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Refugee women

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Refugee women and children who live in refugee camps face similar issues to those living in urban slums and rural villages. While specific problems vary, broad issues such as inequality and abuse are seen most often.

Refugee Women in Chad

However, only less than half of the refugee population does live in refugee camps, whereas the majority live as urban refugees in metropolitan regions.

Refugee Women

Frequently, especially in low-income countries, the health issues facing refugee women range from dehydration and diarrhea to high fevers and malaria, but also include more broad phenomena, such as gender-based violence and maternal health.

External factors contributing to the health concerns of refugee women include culturally-reinforced gender inequality, limited mobility, lack of access to healthcare facilities, high population density within the refugee camps, and low levels of education.[1][2][3]

The concerns of women in refugee camps are varied in scope and include such issues as discrimination, sexual violence, human trafficking.[4] Rape is often used as a weapon towards women in order to demoralize and terrorize communities and families.[5] Sexual violence stigmatizes women and leaves them emotionally and physically destroyed.[6] These are issues that women face on top of their responsibilities as mother, head of household, teacher, etc.[4]

Health

The leading causes of death to refugee women include malnutrition, diarrhea, respiratory infections, and reproductive complications[7]. Health concerns of refugee women are influenced by a variety of factors including their physical, mental, and social wellbeing[8]. Health complications and concerns for refugee women are prevalent both during their time as refugees living in transient camps or shelters, as well as once they relocate to countries of asylum or resettlement[8].

Reproductive Health

International organizations and the United Nations constituent countries agree that adequate reproductive care must be "safe, effective...[and] affordable." According to the United Nations, while universal values in human rights support the availability of reproductive health care needs of all women, services that conform to adequate standards while respecting cultural differences are rarely provided to refugee women[7]. Due to the lack of satisfactory reproductive health care in refugee camps, complications related to child delivery and pregnancy was one of the leading cause of both death and sickness amongst refugee women living in camps in 2010[7].

Refugee women who have left camps and reside in countries of asylum and resettlement also face reproductive health challenges. A study published in 2004 by the Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health found that refugee women living in wealthy nations face troubles in accessing appropriate reproductive care due to stereotyping, language barriers, and lack of cultural respect and understanding[8].

Mental Health

Refugee women often face a host of mental health complications in their home countries, in refugee camps, and in countries of resettlement or asylum.

Nutrition

Malnutrition of refugee women manifests in a variety of ways both in refugee camps and in countries of asylum and resettlement. Issues of food security, economic and political misunderstanding, and discrimination within refugee camps contribute to the poor nutritional standing of many refugee women[9]. In a study of food aid in Rwandan refugee camps, experts found that international aid agencies' lack of consideration and attention to the political, economic, and cultural workings of countries in crises can lead to inadequate and inappropriate food aid, which in turn may result in malnutrition for refugees[9]. Likewise, studies have shown that despite no legal distinction between male and female refugees, international refugee communities and even aid organizations tend to uphold discrimination based on gender[10]. This translates into malnutrition for refugee women through lack of priority in food distribution as well as medical attention for nutrition related issues and lack of reproductive nutritional care.

South Sudanese refugees being served food. Many of the complain of hunger due to the food rationing by World Food Program

Issues in malnutrition persist in countries of asylum and resettlement for refugee women though mechanisms of food insecurity and lack of nutritional education. A study on Somalian refugee women in 2013 found that rates of meat and egg intake were significantly higher in refugee women than comparable populations of host-country national women, while rates of fruit and vegetable intake were significantly lower[11]. A related study of Cambodian refugee women found that common reasons for poor nutritional intake were living in food insecure, low-income areas, lack of economic means to purchase more nutritious food, and lack of education about nutritious eating in their new country[12].

Labor

Women spend a considerable amount of time every day collecting water and firewood for their families, but they are rarely ever consulted when it comes to water supply planning and management. Collecting water can take hours or even days and is often unsafe. Women spend time collecting water when they could be back at home tending to their children, generating income, or providing meals for the family. Adequate water services could be better provided if aid organi zations and those in charge of refugee camps discussed water supply issues with women.[13] However, camps overseen by UNHCR do provide one tap stand per 80 persons that should be no farther than 200m away from households.[14] The bigger problem is collecting the firewood.

Women often participate in agricultural tasks in order to provide for their families. However, women are often excluded from the discussion on what to plant in refugee camps. Establishing committees that include women in the agricultural planning process allows them to contribute their knowledge to the planning process. Often, women lack the tools, seeds, and land to effectively produce anything.[13]

Aid organizations often lack gender-sensitive staff, and policies are often not comprehensive in their inclusion of women. Listening to women, working with pre-established organizations, and researching what services women actually want and need are all ways to empower women and get them involved in the governing of refugee camps.[13] However, community leader elections in Dadaab in 2011 resulted in a total number 626 elected leaders, of whom 313 were women.

Assault

Another key healthcare concern is that of gender-based violence within the refugee camps.[15] It is generally recognized that, “displacement, uprootedness, the loss of community structures, the need to exchange sex for material goods or protection all lead to distinct forms of violence, particularly sexual violence against women.”[7] Additionally, sexual violence is considered a taboo subject in many cultures, and therefore gender-based violence often goes unreported. Even if women did have the courage to report violence, often there is nowhere within the refugee camp for them to turn.[16]

Separation

Refugee Children

See also: Refugee children

In 2010 nearly half of the people with whom the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) is concerned are children.[17] Children are often the most neglected refugees.[18] The UNHCR has indicated five major issues of importance concerning refugee children: separation, sexual exploitation and abuse, military recruitment, education, and adolescent-specific concerns.[17]

Separation

Separation of children from their families is a common issue that has negative consequences for the children who are separated.[19] If separation occurs, it is important to document the separation and attempt to reunite the child with his/her family (if this is in the best interest of the child).[19] A strong family support network is essential to the proper growth and development of children in general, but especially those living in refugee camps.

Abuse

There are a lot of associated dangers that come with sexual exploitation and abuse including teen pregnancy, infection with sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and traditional practices that are often harmful such as genital mutilation.[19] The responsibility to protect these children falls on the host government, the refugee community, and other humanitarian organizations. The lack of structure in refugee camps can lead to abuse. Improving awareness of the issue (both in and out of the camp), improving access to education, and creating safe living conditions are all potential strategies to curb sexual exploitation and abuse. Sexual exploitation and abuse can be publicly addressed and dealt with through legal battles, adequate health care, psychological support, and protection of the abused.[19]

Military recruitment

Refugee children are at an increased risk for recruitment by military forces. Often separated from their families, there is nobody to fight for a child when he/she is forcibly recruited by a military and forced to serve as a child soldier. There are several methods of recruitment: compulsory recruitment, voluntary recruitment, or forcible recruitment. Both boys and girls alike are recruited to join militaries and often fight alongside adult soldiers. However, other duties may be carried out by children such as cooking, delivering messages, or cleaning. Children enrolled in school are less likely to be recruited because it is more difficult for military forces to recruit an entire school as opposed to a single child playing alone. The UN states that children reap the benefits of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration.[19]

Education

Education serves a variety of practical purposes in addition to gaining knowledge and skills for future endeavors. Children in schools are at a decreased risk for military recruitment, sexual violence, HIV/AIDS transmission, crime and drug use.[19] The structure provided by education also provides a sense of normalcy for children living in refugee camps.[19] The unstructured life of a refugee can be hard on children, and school provides children with a break from the tediousness of everyday life.

Health

Aid agencies

Numerous Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and intergovernmental organizations work to advocate on behalf of refugee women and children.

The International Rescue Committeeserves as an advocate for women to foreign governments to pass laws concerning the health and well-being of refugee women. They also educate men and boys to change the culture of violence towards women.[20]

See also

References

  1. ^ Poureslami, IM; et al. (September 20, 2004). "Sociocultural, Environmental, and Health Challenges Facing Women and Children Living Near the Borders Between Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (AIP Region)". MedGenMen. 6 (3). Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  2. ^ "Women as Refugees: A Health Overview" (PDF). Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  3. ^ "Women's Concerns". UNHCR.
  4. ^ a b The United Nations Refugee Agency. Women’s Concerns. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  5. ^ International Rescue Committee. The Forgotten Frontline: The Effects of War on Women. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  6. ^ International Rescue Committee. Gender-based Violence Programs. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  7. ^ a b c d "Reproductive Health in Refugee Situations: An Interagency Field Manual". UNHCR. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  8. ^ a b c Herrel, Nathaly (July 2005). "Somali refugee women speak out about their needs for care during pregnancy and delivery". Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health. 49: 345–349 – via PubMed.
  9. ^ a b Pottier, Johan (December 1996). "Why Aid Agencies Need Better Understanding of the Communities They Assist: The Experience of Food Aid in Rwandan Refugee Camps". School of Oriental and African Studies. 20: 324–227 – via Wiley Online Library.
  10. ^ Johnsson, Anders (January 1989). "The International Protection of Women Refugees A Summary of Principal Problems and Issues". International Journal of Refugee Law. 1: 221–232 – via Oxford Academic.
  11. ^ Dharod, JM (January 2013). "Food insecurity: its relationship to dietary intake and body weight among Somali refugee women in the United States". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 45: 47–53 – via PubMed.
  12. ^ Peterman, Jerusha Nelson (August 2010). "Relationship between past food deprivation and current dietary practices and weight status among Cambodian refugee women in Lowell, MA". American Journal of Public Health. 100: 1930–1937 – via PubMed.
  13. ^ a b c Wallace, Tina (1993). "Refugee women: their perspectives and our responses". Gender & Development, special issue: Women and Conflict. 1 (2). Taylor and Francis: 17–23. doi:10.1080/09682869308519965. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) Also as Wallace, Tina (1993), "Refugee women: their perspectives and our responses", in O'Connell, Helen (ed.), Women and conflict, Oxford: Oxfam, pp. 17–23, ISBN 9780855982225
  14. ^ https://emergency.unhcr.org/entry/45582/camp-planning-standards-planned-settlements
  15. ^ "Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons". UNHCR. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  16. ^ Norton, Robyn; Hyder, Adrian A.; Gururaj, Gopalakrishna (2006), "Unintentional injuries and violence", in Mills, Anne J.; Black, Robert E.; Merson, Michael (eds.), International public health: diseases, programs, systems, and policies (2nd ed.), Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett, p. 337, ISBN 9780763729677
  17. ^ a b The United Nations Refugee Agency. Children’s Concerns. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  18. ^ Huyck, Earl E.; Fields, Rona (Spring–Summer 1981). "Impact of resettlement on refugee children". International Migration Review. The Center for Migration Studies of New York, Inc. via JSTOR. 15 (1-2): 246–254. doi:10.2307/2545341.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g The United Nations Refugee Agency. 2005. UNHCR’s 5 Priorities for Girls and Boys of Concern to UNHCR. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  20. ^ International Rescue Committee. The IRC at a Glance. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
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