gallienus & Claudius II
Known forCampaigns in Africa Proconsularis (?) and the Eastern Mediterranean and resistance to takeover of Egypt by Zenobia
OpponentSeptiminus Zabdas
The Roman Empire in Africa

Tenagino Probus was a Roman soldier and procuratorial official whose career reached its peak at the end of the sixth decade of the third century AD (c. 255-260). A poverty of primary sources means that nothing is known for certain of his origins or early career. However, in later years he served successively as Praeses (governor) of the province of Numidia (i.e. Praeses Numidiae) and of Egypt, (i.e. Praefectus Aegypti). These were both very senior procuratorial offices, the latter in particular traditionally considered one of the pinnacles of an equestrian career. In these roles he exercised military skills in addition to administrative ones; as Praefectus Aegypti he led military operations outside his province. He died resisting the invasion of Egypt by the forces of Zenobia of Palmyra in the troubled inter-regnum between Emperors Claudius II and Aurelian.

Despite the limited availability of information about Probus,[a] the fact that he was: (i) entrusted with the government of two of the Empire's most economically and strategically significant provinces; and (ii) given important military command outside his province (at least during his time as Praefectus Aegypti) indicates that he had the reputation of a highly competent Imperial functionary. His known appointments suggest that both Emperor Gallienus and Gallienus' successor Claudius II held him in high regard. Probus was likely among the relatively small group of professional soldiers who benefited from the opening up of provincial governorships and senior military commands, which were previously reserved for senators.

Primary Sources

Literary

Probus is referred to by the Historia Augusta (SHA) in the Uita Divi Claudii[1] under the name "Probatus". In the garbled account in the Uita Probi purporting to deal with the campaigns of Marcus Aurelius Probus in North Africa and Egypt the future emperor is credited with actions that other, more reliable, sources indicate should be attributed to Tenagino Probus.[2] The SHA mentions him only as a military commander: no reference is made to his procuratorial status in Numidia or Egypt.

Of the Greek/Byzantine sources, Zosimus's Nova Historia too records in fair detail Probus's military exploits in the period when he is known to have been Praefectus Aegypti without actually identifying him as the holder of that office. It makes no reference to his earlier appointment in Numidia, George Syncellus[3] and Zonaras[4] largely reiterate Zosimus with some confusion of the material.

Epigraphic

There are a number of epigraphic inscriptions attesting the existence of Tenagino Probus and some details of his career :

  • 1. In Latin, from Lambaesis, Numidia (now Lambèse, Tunisia.[5] Dated to 267-8 AD in the principate of Gallienus.[6] Probus is not mentioned by name, but the context suggests that the inscription relates to his term of office and this is generally accepted by authoritative commentators[6]
  • 2. In Latin, from Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi, Numidia (now Timgad, Algeria).[7] This inscription names Probus and refers to him as praeses and invokes the Emperor Claudius. This makes it likely that it is dated soon after Claudius's accession to the purple in mid-268 AD, but before his election as consul for 269 AD at end-268;[8]
  • 3. In Latin, from Thuburbo Maius, Numidia, (now Henchir-Kasbat, Tunisia).[9] This inscription refers to Probus as governor of the province and patronus of the colonia. The colonia referred to is probably Thurburbo Maius. The dating is 269 AD under Claudius[10]
  • 4. In Greek, from Claudiopolis (more usually known as Cyrene (Cyrene, Libya).[11] The inscription refers to Probus as a diasemotatos (i.e. Vir Perfectissimus) and Praefectus Aegypti and invokes Claudius II as Emperor. It celebrates the victory gained by the Romans under Probus over Berber nomads in the neighbouring province of Cyrenaica. The inscription is usually assigned to late-269/early-270 AD.[12]

Origins and early career

Origins

There is neither literary nor epigraphic evidence to shed any light on Probus's origins.

Onomastic analysis of his nomen (i.e. his family name, see Roman naming conventions, suggests that "Tenagino" was quite rare . There are in fact only two recorded occurrences, both discovered in north east Italy: namely, Tenigenonia (sic) Claudia;[13] and Q. Tenagino Maximus.[14] These inscriptions might indicate that Probus originated in this region, but cannot be regarded as conclusive evidence to that effect. However, the nomen does indicate that his family's citizen-status pre-dated the Constitutio Antoniniana of 212 AD. This might or might not mean they were people of substance.

Early career

There is no information relating to Probus's early career. Long-term military service is indicated, but it is impossible to determine whether or not he was already of equestrian status when he enlisted in the army.[b] `

Probus's first known gubernatorial appointment was as Praeses Numidiae. Until at least 260 AD and, possibly, even later, Numidia had been a propraetorial province, i.e. it had been governed on behalf of the Emperor by a senatorial Legatus Augusti (i.e. a official who had previously held office in Rome or elsewhere as a praetor[c]. However, Epigraph #1 above indicates that by 267 AD, i.e. during the sole reign of the Emperor Gallienus, the governor of Numidia was officially entitled praeses. (The title praeses did not always mean that a governor was of equestrian rank, but, in the case of 'Numidia, he was and, in the event, all known subsequent governors of that province were equestrians). As noted, it is now generally assumed that Probus was the official referred to in the inscription even though his name has disappeared from the text. He may, indeed, have been the first equestrian governor of that province. It seems, therefore, highly likely that he was an early beneficiary of Gallienus's policy of giving equestrians military commands (over legions) and administrative posts (as governors of propraetorial provinces) that prior to Gallienus's sole reign (260-268 AD) had been reserved for men of senatorial status except in the most exceptional circumstances.

Procuratorial career

Praeses Numidiae

The function

The loyalty of the Praeses Numidiae was important to whoever aspired to govern the Roman Empire for a number of reasons:

1. Numidia was one of the main sources of the grain and olive oil that were the essential staples of the Roman diet and was thus a key-resource under-pinning the emperor's ability to control Rome and to supply the armies stationed in Europe; in addition

2. Its governor of Numidia commanded the Legio III Augusta based at Lambaesis, the only significant military force in Roman north Africa - i.e. from the boundaries of Egypt to the Atlantic coast of Morocco. This legion may ostensibly have been intended for the defense of the north African provinces from the attentions of the nomad populations on its southern boundaries, but, for the most part, this work was, arguably, not best undertaken by a unit whose chief strength lay in its heavy infantry. It was an instrument at once too powerful and too blunt for that job.[15] In fact, the chief role of the governor of Numidia at the head of his legion in the strategic vision of the Imperial government legion seems to have been to uphold its authority not only in his own province, but in the whole of the resource-rich African region and, in particular, in the neighboring province of Africa Proconsularis (see WP Article Roman Africa) - as its name indicates, a proconsular province. During the reign of Gallienus and his successors Africa Proconsularis rivalled Egypt itself as a granary of Rome.[d] Thus, it can be deduced that the governor of Numidia was regarded by the ruling Emperor as his "man-on-the spot" in Africa and the legion commanded by that man as the ultimate sanction of the his ability to exploit the resources of that economic and stragetically vital region for his own Imperial purposes;[e] finally

3. After the loss of the western provinces to the "Gallic Emperor", Postumus, and the de facto secession of the eastern provinces under Odenathus of Palmyra, the Numidian garrison constituted the only substantial reserve of military man-power available to Gallienus in Europe as he faced the Scythian inroads of 267-8.[f]

For all the above reasons, then, Probus's appointment as Praeses Numidiae seems to be proof that he had an established reputation for competence and that Gallienus trusted him utterly.

Probus in office

There is no reliable information about Probus's period of office in Numidia.

The SHA suggests that, like his predecessor during the regime of Maximinus Thrax, he may have been called upon to intervene in Africa Proconsularis to put down an insurrection in Carthago.[2] However, the balance of academic opinion is that this story is one of those inventions in which the SHA seemed to delight and should, therefore, be rejected.[g] The same passage in the uita goes on to assert that "Probus" slew a "certain Aradio" - no further explanation - in single combat before honouring him with a magnificent tomb. This too is not generally accepted[18] although some authorities are prepared to concede that it may be authentic[19]

Praefectus Aegypti

Strategic signficance of Egypt

As noted, Epigraph #4 is generally interpreted to mean that Probus was en poste as Praefectus Aegypti before the end of 269 AD.

Ever since its conquest by Augustus in the First Century BC the Emperors of Rome had regarded their absolute control of this territory and its grain harvests as a sine qua non for the maintenance of their authority in general terms: loss of control of Egypt almost immediately undermined the ability of the Imperial government to maintain control of the People of Rome. Even more than was the case with the African provinces, it was considered essential that its praefectus should be a man in whom the Emperor had absolute trust. For this reason from the very earliest days of the principate that officer had always been an equestrian, presumably because most functionaries of that class, unlike senators, were considered to lack a personal power-base and were, thus, more likely to maintain unquestioning loyalty to the princeps. By appointing Probus to this office even though he had been a protegé of his predecessor and probable victim, Gallienus, Claudius II demonstrated that he too had the utmost confidence in him.

Probus's term as praefectus

This confidence was further displayed shortly after Probus assumed the praefecture of Egypt when Claudius commissioned him to intervene militarily in the neighbouring senatorial province of Creta et Cyrenaica whch had suffered an incursion by the Marmaritae. These latter seem to have been a nomadic people who roamed in a semi-desert territory known as the Marmarica which lay west of the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt and to the south of Cyrenaica. Traditionally Emperors hesitated to countenance governors' undertaking military action beyond the boundaries of their own province. However, as has been seen in the case of Numidia, forces stationed in Imperial provinces could, in time of need be used in neighbouring provinciae inermes (lit. unarmed provinces) and the text of Epigraph #4 suggests that the Marmaritae had become on increasing nuisance in Cyrenaica. Reference is made to their "audacity".[h] Epigraph #4 suggests that on this occasion Probus dealt with the incursion with effective dispatch although, as was always the case, the victory was officially attributed to the reigning Emperor (i.e. Claudius). In the inscription Cyrene is referred to as Claudiopolis (i.e. "City of Claudius") in the Emperor's honour although it is unclear whether this was to celebrate the defeat of the Marmaritae.
Shortly after his success in Cyrenaica Probus was given a further commission by Claudius to undertake a naval campaign against Gothic pirates who had been raiding the islands of the eastern Mediterranean and the southern coast of Asia Minor. This action is recorded only in Zosimus.[21] However, recent archaeological discoveries in the Turkish province of Antalya suggest that, even as Claudius was concluding his war against the Scythian migrants in the Balkans he had dispatched an expeditionary force to repel attacks by Gothic pirates along the southern coasts of Asia Minor. This is thought to have cooperated with Probus's naval force. Zosimus reports that the pirates were driven away "without achieving much" - an outcome that he attributes entirely to the efforts of Probus, but which may now be seen more properly as the result of a combined operation.[i]

Final campaign and death of Tenagino Probus

The fullest account of Probus's final campaign and death is found in Zosimus.

While Probus was away fighting the pirates at sea, Zenobia began a drive to extend her authority over Asia, Arabia and Egypt. In the case of Egypt she seems to have been encouraged by a strong pro-Palmyrene faction in the population - and possibly the Imperial garrison - led by one Timagenes, otherwise unknown. In his support, Zenobia's general Septiminus Zabdas invaded the province at the head of an army of 70,000 men and, together with his local allies, defeated the Egyptian loyalists who had mustered an army of 50,000. Zabdas then returned to Syria leaving a garrison of 5,000, presumably in Alexandria.

When this news reached Probus, he returned to Egypt with the force he had led against the pirates and, with the support of those sympathetic to the Imperialist cause in Egypt, he drove out Zabdas's garrison. Zabdas then returned, but was again defeated by Probus, the pro-Imperial Egyptian forces and "soldiers from Africa" - no further explanation. Probus then seems to have followed Timagenes up-river to the fortress of Babylon (located at the head of the Nile delta, now a suburb of modern Cairo). He thus cut the enemy's escape-route to Syria. However, using his knowledge of the surrounding country, Timagenes seized the summit of a nearby mountain with 2,000 men and, launching a surprise attack on the Probus's army, defeated it utterly.[j] Probus was captured and, in the Roman heroic tradition, chose to kill himself rather than bear the ignominy of defeat.[k]

The Uita Divi Claudii broadly repeats this account, but makes Timagenes a Palmyrene general rather than an anti-Imperialist Egyptian.

Papyrological and numismatic evidence suggests that Zabdas began his assault on Egypt in the autumn of 270 AD and by the end of the year had brought it firmly under the control of his mistress, Zenobia.[22]

Notes

  1. ^ Throughout this article Tenagino Probus is referred to by his cognomen Probus, according to the practice of both Latin and Greek/Byzantine sources, except where it is necessary to distinguish him from others with the same name.
  2. ^ For examples of the various ways in which a soldier might enter the equestrian career-path see, inter alia, Publius Aelius Aelianus, Lucius Petronius Taurus Volusianus, Traianus Mucianus and Lucius Aurelius Marcianus all of whom fall in the WP category "Equestrian commanders of vexillationes".
  3. ^ Major provinces theat, unlike Numidia lacked a legionary garrison - i.e. provinciae inermes - were defined as provinciae proconsulares and, as such, were nominally governed by officials appointed by the Roman Senate from among the Viri Consulares, i.e. senators who had held the office of Consul. In practice the senate's choice of governor had to be ratified by the Emperor, but they were always drawn from this small group of men.
  4. ^ It was over a century since a Special Grain Commission under C. Arrius Pacatus had first organised an African grain-fleet to relieve a threatened famine in Italy[16]
  5. ^ It was scarcely thirty years since the then Legatus Numidiae at the head of Legio III Augusta had acted on behalf of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax to crush an uprising of the Roman settlers in neighbouring Africa Proconsularis that was sparked off by the heavy sur-taxes being imposed by that Emperor to finance wars against the nascent Alamanni in Germany. The garrison of Numidia thus brought to an end the short-lived principates of Gordian I and Gordian II who had secured the backing of the Roman Senate.
  6. ^ For details of the Scythian incursions that began in 267 AD see the WP Articles on the Battle of Naissus and Lucius Aurelius Marcianus.
  7. ^ The account of the purported rebellion in Carthago is suspect in part because it appears in a passage in which the author appears to have confused Tenagino Probus with his contemporary, Marcus Aurelius Probus, the future emperor, and attributed to the latter actions known from other, more reliable sources, to have been undertaken by the former. Furthermore, the specific reference to the rebellion in Carthago is not supported by any other source - always a good reason for suspecting authority of the SHA. Finally, the reference seems to have been inserted in support of a topos repeated later in the Vita Probi that, as a commander, Probus (the Emperor) never allowed his soldiers to become idle - a trait that was to contribute to the mutiny that resulted in his death.[17]
  8. ^ For a discussion of Rome's attitude to the nomadic peoples of north Africa in general terms see Shaw[20]
  9. ^ For a discussion of a possible combined operation against the Gothic pirates in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor involving sea and land forces see the WP Article Lucius Aurelius Marcianus.
  10. ^ The mountain is unidentified, but may have been the site of modern Cairo Citadel
  11. ^ For further evidence of the survival of this tradition into the Third Century AD see the WP Article Aurelius Heraclianus.

Citations

  1. ^ SHA VC(11.1 f.
  2. ^ a b VP(9.1-5).
  3. ^ Syncellus(721).
  4. ^ Zonaras(12.27).
  5. ^ CIL VIII 2571 + 18057 (Lambaesis).
  6. ^ a b PLRE(Probus, Tenagino 1).
  7. ^ (AE 1936 #58.
  8. ^ PLRE(Probus. Tenagino, 2.)
  9. ^ ILAlg II 24 = AE 1941 #33.
  10. ^ PLRE: Probus, Tenagino 3.
  11. ^ SEG IX 9 = AE 1934 #257
  12. ^ PLRE: Probus, Tenagino 4 and Barnes(1972:168).
  13. ^ CIL V 3345 (Verona)
  14. ^ Pais 715 name(Anauni).
  15. ^ Shaw(1995:IX, passim).
  16. ^ Shaw(1995:I.61).
  17. ^ Vita Probi 20.2.
  18. ^ e.g. Barnes(1972:168).
  19. ^ e.g. Saunders(1992:428).
  20. ^ Shaw(1995:VII,25-46).
  21. ^ Zosimus: Nova Historia: I:44.2.
  22. ^ Saunders(1992:152-5).

Works cited

Abbreviations of works of reference

  • SHA - The Augustan History: Life of the Deified Claudius Vita Divi Claudii (SHA VC) )[1]; Life of Probus Vita Probi (SHA VP) )[2];
  • AE - L'Année Épigraphique; R. Cagnat et al (eds.); Paris; 1889-;
  • PIR(2) - Prosopographia imperii Romani; E.Groag et al (eds.); Berlin; 1933-;
  • PLRE - The prosopography of the later Roman Empire; Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. and Morris, J. (eds.);Cambridge University Press; 1971-1992.

Primary sources

  • Syncellus - Mosshammer, A.A. (1984). Georgii Syncelli Ecloga Chronogaphica. Leipzig.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (Syncelllus);
  • Zonaras - Pinder, M. (1841–1897). Ioannis Zonarae Annales. CSHB 29-31. Bonn. (Zonaras);
  • Zosumus - Paschoud, F. (1971–86). Zosimus, Histoire Nouvelle (Books 1-5). Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (Zosimus)

Secondary sources

  • Barnes, T.D. (1972). "Some persons in the Historia Augusta". Phoenix. 26: 140–182. doi:10.2307/1087714. (Barnes(1972);
  • Saunders, Randall Titus (1992). A biography of the Emperor Aurelian. Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106-1346: UMI Dissertation Services.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)(Saunders(1992));
  • Shaw, B.D. (1995). Rulers, Christians and Nomads in Roman North Africa. Aldershot (Hants.) and Brookfield (Vermont 05036): VARIORUM.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link);

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