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In social psychology, the stereotype content model (SCM) is a theory that all group stereotypes and interpersonal impressions form along two dimensions: (1) warmth and (2) competence. The theory is based on the notion that people are evolutionarily predisposed to first assess strangers intent harm or help them (i.e. warmth dimension) and second to judge the stranger’s capacity to act on that perceived intention (competence dimension). Social groups and individuals that compete for resources (e.g., college admissions space, fresh well water, etc.) with the in-group or self are treated with hostility or disdain. These groups and individuals fall along the low end of the warmth spectrum.  While, social groups and individuals with high social status (e.g., economically or educationally successful) are considered competent, and are found at the high end of the competence dimention's spectrum.  Thus, lack of competition predicts perceived warmth and high status predicts perceived competence. The model was first proposed by social psychologist Susan Fiske and her colleagues Amy Cuddy, Peter Glick and Jun Xu.

Dimensions

Collange, J., Fiske, S. T., & Sanitioso, R. (2009). Maintaining a positive self-image by stereotyping others: Self-threat and the stereotype content model. Social Cognition, 27, 138-149.

• warmth and competence function separately during within ego defense mechanisms. A 2009 study found that when participants' own competence was threatened they were more likely to degrade (or diminish) their perceptions of target group members who had (high)competence (low)warmth stereotypes. This study supports the claim that ego defense mechanisms dimension specific, a threat along the competence dimension will lead to reduced appraisals of others stereotyped to be highly competent, and not directed at those groups thought to be high on warmth.

Trade Off

Warmth

Leach, C. W., Ellemers, N., & Barreto, M. (2007). Group virtue: The importance of morality (vs. competence and sociability) in the positive evaluation of in-groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(2), 234-249.

The warmth dimension is formed from assessments of another person or group's intent to compete or cooperate with the self or in-group. Those who appear cooperative and are high on warmth, a trait

warmth and

Leach, Ellemers, and Barreto (2007) argue that warmth conflates two variables (1) sociability, which describes attributes such as cooperation and kindness, and (2) morality, describing an internal ethical sense. Thus, their alternative model is a three dimension model, which retains competence and divides warmth into morality and sociability. Their plea for the importance of morality in intergroup perception is echoed by Brambilla et al (2011) and Brambilla et al (2012). Kervyn, Fiske, and Yzerbyt (2015) countered that early theoretical definitions of warmth included adjectives related to morality despite the fact that morality measures were not included when warmth was later operationalized during empirical tests.

Kervyn, N., Fiske, S. T., & Yzerbyt, Y. (2015). Foretelling the primary dimension of social cognition:  Symbolic and realistic threats together predict warmth in the stereotype content model. Social Psychology, 46, 36-45.    

Competence

Durante, F., Capozza, D., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). The stereotype content model: The role played by competence in inferring group status. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 17, 1-13.

Fiske, S. T. (2010). Envy up, scorn down: How comparison divides us. American Psychologist, 65, 698-706.

Russell, A. M., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). Power and social perception. In A. P. Guinote & T. K. Vescio (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 231-250). New York: Guilford.

Warmth and Competence Interaction

Ambivalence Dimension Trade Off

Fiske, S. T. (2012). Managing ambivalent prejudices: The smart-but-cold, and the warm-but-dumb stereotypes. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 639 (1), 32-48.

Implication of Descriptive Omissions

Bergsieker, H. B., Leslie, L. M., Constantine, V. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). Stereotyping by omission: Eliminate the negative, accentuate the positive. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1214-1238.

Kervyn, N., Bergsieker, H. B., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). The innuendo effect: Hearing the positive but inferring the negative. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(1), 77–85.

Holoien, D. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). Downplaying positive impressions: Compensation between warmth and competence in impression management. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 33-41.

Emotional and Behavioral Directed Responses

The BIAS Map

Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 631-648. 2006 SPSSI Gordon Allport Award, honorable mention.

Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2008). Competence and warmth as universal trait dimensions of interpersonal and intergroup perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the BIAS Map. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 40, pp. 61-149). New York: Academic.

Harris, L. T., Cikara, M., & Fiske, S. T. (2008). Envy, as predicted by the stereotype content model: A volatile ambivalence. In R. Smith (Ed.), Envy: Theory and research (pp.131-147). New York: Oxford.

Talaska, C. A., Fiske, S. T., & Chaiken, S. (2008). Legitimating racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of the racial attitude-behavior literature shows that emotions, not beliefs, best predict discrimination. Social Justice Research: Social Power in Action, 21, 263-296.

Process Model

Social structure --> emotion --> stereotype --> behavior

Fiske, S. T., & Bearns, C. (2014). Stereotyping: Processes and content. In E. Borgida & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Volume 1: Attitudes and social cognition (pp. 457-508). Washington DC: APA.

Caprariello, P. A., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Fiske, S. T. (2009).  Social structure shapes cultural stereotypes and emotions: A causal test of the stereotype content model. Group Processes and Intergroup Behavior, 12, 147–155.

Cikara, M., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Bounded empathy: Neural responses to outgroup targets’ (mis)fortunes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3791-3803.

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). Driven to exclude: How core social motives explain social exclusion. In C. N. DeWall (ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 31-42). New York: Oxford University Press.

SCM's Definition of Emotion

Talaska, C. A., Fiske, S. T., & Chaiken, S. (2008). Legitimating racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of the racial attitude-behavior literature shows that emotions, not beliefs, best predict discrimination. Social Justice Research: Social Power in Action, 21, 263-296.

Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). “What did you say, and who do you think you are?” How power differences affect emotional reactions to prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 66, 477-492.

Neuro-imaging studies

Fiske, S. T. (2007). On prejudice and the brain. Daedalus (winter), 156-159.

van den Bos, W., McClure, S. M., Harris, L. T., Fiske, S. T., & Cohen, J. D. (2007). Dissociating affective evaluation and social cognitive processes in ventral medial prefrontal cortex. Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 337-346.

Fiske, S. T. (2009). From de-humanization and objectification, to rehumanization: Neuroimaging studies on the building blocks of empathy.  Values, empathy, and fairness across social barriers. S. Atran, A. Navarro, K. Ochsner, A. Tobeña, & O. Vilarroya (Eds.) Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167, 31-34.

Fiske, S. T. (2012). Journey to the edges: Social structures and neural maps of intergroup processes. Landmark article. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51 (1), 1-12.

Ames, D. L., Fiske, S. T., & Todorov, A. T. (2011). Impression formation: A focus on others’ intents. In J. Decety & J. Cacioppo (Eds.), The handbook of social neuroscience (pp.  419-433). Oxford University Press.

Interpersonal Impression Formation

Russell, A. M., & Fiske, S. T. (2008). It’s all relative: Social position and interpersonal perception. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 1193-1201.

Fiske, S. T. (2010). Interpersonal stratification: Status, power, and subordination. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5^th ed., pp. 941-982).  New York: Wiley.

Fiske, S. T., Dupree, C. H., Nicolas, G., & Swencionis, J. K. (in press). Status, power, and intergroup relations: The personal is the societal. Current Opinion in Psychology.

Specific Group Stereotypes in the Model

US

Gender

Fiske, S. T. (2010). Venus and Mars, or down to Earth: Stereotypes and realities of gender differences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5 (6), 688-692.

Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske,  S. T. (2011). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 540-551.

Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Ambivalent sexism revisited. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35 (3), 530-535.

Asian Americans

Fiske et al 1999

The Elderly

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). Act your (old) age: Prescriptive, ageist biases over succession, identity, and consumption. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39 (6), 720-734.

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). A prescriptive intergenerational-tension ageism scale: Succession, Identity, and Consumption (SIC).  Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 706-713.

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). Subtyping ageism: Policy issues in succession and consumption. Social Issues and Policy Review, 7, 36-57.

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2015). Modern attitudes toward older adults in the aging world: A cross-cultural meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 141(5), 993-1021.

Native Americans

Burkley, E., Durante, F., Fiske, S. T., Burkley, M., & Andrade, A. (in press). Structure and content of Native American stereotypic subgroups: Not just (ig)noble. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology.

Immigrant Groups

Lee, T. L., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Not an outgroup, but not yet an ingroup: Immigrants in the stereotype content model. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 751-768.

Fiske, S. T., & Lee, T. L. (2011). Xenophobia and how to fight it: Immigrants as the quintessential “other.” In S. Wiley, G. Philogène, & T. A. Revenson (Eds.), Social categories in everyday experience (pp. 151-164). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Facsist Germany

Durante, F., Volpato, C., & Fiske, S.T. (2010). Using the Stereotype Content Model to examine group depictions in Fascism: An archival approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 465-483.

Cross-Cultural studies

Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social perception: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 77-83.

Fiske, S. T., & Durante, F. (2016). Stereotype content across cultures: Variations on a few themes. In M. J. Gelfand, C.-Y. Chiu, & Y.-Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of Advances in Culture and Psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 209-258).  New York: Oxford University Press.

Specific Non-Human Subject Stereotypes in the Model

Animals

Sevillano, V., & Fiske, S. T. (in press). Warmth and competence in animals. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.

Corporations

Kervyn, N., Fiske, S. T., & Malone, C. (2012). Brands as intentional agents framework: Warmth and competence map brand perception, Target Article, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22, 166-176. Talk version won Best Paper Award, 2^nd International Colloquium on Consumer-Brand Relationships, March 2011.

Sociological Implications

Inequality: Fundamental Attribution Error Belief in Meritocracy

Fiske, S. T., & Cuddy, A. J. C. (2006). Stereotype content across cultures as a function of group status. In S. Guimond (Ed.), Social comparison processes and levels of analysis (pp. 249-263). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Oldmeadow, J., & Fiske, S. T. (2007). Ideology moderates status = competence stereotypes: Roles for Belief in a Just World and Social Dominance Orientation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1135-1148.

Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). “What did you say, and who do you think you are?” How power differences affect emotional reactions to prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 66, 477-492.

Russell, A. M., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). Power and social perception. In A. P. Guinote & T. K. Vescio (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 231-250). New York: Guilford.

Durante, F., Fiske, S. T., Kervyn, N., Cuddy, A. J. C., Akande, A., Adetoun, B. E., Adewuyi, M. F., Tserere, M. M., Al Ramiah, A., Mastor, K. A., Barlow, F. K., Bonn, G., Tafarodi, R. W., Bosak, J., Cairns, E., Doherty, S., Capozza, D., Chandran, A., Chryssochoou1, X., Iatridis, T., Contreras, J. M., Costa-Lopes, R., González, R., Lewis, J. I., Tushabe, G., Leyens, J-Ph., Mayorga, R., Rouhana, N. N., Smith Castro, V., Perez, R., Rodríguez-Bailón, R., Moya, M., Morales Marente, E., Palacios Gálvez, M., Sibley, C. G., Asbrock, F., & Storari, C. C. (2013). Nations’ income inequality predicts ambivalence in stereotype content: How societies mind the gap. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52, 726–746.    

Fiske, S. T. (2014). Social psychology and the Great Recession: Comment on bridging the gap. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy.

Dehumanization

Disgust and Utilization

Harris, L. T.,  & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuro-imaging responses to extreme outgroups. Psychological Science, 17, 847-853.

Fiske, S. T. (2009). From de-humanization and objectification, to rehumanization: Neuroimaging studies on the building blocks of empathy.  Values, empathy, and fairness across social barriers. S. Atran, A. Navarro, K. Ochsner, A. Tobeña, & O. Vilarroya (Eds.) Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167, 31-34.

Cikara, M., Farnsworth, R. A., Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). On the wrong side of the trolley track: Neural correlates of relative social valuation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 404-413. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsq011.

Cikara, M., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Bounded empathy: Neural responses to outgroup targets’ (mis)fortunes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3791-3803.

Fiske, S. T. (2013). Varieties of (de)humanization: Divided by competition and status. In S. Gervais (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 60, pp. 53-71. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Fiske, S. T. (2015). Dehumanization. In A. Toga (Ed.), Brain mapping: An encyclopedic reference (pp. 201-203).  Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

Genocide

Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Dehumanized perception: A psychological means to facilitate atrocities, torture, and genocide? Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, Topical Issue on Torture. 21 (3), 175-181.

Workplace Implications

Interpersonal relationships between bosses and subordinates.

Fiske, S. T., & Borgida, E. (2011). Best practices: How to evaluate psychological science for use by organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 31, 253-275.

Racism

Fiske, S. T. (2011). Role of power in racism. In K. M. Dowding (Ed.), Encyclopedia of power. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dupree, C. H., & Fiske, S. T. (under review). Self-presentation of warmth and competence toward white and black interaction partners.

Dupree, C. H., Obioha, O. A., & Fiske, S. T. (under review). Race-status associations predict Blacks’ and Whites’ occupational preferences for self and others

Health Care

Dovidio, J. F., & Fiske, S. T. (2012).  Under the radar: How unexamined biases can contribute to healthcare disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 102 (5), 945-952.

Anti American Sentiment

Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T., with Abrams, D., Dardenne, B., Ferreira, M. C., Gonzalez, R.,  Hachfeld, C., Huang, L., Hutchison, P., Kim, H-J., Manganelli, A. M., Masser, B., Mucchi-Faina, A., Okiebisu, S., Pek, J. C. X., Rouhana, N., Saiz, J. L., Sakalli-Ugurlu, N., Volpato, C., Yamamoto, M., & Yzerbyt, V. (2006). Anti-American sentiment and America’s perceived intent to dominate: An 11-nation study. Special Issue, In the Era of 9/11: Social Psychology and Security. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28, 363-373.