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Irish Americans

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File:Irish Population 1872.jpg
Irish population density in the United States, 1872.
The Chicago River, dyed green for the 2005 St. Patrick's Day celebration.

Irish Americans are residents or citizens of the United States of Irish ancestry. Roughly 34 million Americans reported Irish ancestry in the 2000 US Census.[1] The only self-reported "ethnic" group larger than Irish Americans is German Americans.

The term Scotch Irish (aka Scots Irish or Ulster-Scots) is usually used to designate descendants of immigrants from Ulster - a region where much intermingling of Scots and Irish people took place due to the close proximity of the regions. The number of this specific group is reported by the US Census of 200 as being around 4.9 million. However, due to some disparity in naming convention, some estimate the actual number to be in the region of 23 million to 30 million - including a significant proportion of thosse respondants to the Census who labelled themselves as simply 'Irish-American'.

Some see a distinction between Catholic 'Irish Americans' and Protestant 'Scotch Irish' (though not all Scots-Irish migrants were specifically Protestant). Many people of Scotch Irish descent were in the past happy enough to describe themselves as, simply, Irish American, considering themselves a sub-set of a broader Irish American group, now they see themselves as simply Scotch Irish.

Two possible reasons have been suggested for the disparity of the figures of the census and the estimation. The first is that Scotch-Irish may quite often regard themselves as simply having either Irish ancestry (which 10.8% of Americans reported) or Scottish ancestry (reported by 4.9 million or 1.7% of the total population). The other is that most of the descendants of this historical group have integrated themselves into American society to such an extent that they, like English-Americans or German-Americans, do not feel the need to identify with their ancestors as strongly as perhaps the more recent Roman Catholic Irish-Americans.

Immigration to America

File:Brian Boru Pipe Band.jpg
Irish America celebrates, St. Patrick's Day 2006, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States.

Around a quarter of a million Irish Protestants moved to America before 1776, settling especially in frontier areas of Pennsylvania, Virginia and the Carolinas. Much of the South also shows their historic imprint. This was at a time when the 'West' was still particularly 'Wild', and many of these people were Frontiersmen who pushed westward and had to graft hard to till the lands they eventually settled in, which wasn't particularly fertile.

Many of these immigrants were 'Scots-Irish' (known in the United States as 'Scotch-Irish) who, in contrast with later Catholic Irish immigrants, assimilated themselves more readily into the new society and somewhat lost their historical identity as a result &ndash becoming fully American. There has been a resurgence of interest in recent years of their historical roots in North America. Many of the Roman Catholics who came over in large numbers some 150 years later, tended to stick together and didn't venture much further west. Therefore the State of New York, for example, has a sizeable Irish Catholic-descended population.

During and after the Irish potato famine (or Great Famine (An Gorta Mór)) of 1845-1849, millions of Irish Catholics came to North America. Many arrived in Canada on disease-ridden ships referred to as coffin ships. Some of them remained there, especially in Toronto and Ontario, and became Irish-Canadians; others moved to the United States. Between 1820 and 1860, one third of all immigrants to the United States were Irish Catholics, and in the 1840s, they comprised nearly half of all immigrants.[2]

The largest number of Catholic Irish went to the metropolitan areas of Boston and New York. New York City has more people who claim Irish heritage than Dublin's whole population.

Occupations

Even before the famine, Irish Catholic immigration had been increasing by the 1830s. New immigrants were hired by Irish labor contractors to work as manual laborers on canals, railroads, streets, sewers and other construction projects, particularly in New York state and New England. Large numbers moved to New England mill towns, such as Lowell, Massachusetts and Milford, Massachusetts, where Protestant owners of textile mills welcomed the new low-wage workers. They took the jobs previously held by Yankee Protestant women known as Lowell girls. A large fraction of Irish Catholic women took jobs as maids in middle class households and hotels.

The main business enterprises set up by the Irish were taverns and construction.

Large numbers of unemployed Irish Catholics lived in squalid conditions in the new city slums.

Although the Irish Catholics started very low on the social status scale, by 1900, they had jobs and earnings about equal on average to their neighbors. After 1945, the Catholic Irish consistently ranked toward the top of the social hierarchy, thanks especially to their high rate of college attendance. [Greeley 1993]

Discrimination and prejudice

New York Times want ad 1854--only newspaper ad with NINA for men

Nativist prejudice against Irish Catholics reached a peak in the mid-1850s with the Know Nothing Movement, which tried to oust Catholics from public office. Much of the opposition came from Irish Protestants, as in the 1831 riots in Philadelphia.[1] In rural areas riots broke out in the 1830s among rival labor teams from different parts of Ireland, and between Irish and native American work teams competing for construction jobs. [2]

It was common for Irishmen to be discriminated against in the social situations and intermarriage between Catholics and Protestants was uncommon (and strongly discouraged by both ministers and priests). An important response was the creation of a parochial school system, in addition to numerous colleges, that isolated about half the Irish youth from the public schools. After 1860 Irish sang songs (see illustration) about signs reading "HELP WANTED - NO IRISH NEED APPLY". The songs had a deep impact on the Irish sense of discrimination.

(While there is much evidence of such signs in England, [memory.loc.gov/rbc/amss/cw1/cw104040/001q.gif] no historian, archivist or museum curator has located a sign or photograph or exact description of one in the United States. Computerized searches of millions of want-ads in newspapers has turned up numerous NINA ads for female household workers, but only one ad for a male worker (see illustration for this 1854 want ad.) One interpretation argues that Irish needed to feel there was a high barrier between themselves and the Protestants in order to enhance group solidarity. Certainly group solidarity proved a major asset in the job market as the Irish virtually monopolized certain occupations (such as longshoremen), and in politics where they gained increasing power in the Democratic party. [Jensen 2002])

File:Nina3.jpg
1862 song that created the "No Irish Need Apply" slogan; it was copied from a similar London song

[3]

The issue of job discrimination against Irish immigrants is a hotly debated among historians, with some insisting that the "No Irish need apply" signs so familiar to the Irish in memory were myths, and others arguing that the Irish continued to be discriminated against in various professions into the 20th century. Whether the signs actually existed in large number, many New Yorkers harbored nativist sentiment against the Catholic Irish poor in the post-Civil war period. Irish-Americans were effectivly barred for certain occupations. While the Irish dominated such occupations as domestic service, building, and factory work, they were not present in large numbers in the professions, finance, and many businesses. In response, the Irish clung to their occupational niches fiercely, blocking attempts by newer immigrant groups and African Americans to enter them, and earning them a reputation for racism and violence. Since many of the earliest late 19th century imgrant population was Irish, they recived the first attcks and descrimination my nativists and pre-protastant groups that would be alter seen in other imigrant groups.

Stereotypes and images

In 19th and 20th centuries - and even today - stereotypes portray the Irish in America as being boss-controlled, violent (both among themselves and with those of other ethnic groups), being prone to alcoholism, voting illegally, and being dependent on gangs that were often violent or criminal. The New York Journal of Commerce reported:

"You will scarcely ever find an Irishman dabbling in counterfeit money, or breaking into houses, or swindling; but if there is any fighting to be done, he is very apt to have a hand in it." Even though Pat might "'meet with a friend and for love knock him down,'" noted a Montreal paper, the fighting usually resulted from a sudden excitement, allowing there was "but little 'malice prepense' in his whole composition." The Catholic Telegraph of Cincinnati in 1853, saying that the "name of 'Irish' has become identified in the minds of many, with almost every species of outlawry," distinguished the Irish vices as "not of a deep malignant nature," arising rather from the "transient burst of undisciplined passion," like "drunk, disorderly, fighting, etc., not like robbery, cheating, swindling, counterfeiting, slandering, calumniating, blasphemy, using obscene language, &c." [3]

The Irish had many humorists of their own, but were scathingly attacked in German American cartoons, especially those in Puck magazine from the 1870s to 1900. In addition, the cartoons of German-American Thomas Nast were especially hostile; for example, he depicted the Irish-dominated Tammany Hall machine in New York City as a ferocious tiger.[4] [5].

Irish settlement in the South

While only 2% of Southerners were Irish Catholics, they concentrated in a few medium-size cities where they were highly visible, such as Charleston, Savannah and New Orleans. They became local leaders in the Democratic party, supported slavery, favored the Union in 1860, but became staunch Confederates in 1861. Starting as low skilled manual laborers, they achieved average or above average economic status by 1900. As one historian explains, [4]

"Native tolerance, however, was also a very important factor in Irish integration [into Southern society]. Although typical social barriers remained firmly in place, most wealthy southerners did not oppose Irish presence in their communities. Unlike in the North, the Irish never dominated the population of any southern city. Upper-class southerners, therefore, did not object to the Irish, because Irish immigration never threatened to overwhelm their cities or states....The Irish were willing to take on potentially high-mortality occupations, thereby sparing valuable slave property. Some employers objected not only to the cost of Irish labor but also to the rowdiness of their foreign-born employees. Nevertheless, they recognized the importance of the Irish worker to the protection of slavery. The Irish endorsement of slavery and the efforts of the Irish to preserve the South as "a white man's country" after emancipation only endeared them further to southerners. The Catholicism practiced by Irish immigrants was of little concern to Southern natives.

The earlier Irish emigration of the 18th century consisted mainly of Irish Protestants. They were concentrated in the south but spread westward, many of them settling in the Appalachians, and other pressing further west to become frontier farmers. Towns, townlands, cities, counties and villages throughout were named after towns in Ulster, from where most of these migrants originated. Though the descendants lost, to a certain extent, their sense of heritage and became American, some were torn between their sense of loyalty to the British or to the memory of their Presbyterian ancestors' suffering discrimination due to the Penal Laws. For this reason, many of them fought for independence during the war. Indeed, some viewed the war as a Scots-Irish rebellion: "Call it not an American rebellion, it is nothing more or less than an Irish Scotch Presbyterian rebellion"[5].

The influence of the Presbyterian Irish Americans on the very foundation of the nation cannot be understated. The Declaration of Independence was drafted in handwriting by, and printed by one such man &mdash John Dunlap; the Great Seal of the US was designed by another &mdash Charles Thomson. Much to the chagrin of Quakers, Irish-descended Protestants took a very active part in the political make-up of the country. More than one third of all US presidents have connections to Ulster, while thirteen of them are descended from Ulster Protestants. In Northern Ireland, there exist four tourist attractions which are the ancestral homes of presidents Arthur, Jackson, Wilson and Grant.

Sense of heritage

Irish descendants, particularly Irish-descended Roman Catholics, retain a sense of their Irish heritage. A sense of exile, diaspora, and (in the case of songs) even nostalgia is common in Irish America, even though most Irish Americans, along with their parents, grandparents and often great-grandparents, were born in America, do not speak Irish and have never set foot on Irish soil.

Many Catholics were enthusiastic supporters of Irish independence; after that was achieved in 1921, they generally lost interest in the politics of the old country until political violence erupted in Northern Ireland in 1969. It is has long been widely recognised that the terrorist activities of the Provisional IRA received significant funding from Irish American Catholics.

Irish Catholic Americans settled in large and small cities throughout the North--railroad centers and mill towns especially. They became perhaps the most urbanized group in America, as few became farmers.[6] Strongholds include the metropolitan areas of Boston, New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, where most new arrivals of the 1830-1910 period settled. As a percentage of the population, Massachusetts is the most Irish state, with about a quarter of the population claiming Irish descent. The most Irish American town in the United States is Milton, Massachusetts, with 43% of its 26,000 or so residents being of Irish descent. Boston, New York, and Chicago have neighborhoods with higher percentages of Irish-American residents. Regionally, the most Irish-American part of the country remains central New England.

Irish in politics and government

The Catholic Irish moved rapidly into law enforcement, and (through the Catholic Church) built hundreds of schools, colleges, orphanages, hospitals, and asylums. Political opposition to the Catholic Irish climaxed in 1854 in the short-lived Know-Nothing Party.

By the 1850s the Irish were a major presence in the police departments of large cities. In New York City in 1855, of the city's 1149 policemen, 718 were native American, 305 natives of Ireland, and 51 natives of Germany. The creation of a unified police force in Philadelphia opened the door for the Irish in that city. By 1860 in Chicago, 49 of the 107 on the police force were Irish. Chief O'Leary headed the police force in New Orleans and Malachi Fallon was chief of police of San Francisco. [7]

The Irish had a reputation of being very well organized, and, since 1850, have produced a majority of the leaders of the Catholic Church in the U.S., labor unions, the Democratic Party in larger cities, and Catholic high schools, colleges and universities. Politically, the Irish Catholic typically voted 80-95% Democratic in elections down to 1964. John F. Kennedy was their greatest political hero. Al Smith, who lost to Herbert Hoover in the 1928 presidential election, was the first Irish Catholic to run for president. From the 1830s to the 1960s, Irish Catholics voted 80-95% Democratic, with occasional exceptions like the election of 1920.

Today, most Irish Catholic politicians are associated with the Democratic Party, although some have become Republican leaders, such as former GOP national chairman Ed Gillespie. Historically, Irish Catholics controlled many city machines and often served as chairmen of the Democratic National Committee, including County Monaghan native Thomas Taggart, Vance McCormick, James Farley, Edward J. Flynn, Robert E. Hannegan, J. Howard McGrath, William H. Boyle, Jr., John Moran Bailey, Larry O'Brien, Christopher J. Dodd, and Terry McAuliffe. The majority of Irish Catholics in Congress are Democrats; currently Susan Collins of Maine is the only Irish Catholic Republican senator. Exit polls show that in recent presidential elections Irish Catholics have split about 50-50 for Democratic and Republican candidates; large majorities voted for Ronald Reagan.[8] The more religiously devout are more apt to vote Republican, perhaps because of their opposition to abortion. The pro-life minority in the Democratic party includes many Irish Catholic politicians, such as Bob Casey, Jr., candidate for Senate in a high visibility race in Pennsylvania in 2006. [9]

Many major cities have elected Irish-born and Irish American mayors. The cities of Boston, Cincinnati, Houston, Newark, New York City, Omaha, Scranton, Pittsburgh, Saint Louis, Saint Paul, and San Francisco have elected natives of Ireland as mayor. Chicago, Boston, and Jersey City have had more Irish-American mayors than any other ethnic group. The cities of Chicago, Baltimore, Milwaukee, Oakland, Omaha, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Jersey City, Rochester, Springfield, Rockford, Scranton, and Syracuse currently (as of 2006) have Irish-American mayors. All of these mayors are Democrats. Richard Riordan served as the Republican mayor of the second largest city Los Angeles, 1993-2001. New York City has had at least three Irish-born mayors and over seven Irish-American mayors. The most recent one was County Mayo native William O'Dwyer, elected in 1949.

The Irish Protestant vote has not been studied nearly as much. Supporters of Andrew Jackson emphasized his Irish background, but, since the 1840s, it has been uncommon for a Protestant politician to be identified as Irish. In Canada, by contrast, Irish Protestants remained a cohesive political force well into the 20th century with many (but not all) belonging to the Orange Order. In the late 19th century, sectarian confrontation became commonplace between Protestant Irish and Catholic Irish in Toronto, for example.

Many Protestant Irish settlers became Baptist in the south, and there exists to this day, a strong sense of Christian moral values which pervades politics at a local and national level.

File:StPatrickCathedral small.jpg
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.

Contributions to literature and the arts

Irish Americans have made numerous contributions to the arts, especially in literature and on the stage. One of the most well-known Irish American authors is Pulitzer and Nobel Prize winning playright Eugene O'Neill. Others from his generation include F. Scott Fitzgerald and Raymond Chandler.

Painters include Georgia O'Keeffe and William Harnett.

Irish authors, songsters and actors made a major contribution to American popular culture, often portraying police officers and firefighters as being Irish-American. In fact, the urban Irish cop and firefighter are virtual icons of American popular culture. In many large cities, the police and fire departments have been dominated by the Irish for over 100 years, even after the populations in those cities of Irish extraction dwindled down to small minorities. Many police and fire departments maintain large and active "Emerald Societies", bagpipe marching groups, or other similar units demonstrating their members' pride in their Irish heritage. The Irish American way of life has also been chronicled in the modern media, most notably in movies such as Angels with Dirty Faces, the labor epic On the Waterfront and on television in series such as Ryan's Hope. More controversial are strongly pro-Catholic fraternal organizations like the Ancient Order of Hibernians and the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick.

Saint Patrick's Day is widely celebrated across the United States as a day of celebration of all things Irish and faux-Irish, especially in New York. Parades, parties, and other festive events mark the day.

New York City has more people who claim Irish heritage than Dublin's whole population.

The majority of Irish immigrants were proficient in English, but many were bilingual or native speakers of Irish. According to the latest census, the Irish language ranks 66th out of the 322 languages spoken today in the U.S., with over 25,000 speakers. New York State has the most Irish speakers, and Massachusetts the highest percentage, of the fifty states.

Irish-American communities

Distribution of Irish Americans according to the 2000 census

See List of Irish-American communities

See also

References

  1. ^ Hoeber, Francis W. "Drama in the Courtroom, Theater in the Streets: Philadelphia's Irish Riot of 1831" Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2001 125(3): 191-232. Issn: 0031-4587
  2. ^ Prince, Carl E. "The Great 'Riot Year': Jacksonian Democracy and Patterns of Violence in 1834." Journal of the Early Republic 1985 5(1): 1-19. Issn: 0275-1275 examines 24 episodes including the January labor riot at the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, the New York City election riot in April, the Philadelphia race riot in August, and the Baltimore & Washington Railroad riot in November.
  3. ^ Pooter p. 526
  4. ^ Gleeson, The Irish 192-93
  5. ^ Captain Johann Heinrichs, Hessian Jaeger Corps, 1778
  6. ^ Kenny (2000) p 105-6
  7. ^ Potter p.530
  8. ^ [George J. Marlin, The American Catholic Voter (2004), pp 296-345
  9. ^ Prendergast, William B. The Catholic Voter in American Politics: The Passing of the Democratic Monolith (1999)

General surveys

  • Glazier, Michael, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, (1999), the best place to start--the most authoritative source, with essays by over 200 experts, covering both Catholics and Protestants.
  • Meagher, Timothy J. The Columbia Guide to Irish American History. (2005).

The Catholic Irish

  • Anbinder, Tyler. Five Points: The Nineteenth-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (2001).
  • Bayor, Ronald and Timothy Meagher, eds. The New York Irish (1996) comprehensive overview by numerous scholars
  • Blessing, Patrick J. The Irish in America: A Guide to the Literature. Longaeva Books (1992)
  • Clark, Dennis. The Irish in Philadelphia: Ten Generations of Urban Experience (1973)
  • Diner, Hasia R. Erin's Daughters in America : Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (1983).
  • Erie, Steven P. Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840—1985 (1988).
  • Gleeson; David T. The Irish in the South, 1815-1877 University of North Carolina Press, 2001
  • Greeley, Andrew M. The Irish Americans: The Rise to Money and Power. (1993).
  • Ignatiev, Noel. How the Irish Became White (1996).
  • Jensen, Richard. "No Irish Need Apply": A Myth of Victimization," Journal of Social History 36.2 (2002) 405-429
  • Kenny, Kevin. The American Irish: A History (2000).
  • McCaffrey, Lawrence J. The Irish Diaspora in America (1976).
  • Meagher, Timothy J. Inventing Irish America: Generation, Class, and Ethnic Identity in a New England City, 1880-1928 (2000).
  • Miller, Kerby M. Emigrants and Exiles (1985)
  • Mitchell, Brian C. The Paddy Camps: The Irish of Lowell, 1821—61 (1988).
  • Mulrooney, Margaret M. ed. Fleeing the Famine: North America and Irish Refugees, 1845-1851 (2003). Essays by scholars
  • O'Donnell, L. A. Irish Voice and Organized Labor in America: A Biographical Study (1997)
  • George W. Potter. To the Golden Door: The Story of the Irish in Ireland and America (1960).

The Protestant Irish

  • Blethen, Tyler Ulster and North America : transatlantic perspectives on the Scotch-Irish (1999) online at ACLS History e-book project
  • Fischer, David Hackett. Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (1991), major scholarly study tracing colonial roots of four groups of immigrants, Irish, English Puritans, English Cavaliers, and Quakers.
  • Griffin, Patrick. The People with No Name: Ireland's Ulster Scots, America's Scots Irish, and the Creation of a British Atlantic World, 1689-1764. (2001)
  • Leyburn, James G. Scotch-Irish: A Social History (1989), scholarly survey; good starting point.
  • Webb, James. Born Fighting: How the Scots-Irish Shaped America(2004) by a popular novelist, not considered reliable by scholars.
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