Jump to content

List of plants used in herbalism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Grigorowitsch (talk | contribs) at 06:11, 24 April 2017 (→M). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

The Chelsea Physic Garden has cultivated medicinal plants since 1673. The plant shown here is montbretia (crocosmia aurea), used as a remedy for dysentery.

This is a list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine. The ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals is called herbal medicine. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total.[1][2] These phytochemicals are divided into (1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and (2) secondary metabolites – compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving a more specific function.[3] For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs—examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove.[3] Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects.[1][2]

In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients for their medicines. In the Latin names for plants created by Linnaeus, the word officinalis indicates that a plant was used in this way. For example, the marsh mallow has the classification Althaea officinalis, as it was traditionally used as an emollient to soothe ulcers.[4] Ayurvedic medicine, herbal medicine and traditional Chinese medicine are other examples of medical practices that incorporate medical uses of plants. Pharmacognosy is the branch of modern medicine about medicines from plant sources. Plants included here are those that have been or are being used medicinally, in at least one such medicinal tradition.

Modern medicine now tends to use the active ingredients of plants rather than the whole plants. The phytochemicals may be synthesized, compounded or otherwise transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Examples of such derivatives include Digoxin, from digitalis; capsaicine, from chili; and aspirin, which is chemically related to the salicylic acid found in white willow. The opium poppy continues to be a major industrial source of opiates, including morphine. Few traditional remedies, however, have translated into modern drugs, although there is continuing research into the efficacy and possible adaptation of traditional herbal treatments.

A

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Abscess root Polemonium reptans It is used to reduce fever, inflammation, and cough.[5]
Açai Euterpe oleracea Although açai berries are a longstanding food source for indigenous people of the Amazon, there is no evidence that they have historically served a medicinal, as opposed to nutritional role. In spite of their recent popularity in the United States as a dietary supplement, there is currently no evidence for their effectiveness for any health-related purpose.[6]
Alfalfa Medicago sativa The leaves are used to lower cholesterol, as well as forum kidney and urinary tract ailments, although there is insufficient scientific evidence for its efficacy.[7]
Aloe vera Aloe vera The leaves are widely used to heal burns, wounds and other skin ailments.[8][9]
Arnica Arnica montana The plant is used as an anti-inflammatory[10] and for osteoarthritis.[11]
Asafoetida Ferula assa-foetida It might be useful for IBS, high cholesterol, and breathing problems.[12]
Ashoka tree Saraca indica The plant is used in Ayurvedic traditions to treat gynecological disorders. The bark is also used to combat oedema or swelling.[13]
Asthma-plant Euphorbia hirta It has been used traditionally in Asia to treat bronchitic asthma and laryngeal spasm.[14][15] It is used in the Philippines for dengue fever.[16]
Astragalus Astragalus propinquus It has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine to strengthen the immune system, and is used in modern China to treat hepatitis and as an adjunctive therapy in cancer.[17]

B

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Barberry Berberis vulgaris It has a long history of medicinal use, dating back to the Middle Ages particularly among Native Americans. Uses have included skin ailments, scurvy and gastro-intestinal ailments.[18]
Belladonna Atropa belladonna Although toxic, was used historically in Italy by women to enlarge their pupils, as well as a sedative, among other uses. The name itself means "beautiful woman" in Italian.[19]
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus It is used to treat diarrhea, scurvy, and other conditions.[20]
Bitter gourd Momordica charantia The plant is used as an agent to reduce the blood glucose level.[21]
Bitter leaf Vernonia amygdalina The plant is used by both primates and indigenous peoples in Africa to treat intestinal ailments such as dysentery.[22][23]
Bitter orange Citrus × aurantium It is used in traditional Chinese medicine and by indigenous peoples of the Amazon for nausea, indigestion and constipation.[24]
Black cohosh Actaea racemosa Historically used for arthritis and muscle pain, used more recently for conditions related to menopause and menstruation.[25]
Blessed thistle Cnicus benedictus It was used during the Middle Ages to treat bubonic plague. In modern times, herbal teas made from blessed thistle are used for loss of appetite, indigestion and other purposes.[26]
Blueberries Vaccinium sp. They are of current medical interest as an antioxidant[27][28] and for urinary tract ailments.[29]
Salae Broussonetia kurzii Known as Salae (สะแล) in Thailand where this species is valued as a medicinal plant.[30]
Burdock Arctium lappa It has been used traditionally as a diuretic and to lower blood sugar[31] and, in traditional Chinese medicine as a treatment for sore throat and symptoms of the common cold.[32]

C

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Cat's claw Uncaria tomentosa It has a long history of use in South America to prevent and treat disease.[33]
Cayenne Capsicum annuum The plant is a type of chili that has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. Uses have included reducing pain and swelling, lowering triglyceride and cholesterol levels and fighting viruses and harmful bacteria, due to high levels of Vitamin C.[34][35][36]
Celery Apium graveolens The seed is used only occasionally in tradition medicine. Modern usage is primarily as a diuretic.[37]
Chamomille Matricaria recutita and Anthemis nobilis It has been used over thousands of years for a variety of conditions, including sleeplessness, anxiety, and gastrointestinal conditions such as upset stomach, gas, and diarrhea.[38]
Chaparral Larrea tridentata The leaves and twigs are used by Native Americans to make a herbal tea used for a variety of conditions, including arthritis, cancer and a number of others. Subsequent studies have been extremely variable, at best. Chaparral has also been shown to have high liver toxicity, and has led to kidney failure, and is not recommended for any use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or American Cancer Society.[39][40]
Chasteberry Vitex agnus-castus It has been used for over thousands of years for menstrual problems, and to stimulate lactation.[41]
Chili Capsicum frutescens Its active ingredient, capsaicine, is the basic of commercial pain-relief ointments in Western medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais may be related to capsaicine's fibronolytic action (dissolving blood clots).[42]
Cinchona Cinchona sp. It is a genus of about 38 species of trees whose bark is a source of alkaloids, including quinine. Its use as a febrifuge was first popularized in the 17th century by Peruvian Jesuits.[43]
Clove Syzygium aromaticum The plant is used for upset stomach and as an expectorant, among other purposes. The oil is used topically to treat toothache.[44]
Coffee senna Cassia occidentalis The plant is used in a wide variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal worms and other parasites and as an immune-system stimulant.[45][46]
Comfrey Symphytum officinale It has been used as a vulnerary and to reduce inflammation.[47] It was also used internally in the past, for stomach and other ailments, but its toxicity has led a number of other countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the use of comfrey.[48]
Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon It was used historically as a vulnerary and for urinary disorders, diarrhea, diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems. Modern usage has concentrated on urinary tract related problems.[49]

D

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale It was most commonly used historically to treat liver diseases, kidney diseases, and spleen problems.[50]
Digitalis or foxglove Digitalis lanata It came into use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century England in spite of its high toxicity.a Its use has been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter half-life in the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily managed.[51] Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic agent and inotrope.[52]
Dong quai Angelica sinensis It has been used for thousands of years in Asia, primarily in women's health.[53]

E

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Elderberry Sambucus nigra The berries and leaves have traditionally been used to treat pain, swelling, infections, coughs, and skin conditions and, more recently, flu, common cold, fevers, constipation, and sinus infections.[54]
Ephedra Ephedra sinica It has been used for more than 5,000 years in traditional Chinese medicine for respiratory ailments.[55] Products containing ephedra for weight loss, energy and athletic performance, particularly those also containing caffeine, have been linked to stroke, heart arrhythmia, and even death. Such products have been banned in the United States since December 2003. Other dietary supplements containing ephedra were similarly banned in February 2004.[56]
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus The leaves were widely used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge.[57] Eucalyptus oil is commonly used in over-the-counter cough and cold medications, as well as for an analgesic.[58]
European mistletoe Viscum album It has been used to treat seizures, headaches, and other conditions.[59]
Evening primrose Oenothera spp. It's oil has been used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently as an anti-inflammatory.[60]

F

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum It has long been used to treat symptoms of menopause, and digestive ailments. More recently, it has been used to treat diabetes, loss of appetite and other conditions[61]
Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium The plant has been used for centuries for fevers, headaches, stomach aches, toothaches, insect bites and other conditions.[62]
Flaxseed Linum usitatissimum The plant is most commonly used as a laxative. Flaxseed oil is used for different conditions, including arthritis[63]

G

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Garlic Allium sativum It is widely used as an antibiotic[64][65][66][67] and, more recently, for treating cardiovascular disease[68][69] Garlic is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and has antidepressant-like effects on mice[70] so might be used as a herbal antidepressant or anxiolytic in humans.[71]
Ginger Zingiber officinale The plant is used to relieve nausea.[72]
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba The leaf extract has been used to treat asthma, bronchitis, fatigue, Alzheimer's and tinnitus.[73]
Ginseng Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius has been used medicinally, in particular in Asia, for over 2,000 years, and is widely used in modern society.[74]
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis It was used traditionally by Native Americans to treat skin diseases, ulcers, and gonorrhea. More recently, the herb has been used to treat the respiratory tract and a number of other infections.[75]
Grape Vitis vinifera The leaves and fruit have been used medicinally since the ancient Greeks.[76]
Guava Psidium guajava It has a rich history of use in traditional medicine. It is traditionally used to treat diarrhea; however, evidence of its effectiveness is very limited.[77][78]
Gum Arabic Acacia senegal It might be useful for dental plaque and weight loss.[79]

H

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Hawthorn sp. specifically Crataegus monogyna and Crataegus laevigata Its fruit has been used for centuries for heart disease. Other uses include digestive and kidney related problems.[80]
Henna Lawsonia inermis The plants exhibits potential antibacterial activity. The alcoholic extract of the root has antibacterial activity due to the presence of flavonoid and alkaloids. Henna is also thought to show anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects in experimental animals.[81]
Hibiscus Hibiscus sabdariffa
Hoodia Hoodia gordonii The plant is traditionally used by Kalahari San (Bushmen) to reduce hunger and thirst. It is currently marketed as an appetite suppressant.[82]
Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum Its seeds, leaves, bark, and flowers have been used medicinally for many centuries. The raw plant materials are toxic unless processed.[83]
Horsetail Equisetum arvense It dates back to ancient Roman and Greek medicine, when it was used to stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems.[84]

J

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Jamaica dogwood Piscidia erythrina / Piscidia piscipula The plant is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of insomnia and anxiety, despite serious safety concerns.[85] A 2006 study suggested medicinal potential.[86]

K

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Kava Piper methysticum The plant has been used for centuries in the South Pacific to make a ceremonial drink with sedative and anesthetic properties. It is used as a soporific, as well as for asthma and urinary tract infection[87]
Khat Catha edulis It is a mild stimulant used for thousands of years in Yemen, and is banned today in many countries. Contains the amphetamine-like substance cathinone.
Konjac Amorphophallus konjac The plant is a significant dietary source of glucomannan,[88][89] which is used in treating obesity,[90] constipation,[91] and reducing cholesterol.[92]
Kratom Mitragyna speciosa Kratom is known to prevent or delay withdrawal symptoms in an opioid-dependent individual, and it is often used to mitigate cravings thereafter. It can also be used for other medicinal purposes. Kratom has been traditionally used in regions such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.
Kanna Sceletium tortuosum African treatment for depression. Suggested to be an SSRI or have similar effects, but unknown mechanism of activity.

L

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Lavender Lavandula angustifolia It was traditionally used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes. It was also used in ancient Egypt in mummifying bodies. There is little scientific evidence that lavender is effective for most mental health uses.[93]
Lemon Citrus limon Along with other citruses, it has a long history of use in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine.[94] In contemporary use, honey and lemon is common for treating coughs and sore throat.
Licorice root Glycyrrhiza glabra It has a long history of medicinal usage in Eastern and Western medicine. Uses include stomach ulcers, bronchitis, and sore throat, as well as infections caused by viruses, such as hepatitis.[95]
Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Sacred lotus has been the subject of a number of in-vitro and animal studies, exploring its pharmacologic effects, including antioxidant, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-infective, hyperlipidemic, and psychopharmacologic activity[96] although clinical trials are lacking.

M

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Marigold Calendula officinalis Also named calendula, has a long history of use in treating wounds and soothing skin[97]
Marsh-mallow Althaea officinalis It has been used for over 2,000 years as both a food and a medicine[4]
Drumstick tree Moringa oleifera It is used for food and traditional medicine. It is undergoing preliminary research to investigate potential properties of its nutrients and phytochemicals
Milk thistle Silybum marianum It has been used for thousands of years for a variety of medicinal purposes, in particular liver problems.[98]

N

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Neem Azadirachta indica Used in India to treat worms, malaria, rheumatism and skin infections among many other things. Its many uses have led to neem being called "the village dispensary" in India.[99]
Noni Morinda citrifolia It has a history of use as for joint pain and skin conditions.[100]

O

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Opium poppy Papaver somniferum The plant is the plant source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine made from the refined and modified sap is used for pain control in terminally ill patients. Dried sap was used as a traditional medicine until the 19th century.[citation needed]
Oregano Origanum vulgare Used as an abortifacient in folk medicine in some parts of Bolivia and other northwestern South American countries, though no evidence of efficacy exists in Western medicine. Hippocrates used oregano as an antiseptic, as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. A Cretan oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today in Greece as a palliative for sore throat. Evidence of efficacy in this matter is lacking.

P

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Papaya Carica papaya The plant is used for treating wounds.[101]
Peppermint Mentha x piperita Its oil, from a cross between water mint and spearmint, has a history of medicinal use for a variety of conditions, including nausea, indigestion, and symptoms of the common cold.[102]
Purple coneflower Echinacea purpurea This plant and other species of Echinacea have been used for at least 400 years by Native Americans to treat infections and wounds, and as a general "cure-all" (panacea). It is currently used for symptoms associated with cold and flu[103][104]
Passion Flower Passiflora Thought to have anti-depressant properties. Unknown MOA. Used in traditional medicine to aid with sleep or depression.

R

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Red clover Trifolium pratense The plant is an ingredient in some recipes for essiac tea. Research has found no benefit for any human health conditions.[105]
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis It has been used medicinally from ancient times.

S

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Sage Salvia officinalis Shown to improve cognitive function in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease[106][107]
Syrian Rue (aka Harmal) Peganum harmala MAOI. Can be used as an antidepressant, but carries significant risk. Used in traditional shamanistic rites in the amazon, and is a component of Ayahuasca, Caapi or Yajé (which is actually usually Banisteriopsis caapi but has the same active alkaloids).
St. John's wort Hypericum perforatum Widely used within herbalism for depression. Evaluated for use as an antidepressant, but with ambiguous results.[108][109][110]
Saw palmetto Serenoa repens It was used medicinally by the Seminole tribe[111]
Summer savory Satureja hortensis Its extracts show antibacterial and antifungal effects on several species including some of the antibiotic resistant strains.[112][113][114]

T

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Tea tree oil Melaleuca alternifolia It has been used medicinally for centuries by Australian aboriginal people. Modern usage is primarily as an antibacterial or antifungal agent.[115]
Thunder God Vine Tripterygium wilfordii The plant is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammation or an overactive immune system[116]
Thyme Thymus vulgaris The plant is used to treat bronchitis and cough. It serves as an antispasmodic and expectorant in this role. It has also been used in many other medicinal roles in Asian and Ayurvedic medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective in non-respiratory medicinal roles.[117]
Tulsi or Holy Basil Ocimum tenuiflorum It is used for a variety of purposes in medicine.[118]
Turmeric Curcuma longa A spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to aid digestion and liver function, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation.[119]

U

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Umckaloabo, or South African Geranium Pelargonium sidoides It is used in treating acute bronchitis[120]

V

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Valerian Valeriana officinalis It has been used since at least ancient Greece and Rome for sleep disorders and anxiety.[121]
Velvetleaf Cissampelos pareira The plant is used for a wide variety of conditions.[122]
Verbena Verbena officinalis It is used for sore throats and respiratory tract diseases.[123]
Veronica Veronica officinalis The plant is used for sinus and ear infections.[124]
Vetiver Chrysopogon zizanioides It is used for skin care.[125]

W

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Wafer Ash Ptelea trifoliata The root bark is used for the digestive system.[126] Also known as hoptree.
Wahoo Euonymus atropurpureus The plant is a purgative and might effect the heart.[127]
Wallflower Erysimum cheiri It contains constituents that may affect the heart.[128]
Water Dropwort Oenanthe aquatica The seeds are used for coughs, intestinal gas, and water retention.[129]
Water Germander Teucrium scordium It has been used for asthma, diarrhea, fever, intestinal parasites, hemorrhoids, and wounds.[130]
Water Hemlock Cicuta virosa Despite being one of the most poisonous plants in the world, it is sometimes used for pain and inflammation.[131]
Water Plantain Alisma plantago-aquatica The plant is used for the urinary tract.[132]
Watercress Nasturtium officinale It may be diuretic and antibacterial.[133]
Wheatgrass Triticum aestivum It may contain antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds.[134]
White willow Salix alba Plant source of salicylic acid, white willow is like the chemical known as aspirin, although more likely to cause stomach upset as a side effect than aspirin itself which can cause the lining in your stomach to be destroyed. Used from ancient times for the same uses as aspirin.[135]

X

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Xanthoparmelia scabrosa It is a lichen used for sexual dysfunction.[136]

Y

Name Scientific name Description Picture
Yerba Santa santa Eriodictyon crassifolium It was used by the Chumash people to keep airways open for proper breathing.[137]

Databases

  • Elizabeth M. Manhã; Maria C. Silva; Maria G. C. Alves; Maurício B. Almeida; Maria G. L. Brandão (October 3, 2008). "PLANT - A bibliographic database about medicinal plants". Retrieved 2010-09-29.
  • James Duke. "Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases". Retrieved 2011-09-29.
  • "Protabase: Useful Plants of Tropical Africa". Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Retrieved 2011-09-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  • "Tropical Plant Database". Raintree. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  • "Plant Database". Plants for a Future. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  • "Vitamins & Supplements Center". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.

See also

Notes

  • ^ Digitalis use in the United States is controlled by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and can only be prescribed by a physician. Misuse can cause death.
  • This encyclopedia is not a substitute for medical advice nor a complete description of these herbs, their dangers (up to and including death), and their (in)compatibility with alcohol or other drugs.

References

  1. ^ a b Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, Cobiac L (August 2006). "Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future". Med. J. Aust. 185 (4 Suppl): S4–24. PMID 17022438. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Lai PK, Roy J; Roy (June 2004). "Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices". Curr. Med. Chem. 11 (11): 1451–60. doi:10.2174/0929867043365107. PMID 15180577.
  3. ^ a b Meskin, Mark S. (2002). Phytochemicals in Nutrition and Health. CRC Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781587160837.
  4. ^ a b William S. Haubrich (2003). "officina". Medical meanings: a glossary of word origins. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-930513-49-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  5. ^ "Abscess Root". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  6. ^ "Açai". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  7. ^ "Alfalfa". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
  8. ^ "Kathalai". Tamilnadu.com. 7 February 2013.
  9. ^ "Aloe Vera". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
  10. ^ Braga, Pier Carlo; Dal Sasso, Monica; Culici, Maria; Bianchi, Tiziana; Bordoni, Luca; Marabini, Laura (2006). "Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Thymol: Inhibitory Effect on the Release of Human Neutrophil Elastase". Pharmacology. 77 (3): 130–6. doi:10.1159/000093790. PMID 16763380.
  11. ^ Widrig, Reto; Suter, Andy; Saller, Reinhard; Melzer, Jörg (2007). "Choosing between NSAID and arnica for topical treatment of hand osteoarthritis in a randomised, double-blind study". Rheumatology International. 27 (6): 585–91. doi:10.1007/s00296-007-0304-y. PMID 17318618.
  12. ^ "Asafoetida". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  13. ^ "Herbs - Ashoka". Tamilnadu.com. 25 February 2013.
  14. ^ "Euphorbia hirta". Plants for a Future. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  15. ^ Malcolm Stuart (1987). Encyclopedia Of Herbs & Herbalism. Crescent. ISBN 0-517-35326-1.
  16. ^ "DoH sees hope in 'tawa-tawa' as dengue cure". Manila Bulletin. August 26, 2011.
  17. ^ "Astragalus". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
  18. ^ "Barberry". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  19. ^ "Belladonna". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. Retrieved 2011-10-01.
  20. ^ "Bilberry". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  21. ^ Baldwa VS, Bhandari CM, Pangaria A, Goyal RK; Bhandari; Pangaria; Goyal (1977). "Clinical trial in patients with diabetes mellitus of an insulin-like compound obtained from plant source". Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences. 82 (1): 39–41. doi:10.3109/03009737709179057. PMID 20078273.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Susan G. Wynn; Barbara Fougère (2007). "Zoopharmacognosy". Veterinary herbal medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-02998-8Template:Inconsistent citations{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  23. ^ Huffman, M.A., Seifu, M (1989). "Observations on the illness and consumption of a possibly medicinal plant Vernonia amygdalina (Del.), by a wild chimpanzee in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania". Primates. 30: 51–63. doi:10.1007/BF02381210.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ "Bitter orange". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  25. ^ "Black cohosh". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  26. ^ "Blessed thistle". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  27. ^ Prior, Ronald L.; Cao, Guohua; Martin, Antonio; Sofic, Emin; McEwen, John; O'Brien, Christine; Lischner, Neal; Ehlenfeldt, Mark; Kalt, Willy (1998). "Antioxidant Capacity As Influenced by Total Phenolic and Anthocyanin Content, Maturity, and Variety ofVacciniumSpecies". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 46 (7): 2686–93. doi:10.1021/jf980145d. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ M.A.L. Smith; K.A. Marley; D. Seigler; K.W. Singletary; B. Meline (2000). "Bioactive Properties of Wild Blueberry Fruits". Journal of Food Science. 65 (2): 352–356. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb16006.x.
  29. ^ Howell, Amy B.; Vorsa, Nicholi; Marderosian, Ara Der; Foo, Lai Yeap (1998). "Inhibition of the Adherence of P-FimbriatedEscherichia colito Uroepithelial-Cell Surfaces by Proanthocyanidin Extracts from Cranberries". New England Journal of Medicine. 339 (15): 1085–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199810083391516. PMID 9767006.
  30. ^ Broussonetia kurzii (Hook.f.) Corner - สะแล, สากแล Sa lae
  31. ^ "Burdock". Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  32. ^ "Burdock (niu bang zi)". Herbs & Botanical. Naturopathy Digest. Retrieved 2011-10-18.[unreliable source?]
  33. ^ "Cat's claw". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  34. ^ Randall Kremer (2007). "Ancient Americans liked it hot – Smithsonian study traces Mexican cuisine roots to 1,500 years ago". The Analyst Magazine.
  35. ^ Tso, Yvonne; Love, Bridgette; Ibañez, Rocio Cisneros; Ross, Jamie. "Capsicum spp". Medicinal Plants of the Southwest.
  36. ^ Heinerman, John (1999). The Health Benefits of Cayenne. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0879837039.
  37. ^ Max Wichtl. "Apii Fructus". Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals. CRC Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-8493-1961-7. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  38. ^ "Chamomille". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  39. ^ Dónal O'Mathúna; Walt Larimore (2001). Alternative Medicine: The Christian Handbook. Zondervan. p. 318. ISBN 0-310-23584-7.
  40. ^ "Chaparral". Herbs, Vitamins, and Minerals.
  41. ^ "Chasteberry". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  42. ^ Sukon Visudhiphan; Sittith Poolsuppasit; Orachun Piboonnukarintr; Samorn Tumliang (June 1982). "The relationship between high fibrinolytic activity and daily capsicum ingestion in Thais". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 35 (6): 1452–1458. PMID 7081126{{inconsistent citations}}{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  43. ^ Joseph P. Remington; Horatio C. Wood, eds. (1918). "Cinchona". The Dispensatory of the United States of America.
  44. ^ "Clove". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus.
  45. ^ John K. Francis. "Senna occidentalis (L.) Link" (PDF). International Institute of Tropical Forestry. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  46. ^ "Tropical Plant Database". Raintree Nutrition. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  47. ^ T.M. Teynor; D.H. Putnam; J.D. Doll; K.A. Kelling; E.A. Oelke; D.J. Undersander; E.S. Oplinger (1997). "Comfrey". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin Extension, University of Minnesota Extension. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  48. ^ Raymond Tice (October 2007). "Comfrey and One of Its Constituent Alkaloids Symphytine, Review of Toxicological Literatur" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  49. ^ "Cranberry". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
  50. ^ "Dandelion". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  51. ^ Arthur C. Gibson. "The Lifesaving Foxglove". Economic Botany Manual. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)
  52. ^ Lip GYH, Watson RDS, Singh SP; Watson; Singh (1995). "ABC of atrial fibrillation: drugs for atrial fibrillation". British Medical Journal. 311 (7020): 1631–1634. doi:10.1136/bmj.311.7020.1631. PMC 2551512. PMID 8555811.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ "Dong quai (Angelica sinensis [Oliv.] Diels)". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  54. ^ "European Elderberry". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  55. ^ "Ephedra". Health Notes. Retrieved 2011-10-18.[unreliable source?]
  56. ^ "Ephedra". National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 2010-10-06.
  57. ^ "Eucalyptus". Health Notes. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  58. ^ "Eucalyptus spp". Medicinal Plants for Livestock. Cornell University Department of Animal Science. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  59. ^ "Mistletoe". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  60. ^ "Evening primrose oil". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  61. ^ "Fenugreek". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  62. ^ "Feverfew". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  63. ^ "Flaxseed". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  64. ^ Nicole Johnston (April 2002). "Garlic: a natural antibiotic". Modern Drug Discovery. 5 (4).
  65. ^ Cai, Yun; Wang, Rui; Pei, Fei; Liang, Bei-Bei (2007). "Antibacterial Activity of Allicin Alone and in Combination with β-Lactams against Staphylococcus spp. And Pseudomonas aeruginosa". The Journal of Antibiotics. 60 (5): 335–8. doi:10.1038/ja.2007.45. PMID 17551215.
  66. ^ Eja, ME; Asikong, BE; Abriba, C; Arikpo, GE; Anwan, EE; Enyi-Idoh, KH (2007). "A comparative assessment of the antimicrobial effects of garlic (Allium sativum) and antibiotics on diarrheagenic organisms". The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 38 (2): 343–8. PMID 17539285.
  67. ^ Tessema, B; Mulu, A; Kassu, A; Yismaw, G (2006). "An in vitro assessment of the antibacterial effect of garlic (Allium sativum) on bacterial isolates from wound infections". Ethiopian Medical Journal. 44 (4): 385–9. PMID 17370439.
  68. ^ Rahman, K; Lowe, GM (2006). "Garlic and cardiovascular disease: A critical review". The Journal of Nutrition. 136 (3 Suppl): 736S – 740S. PMID 16484553.
  69. ^ Gardner, C. D.; Lawson, L. D.; Block, E.; Chatterjee, L. M.; Kiazand, A.; Balise, R. R.; Kraemer, H. C. (2007). "Effect of Raw Garlic vs Commercial Garlic Supplements on Plasma Lipid Concentrations in Adults with Moderate Hypercholesterolemia: A Randomized Clinical Trial". Archives of Internal Medicine. 167 (4): 346–53. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.346. PMID 17325296.
  70. ^ Dhingra, D; Kumar, V (2008). "Evidences for the involvement of monoaminergic and GABAergic systems in antidepressant-like activity of garlic extract in mice". Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 40 (4): 175–179. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.43165. PMC 2792615.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  71. ^ http://www.mirecc.va.gov/visn4/BHL/docs/Herbal_Remedies_and_Nutritional_Supplements.pdf
  72. ^ "Ginger quells nausea from chemotherapy". CBCNews.ca. May 15, 2009.
  73. ^ "Gingko". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  74. ^ Dónal O'Mathúna; Walt Larimore (2001). Alternative Medicine: The Christian Handbook. Zondervan. pp. 371–372. ISBN 0-310-23584-7.
  75. ^ "Goldenseal". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  76. ^ "Grape seed". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-13.
  77. ^ "Guava". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  78. ^ J. Hawrelak (2003). "Medicinal herb monograph: Guava". J Aust Tradit-Med Soc (9): 25–29.
  79. ^ "Acacia". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  80. ^ "Hawthorn". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  81. ^ Alia, BH; AK, Bashir; MOM, Tanira (1995). "Anti-Inflammatory, Antipyretic, and Analgesic Effects of Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna) in Rats". International Journal of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology. 51 (6): 356–363. doi:10.1159/000139347. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  82. ^ "Hoodia". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  83. ^ "Horse chestnut". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  84. ^ "Horsetail". Encyclopedia of Health. Retrieved 2011-10-18.[unreliable source?][marketing material?]
  85. ^ "Jamaica dogwood". WebMD. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
  86. ^ Costello, Christopher H.; Butler, Calvin L. (2006). "An investigation of Piscidia erythrina (Jamaica dogwood)". Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. 37 (3): 89–97. doi:10.1002/jps.3030370302. PMID 18905805.
  87. ^ "Kava". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 20- 11-10-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  88. ^ Baer, DJ; Rumpler, WV; Miles, CW; Fahey Jr, GC (1997). "Dietary fiber decreases the metabolizable energy content and nutrient digestibility of mixed diets fed to humans". The Journal of Nutrition. 127 (4): 579–86. PMID 9109608.
  89. ^ Vuksan, V; Jenkins, DJ; Spadafora, P; Sievenpiper, JL; Owen, R; Vidgen, E; Brighenti, F; Josse, R; et al. (1999). "Konjac-mannan (glucomannan) improves glycemia and other associated risk factors for coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes. A randomized controlled metabolic trial". Diabetes Care. 22 (6): 913–9. doi:10.2337/diacare.22.6.913. PMID 10372241.
  90. ^ Keithley, J; Swanson, B (2005). "Glucomannan and obesity: A critical review". Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. 11 (6): 30–4. PMID 16320857.
  91. ^ Marzio, L; Del Bianco, R; Donne, MD; Pieramico, O; Cuccurullo, F (1989). "Mouth-to-cecum transit time in patients affected by chronic constipation: Effect of glucomannan". The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 84 (8): 888–91. PMID 2547312.
  92. ^ Chen, HL; Sheu, WH; Tai, TS; Liaw, YP; Chen, YC (2003). "Konjac supplement alleviated hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetic subjects—a randomized double-blind trial". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 22 (1): 36–42. doi:10.1080/07315724.2003.10719273. PMID 12569112.
  93. ^ "Lavender". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  94. ^ Antonio Imbesi; Anna de Pascuale (2002). "Citrus species and their essential oils in traditional medicine". In Giovanni Dugo; Angelo Di Giacomo (eds.). Citrus: the genus citrus. CRC Press. pp. 577ff. ISBN 0-415-28491-0.
  95. ^ "Licorice root". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  96. ^ "Sacred Lotus". Drugs.com.
  97. ^ "Calendula: Herbal Remedies". Discovery Fit & Health.[self-published source?]
  98. ^ . National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health http://nccih.nih.gov/health/milkthistle/ataglance.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-04. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  99. ^ S. Ganguli (June 10, 2002). "Neem: A therapeutic for all seasons" (PDF). Current Science. 82 (11).
  100. ^ "Noni". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  101. ^ Gurung, S; Skalko-Basnet, N (2009). "Wound healing properties of Carica papaya latex: In vivo evaluation in mice burn model". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 121 (2): 338–41. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.030. PMID 19041705.
  102. ^ "Peppermint Oil". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  103. ^ Roxas M, Jurenka J; Jurenka (2007). "Colds and influenza: a review of diagnosis and conventional, botanical, and nutritional considerations". Alternative Medicine Review. 12 (1): 25–48. PMID 17397266.
  104. ^ "Echinacea". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  105. ^ "Red clover". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  106. ^ Akhondzadeh, S.; Noroozian, M.; Mohammadi, M.; Ohadinia, S.; Jamshidi, A. H.; Khani, M. (2003). "Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: A double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 28 (1): 53–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2710.2003.00463.x. PMID 12605619.
  107. ^ "Sage". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  108. ^ Gaster, B.; Holroyd, J (2000). "St John's Wort for Depression: A Systematic Review". Archives of Internal Medicine. 160 (2): 152–6. doi:10.1001/archinte.160.2.152. PMID 10647752.
  109. ^ Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group (2002). "Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial". JAMA. 287 (14): 1807–14. doi:10.1001/jama.287.14.1807. PMID 11939866.
  110. ^ "St. John's wort". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  111. ^ "Saw palmetto". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  112. ^ Güllüce, M.; Sökmen, M.; Daferera, D.; Aǧar, G.; Özkan, H.; Kartal, N.; Polissiou, M.; Sökmen, A.; Şahi̇n, F. (2003). "In Vitro Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oil and Methanol Extracts of Herbal Parts and Callus Cultures of Satureja hortensis L". J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (14): 3958–3965. doi:10.1021/jf0340308. PMID 12822930.
  113. ^ Şahin, F.; Karaman, İ.; Güllüce, M.; Öğütçü, H.; Şengül, M.; Adıgüzel, A.; Öztürk, S.; Kotan, R. (2003). "Evaluation of antimicrobial activities of Satureja hortensis L". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 87 (1): 61–65. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00110-7. PMID 12787955.
  114. ^ Mihajilov-Krstev, T.; Radnović, D.; Kitić, D.; Zlatković, B.; Ristić, M.; Branković, S. (2009). "Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Satureja hortensis L. essential oil". Central European Journal of Biology. 4 (3): 411–416. doi:10.2478/s11535-009-0027-z.
  115. ^ "Tea tree oil". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  116. ^ "Thunder God Vine". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
  117. ^ Sifton, David W., ed. (2000). The PDR Family Guide to Natural Medicines & Healing Therapies. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 535. ISBN 978-0-345-43377-0.
  118. ^ NIIR Board, National Institute of Industrial Research (India) (2004). Compendium of Medicinal Plants. 2004. National Institute of Industrial Research. p. 320. ISBN 978-81-86623-80-0.
  119. ^ "Turmeric". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  120. ^ Kamin W., Maydannik V., Malek F.A., Kieser M.; Maydannik; Malek; Kieser (2010). "Efficacy and tolerability of EPs 7630 in children and adolescents with acute bronchitis: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial with a herbal drug preparation from Pelargonium sidoides roots". International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 48 (3): 184–191. doi:10.5414/cpp48184. PMID 20197012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  121. ^ "Valerian". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  122. ^ "Abuta". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  123. ^ "Verbena". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  124. ^ "Veronica". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  125. ^ "Vetiver". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  126. ^ "Wafer Ash". WebMD.
  127. ^ "Wahoo". WebMD.
  128. ^ "Wallflower". WebMD.
  129. ^ "Water Fennel". WebMD.
  130. ^ "Water Germander". WebMD.
  131. ^ "Water Hemlock". WebMD.
  132. ^ "Water Plantain". WebMD.
  133. ^ "Watercress". WebMD.
  134. ^ "Wheatgrass". WebMD.
  135. ^ Mahdi JG, Mahdi AJ, Mahdi AJ, Bowen ID (2006). "The historical analysis of aspirin discovery, its relation to the willow tree and antiproliferative and anticancer potential". Cell Proliferation. 39 (2): 147–155. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2184.2006.00377.x. PMID 16542349.
  136. ^ "Xanthoparmelia". WebMD.
  137. ^ James D. Adams Jr, Cecilia Garcia; Garcia (2005). "Palliative Care Among Chumash People". ECAM. 3 (2): 143–147. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh090. PMC 1142202. PMID 15937554.

Further reading

  • The dictionary definition of herbalism at Wiktionary
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Herbalism.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism&oldid=776930964"