Nahuatl

Nahuatl, Náhuatl, Mexicano, Nawatl
Nahuatlahtolli, Māsēwallahtōlli
Region	Mexico: Mexico (state), Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero, Morelos, and Oaxaca, Tabasco, Michoacán, Durango, Jalisco
Native speakers	over 1.5 million
Language family	Uto-Aztecan Aztecan General Aztec Nahuatl, Náhuatl, Mexicano, Nawatl
Official status
Regulated by	Secretaría de Educación Pública
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–

Nahuatl (['na.watɬ] is a term applied to a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, indigenous to central Mexico. It is spoken by more than 1.5 million people in Mexico, and under the "Law of Linguistic Rights" Nahuatl is recognized as a "national language" along with 62 other indigenous languages and Spanish which have the same "validity" in Mexico [1]. Nahuatl is mostly known outside of Mexico because the Aztecs spoke Nahuatl: a variant now known as Classical Nahuatl.

Overview

Nahuatl is the most widely-spoken group of Native American languages in Mexico or in North America as a whole. As is the case with most other Mexican indigenous languages, many of the speakers of Nahuatl are bilingual, having working knowledge of the Spanish language. In the past, a significant number of the Nahuatl speakers outside the Valley of Mexico were bilingual in languages other than Spanish, speaking both Nahuatl and, as their mother tongue, some other indigenous language. A famous example of bilingualism was Malintzin ("La Malinche"), the native woman who translated between Nahuatl and a Mayan language (and who later learned Spanish as well) for Hernán Cortés.

There are an estimated 1.5 million people who speak one or another Nahuatl dialect, some of these dialects being mutually unintelligible. All of these dialects show influence from the Spanish language to various degrees, some of them much more than others. No modern dialects are identical with Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than are peripheral ones.

Often the term Nahuatl is used specifically with reference to Classical Nahuatl, the administrative language of the Aztec empire. The Aztecs were preceded by, and surrounded by, other Nahuatl-speaking cultures, whose language certainly differed in some degree from theirs. These include the Tepaneca, Acolhua, Tlaxcalteca, and Xochimilca; and Nahuatl was perhaps one of the languages spoken in Teotihuacan. As these groups became predominant, Nahuatl, and especially Classical Nahuatl after the ascendancy of the Aztec empire, was used as a lingua franca in much of Mesoamerica beginning from the 12th century AD until the 16th century, at which time its prominence and influence were eclipsed by the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Since we only have documentation available from that point on, and since the Spanish dealt especially with the Mexica in their administrative, religious and scholarly activities, Classical Nahuatl is for us the most available, as well as the most prestigious, early form of the language.

Classification and terminology

Sometimes a distinction is made among Nahuan (i.e. languages of the Nahuan or Aztecan branch of Uto-Aztecan) languages between Nahuatl (variants with the characteristic tl phoneme), Nahuat (variants which have t in its place), and Nahual (variants which have l instead). Although the classification implied by emphasizing these differences is currently not given as much weight as in the past, the terms are still used. Sometimes Nahuan is used for the family as a whole; others use the term Aztecan for the family, or Nahua for the family and in any context where one does not want to specify the tl/t/l differences. Most commonly, however, Nahuatl is used as a generic name for the family or any variant of it. In many Nahua speaking communities completely different names are used for the language, commonly speakers call their language "Mexicano" (a term originally used by the spanish for languages related to the language of the Mexica (Aztecs)) or "Mācehualli" (meaning "commoners speech").

The Nahuatl languages are related to the other Uto-Aztecan languages spoken by peoples such as the Hopi, Comanche, Paiute and Ute, Pima, Shoshone, Tarahumara, Yaqui, Tepehuán, Huichol and other peoples of western North America. They all belong to the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family which is one of the largest and best studied language families of the americas consisting of at least 61 individual languages, and spoken from the United States to El Salvador. This is a grouping on the same order as Indo-European.

Genealogy

• Uto-Aztecan 5000 BP^*
  • Shoshonean (Northern Uto-Aztecan)
  • Sonoran^**
  • Aztecan 2000 BP (a.k.a. Nahuan)
    • Pochutec — Coast of Oaxaca
    • General Aztec (Nahuatl)
      • Western periphery
      • Eastern Periphery
      • Huasteca
      • Center

See the Nahuatl dialects page for further discussion of the sub-categories of General Aztec, which are somewhat controversial.

^*Estimated split date by glottochronology (BP = Before the Present).

^**Some scholars continue to classify Aztecan and Sonoran together under a separate group (called variously "Sonoran", "Mexican", or "Southern Uto-Aztecan"). There is increasing evidence that whatever degree of additional resemblance there might be between Aztecan and Sonoran when compared with Shoshonean is probably due to proximity contact, rather than to a common immediate parent stock other than Uto-Aztecan.

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Geographic distribution

Distribution of Nahuatl speakers per state.

A range of Nahuatl dialects are currently spoken in an area stretching from the northern Mexican state of Durango to Tabasco in the south. Pipil, a Nahuatl dialect which happens to have its own name, is spoken as far south as El Salvador, by fewer than twenty speakers if it is not already extinct. Another Nahuan language, Pochutec, was spoken on the coast of Oaxaca until circa 1930. The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Guerrero and Hidalgo. Significant populations are also found in México State, Morelos, and the Mexican Federal District. Smaller populations exist in Michoacán, Jalisco, Tabasco, and Durango.

It is likely that the speakers of Nahuatl languages originally came from the northern Mexican deserts and migrated into central Mexico in several waves. One of the last of these waves settled in what is now the Valley of Mexico and later founded what came to be known as the Aztec empire. During this period, if not before, Nahuatl became a lingua franca, used for trade purposes and as a prestige language in large parts of Mesoamerica, and causing the language to spread even further. For example, at the time of the Spanish conquest, the K'iche' (Mayan) nobility spoke Nahuatl as well as the K'iche' language.

Currently the influx of Mexican workers into the United States has created small Nahuatl-speaking communities in the United States, particularly in New York and California.

Phonology of Nahuan languages

Historical phonological changes

The Nahuan subgroup of Uto-Aztecan is classified partly by a number of shared phonological changes from reconstructed proto Uto-Aztecan to the attested Nahuan languages. The changes shared between the Nahuan languages are the basis for the reconstruction of the intermediate stage of proto-Nahuan. Some of these changes shared by all Nahuan languages are:

• Proto Uto-aztecan **t becomes Proto Nahuan lateral affricate *tl before proto Uto-aztecan **a
• Proto Uto-aztecan initial **p is lost in Proto Nahuan.
• Proto Uto-aztecan **u merges with **i into Proto Nahuan *i
• Proto Uto-aztecan sibilants **ts and **s split into *ts, *ch and *s, *ʃ respectively.
• Proto Uto-aztecan fifth vowel reconstructed as **ɨ or **ə merged with **e into proto Nahuan *e
• a large number of metatheses in which Proto Uto-aztecan roots of the shape **CVCV have become *VCCV.

The table below presents some of the changes that are reconstructed from Proto Uto-aztecan to Proto Nahuan.

Table of reconstructed changes from proto Uto-aztecan to proto Nahuan

PUA	proto Nahuan
**ta:ka "man"	*tla:ka-tla "man"
**pahi "water"	*a:-tla "water"
**muki "to die"	*miki "to die
**pu:li "to tie"	*ilpi "to tie"
**nɨmi "to walk"	*nemi "to live, to walk"

From the changes common to all Nahuan languages the subgroup has diversified somewhat and giving a complete overview of the phonologies of Nahuan languages is not suitable here. However, the table below shows a standardised phonemic inventory based on the inventory of Classical Nahuatl. Many modern dialects have undergone changes from proto Nahuan that have resulted in different phonemic inventories.

Consonants

Table of Nahuatl consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	p	t		k / kʷ	ʔ
Fricatives		s	ʃ
Affricates		tɬ / ts	tʃ
Approximants	w	l	j
Nasals	m	n

Vowels

Table of Nahuatl vowels

	front		central		back
	long	short	long	short	long	short
high	iː	i
mid	eː	e			oː	o
low			aː	a

Grammar

For a grammatical sketch of a nahuan language see the article: Classical Nahuatl grammar.

The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative, polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed. Very long verbal forms or nouns created through incorporation and accumulation of prefixes are not uncommon in literary works. This also means that new words can be created at a moment's notice.

A minority of linguists consider the typology of Nahuatl to be oligosynthetic. This was first proposed by Benjamin Whorf in the early 20th Century. However, by the mid-1950s, this view was largely dismissed by the linguistic community.

Vocabulary

See the list of Nahuatl words and list of words of Náhuatl origin at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia’s sibling project.

Lizard, snake, death day pictographs on a Stone of the Sun

Words loaned to other languages

Main article: words of Nahuatl origin

Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language, many of which are terms designating things indigenous to the American continent. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American spanish, but others have entered all the varities of Spanish in the world and a number of them, such as "chocolate", "tomato" and "avocado" have made their way into many other languages via Spanish. For example because of extensive Mexican-Philippine contacts in the colonial history, there are an estimated 250 words of Nahuatl origin in the Tagalog language. Likewise a number of English words have been borrowed from nahuatl through spanish. Two of the most prominent are undoubtedly chocolate (from xocolātl, 'chocolate drink', perhaps literally 'bitter-water') and tomato (from (xi)tomatl). But there are others, such as coyote (coyotl), avocado (ahuacatl) and chile or chili (chilli). The brand name Chiclets is also derived from Nahuatl (tzictli 'sticky stuff, chicle'). Other English words from Náhuatl are: Aztec, (aztecatl); cacao (cacahuatl 'shell, rind'); mesquite (mizquitl); ocelot (ocelotl).

Many well-known toponyms also come from Nahuatl, including Mexico (mexihco) and Guatemala (cuauhtēmallan).

In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl:

achiote, aguacate, ajolote, amate, atole, axolotl, ayate, cacahuate, camote, capulín, chapopote, chayote, chicle, chile, chipotle, chocolate, cuate, comal, copal, coyote, ejote, elote, epazote, escuincle, guacamole, guajolote, huipil, huitlacoche, hule, jícama, jícara, jitomate, malacate, mecate, metate, metlapil, mezcal, mezquite, milpa, mitote, molcajete, mole, nopal, ocelote, ocote, olote, paliacate, papalote, pepenar, petate, peyote, pinole, popote, pozole, quetzal, tamal, tianguis, tomate, zacate, zapote, zopilote.

(The persistent -te or -le endings on these words are Spanish reflexes of the Nahuatl 'absolutive' ending -tl, -tli, or -li, which appears on (most) nouns when they are not possessed or in the plural.)

Writing systems

At the time of the Spanish conquest, Aztec writing used mostly pictographs supplemented by a few ideograms. When needed, it also used syllabic equivalences; Father Durán recorded how the tlacuilos (codex painters) could render a prayer in Latin using this system, but it was difficult to use. This writing system was adequate for keeping such records as genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists, but could not represent a full vocabulary of spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the old world or of the Maya civilization could. The Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told; the elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for teaching, and long texts were memorized.

The Spanish introduced the Roman script, which was then utilized to record a large body of Aztec prose and poetry, a fact which somewhat mitigated the devastating loss of the thousands of Aztec manuscripts which were burned by the Spanish. (See Nahuatl transcription and Aztec codices.) Important lexical works (e.g. Molina's classic Vocabulario of 1571) and grammatical descriptions (of which Carochi's 1645 Arte is generally acknowledged the best) were produced using variations of this orthography.

The classical orthography was not perfect, and in fact there were many variations in how it was applied, due in part to dialectal differences and in part to differing traditions and preferences that developed. (The writing of Spanish itself was far from totally standardized at the time.) Today, although almost all written Nahuatl uses some form of Latin-based orthography, there continue to be strong dialectal differences, and considerable debate and differing practices regarding how to write sounds even when they are the same. Major issues are

• whether to follow Spanish in writing the /k/ sound sometimes as c and sometimes as qu or just to use k
• how to write /kʷ/
• what to do about /enwiki/w/, the realization of which varies considerably from place to place and even within a single dialect
• how to write the "saltillo", phonetically a glottal stop ([ʔ]) or an [h], which has been spelled with j, h, and a straight apostrophe ('), but which traditionally was often omitted in writing.

There are a number of other issues as well, such as

• whether and how to represent vowel length
• how and whether to represent sound variants (allophones) which sound like different Spanish sounds [phonemes], especially variants of o which come close to u
• to what extent writing in one variant should be adapted towards what is used in other variants.

The Secretaría de Educación Pública (Ministry of Public Education) has adopted an alphabet for its bilingual education programs in rural communities in Mexico in which k is used and /enwiki/w/ is written as u, and this decision has been influential. The recently established (2004) "Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas" (INALI) will also be involved in these issues.

History

Nahuatl is often referred to as the Aztec language, or (especially in Spanish) as the Mexican language, because it was the language of the Mexica, i.e. the Aztecs. It was not spoken only by the Mexica, however, but by many other groups, including such predecessors and contemporaries of the Mexica as the Colhua, the Tepanec, the Acolhua, various Chichimeca groups, and the famous Toltecs in one interpretation of the term. Increasingly, suggestions have been appearing, from several diverse fields of Mesoamerican research, that Nahuatl may have been one of the languages spoken at the legendary Teotihuacan.

Literature

Nahuatl literature is extensive (probably the most extensive of all Amerindian languages), including a relatively large corpus of poetry (see also Nezahualcoyotl); the Huei tlamahuiçoltica is an example of literary Nahuatl from the seventeenth century. Examples from the time immediately following the conquest include at least one census from the 1540s. The two largest collections of poetry, the Cantares mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de la Nueva España, were in all likelihood copied down in the 1560s or somewhat later. The mammoth encyclopedia of Aztec culture known as the Florentine Codex was compiled by the Franciscan Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún, with the assistance of tri-lingual students from the Colegio de Santacruz Tlatelolco at about the same time. A large dictionary of the classical nahuatl language was compiled by fray the bilingual Alonso de Molina and published in 1555. Several grammars of the nahuatl language was published during colonial times, the most influential of which were written by Horacio Carochi in 1648 and another earlier one by Fray Andrés de Olmos.

Notes

Bibliography

• de Arenas, Pedro: Vocabulario manual de las lenguas castellana y mexicana. [1611] Reprint: México 1982
• Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar. Austin 1989
• Carochi, Horacio: Arte de la lengua mexicana: con la declaración de los adverbios della. [1645] Reprint: Porrúa México 1983
• Canger, Una, 1980. "Five Studies inspired by Náhuatl Verbs in -oa." Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague
• Canger, Una. 1988. Nahuatl dialectology: A survey and some suggestions. IJAL 54.1. 28-72.
• Dakin, Karen, 1982. "Evolución Fonológica del Protonáhuatl." UNAM, Mexico
• Garibay K., Angel María : Llave de Náhuatl. Ed. Porrúa, SC706, México 2004.
• Garibay K., Angel María, Historia de la literatura náhuatl. México 1953
• Garibay K., Angel María, Poesía náhuatl. vol 1-3 México 1964
• Garibay K. Angel María, Panorama Literario de los Pueblos Nahuas., Ed. Porrúa, SC022, México, 2001.
• Hill, Jane and Kenneth Hill, Speaking Mexicano: dynamics of syncretic language in Central Mexico. Tucson 1986
• Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91274
• von Humboldt, Wilhelm (1767–1835): Mexicanische Grammatik. Paderborn/München 1994
• Jiménez, Doña Luz (?–1965): Life and Death in Milpa Alta. Norman 1972
• Karttunen, Frances, An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl. Norman 1992
• Karttunen, Frances, Between worlds: interpreters, guides, and survivors. New Brunswick 1994
• Karttunen, Frances, Náhuatl in the Middle Years: Language Contact Phenomena in Texts of the Colonial Period. Los Angeles 1976
• Launey, Michel : Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques. Paris 1980
• Launey, Michel : Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl. UNAM, México 1992
• de León-Portilla, Ascensión H.: Tepuztlahcuilolli, Impresos en Náhuatl: Historia y Bibliografia. Vol. 1-2. México 1988
• León-Portilla, Miguel : Literaturas Indígenas de México. Madrid 1992
• Lockhart, James (ed): We people here. Náhuatl Accounts of the conquest of Mexico. Los Angeles 1993
• de Molina, Fray Alonso: Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana. [1555] Reprint: Porrúa México 1992
• de Olmos, Fray Andrés: Arte de la lengua mexicana concluído en el convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España. [1547] Reprint: México 1993
• del Rincón, Antonio: Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio del Rincón. [1595] Reprint: México 1885
• de Sahagún, Fray Bernardino (1499–1590): Florentine Codex. General History of the Things of New Spain (Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España). Eds Charles Dibble/Arthr Anderson, vol I-XII Santa Fe 1950–71
• Siméon, Rémi: Dictionnaire de la Langue Náhuatl ou Mexicaine. [Paris 1885] Reprint: Graz 1963
• Siméon, Rémi: Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana. [Paris 1885] Reprint: México 2001
• Stiles, Neville Náhuatl in the Huasteca Hidalguense: A Case Study in the Sociology of Language PhD thesis, Centre for Latin American Linguistic Study, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 1983
• Sullivan, Thelma D & Neville Stiles.: Compendium of Náhuatl Grammar. Salt Lake City 1988
• The Nahua Newsletter: edited by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the University of Indiana (Chief Editor Alan Sandstrom)
• Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas (IIH) of the Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ed.: Miguel Leon Portilla

See also

• Category: Nahuatl words
• List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin

External links

• Ethnologue reports on Náhuatl
• Náhuatl Learning Resource List, by Ricardo J. Salvador
• Brief Notes on Classical Náhuatl, by David K. Jordan
• Nahuatl (Aztec) family, SIL-Mexico, with subsites on some specific variants
• Náhuatl Summer Language Institute, Yale University
• English → Náhuatl,   Nahuatl → English   (Florentine Codex Vocabulary 1997, by R. Joe Campbell)
• Náhuatl → English   (Basic Dictionary, by Acoyauh)
• Spanish → Náhuatl,   Náhuatl → Spanish   (Ohui.net)
• Náhuatl-French dictionary Includes basic grammar
• Náhuatl Names An introduction to Náhuatl names.
• Books at Project Gutenberg in Nahuatl