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| Myxotrichum chartarum | |
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| Genus: | Myxotrichum
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| Species: | M. chartarum
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| Binomial name | |
| Myxotrichum chartarum Kunze (1823)
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Myxotrichum chartarum is a psychrophilic fungus[1] first discovered in Germany by Kunze in 1823.[2] M. chartarum was previously classified as Oncidium chartarum, Actinospira chartarum and Myxotrichum carminoparum. Its classification has since changed to better reflect the information available at the time. The presence of cellulolytic processes are common in fungi within the Myxotrichaceae family.[3][4] M. chartarum is known to degrade paper and paper products.[4] Evidence of M. chartarum "red spot" mold formation, especially on old books, can be found globally.[2][3][5] It has not been shown that Myxotrichaceae fungi are a pathogenic family. [3]
History and taxonomy
The fungal species, Myxotrichum chartarum was discovered by Kunze in 1823.[2]
Originally, M. chartarum was placed in the genus, Oncidium which was previously in use for species of orchid. M. chartarum was thereafter reclassified by Kunze.[2][3] In the same year, the genus, Myxotrichum was established by Kunze to include two species, M. chartarum and Myxotrichum murorum.[2] There has been much confusion within the Myxotrichum genus due to numerous revisions in classification over the years and scarcity of isolations.[2][3] Eventually, the genus, Myxotrichum became associated with fungi which are dematiaceous hyphomycetes, to reticuloperidial ascomycetes with hooked appendages.[3]
In 1838, Corda classified M. chartarum as a Hyphomycete of the family, Sporotrichacheae, as species belonging to this family had ornate appendages resembling deer antlers.[6] In 1854, Corda separated M. chartarum from Myxotrichum into the newly established genus, Actinospira because he believed it to produce conidia rather than ascospores.[2] In 1959, Kuehn, among other investigators, reviewed the status of M. chartarum and declared the fungus to be an ascomycete of the Gymnoascaceae family, for ascomycetes that lacked true cleistothecia or perithecia.[2] In 1875, Fuckel declared M. chartarum to be the conidial form of Chaetomium kunzeanum.[6] Fries thought M. chartarum was a state of Chaetomium chartarum. His opinion was supported by Boulanger in 1897.[6] Their revelation was founded because of the high resemblance between Chaetomium and Myxotrichum fungal families due to the presence of ornamental hairs.[6] In 1889, Richon thought M. chartarum was the conidial form of Cephalotheca sulfurea, disputing the claim of Fuckel.[6] In 1892, Rabenhorst classified M. chartarum into the order, Gymnoascaceae.[6] This was later supported by Schroter in 1893.[6] Fischer later recognized the existence of ascospores in M. chartarum, but lack of conidial structures.[6]
Different forms of M. chartarum were isolated by Robak and Udagawa that resembled a phenotypically similar species.[3] The isolate discovered by Robak (1932) of M. carminoparum resembled M. chartarum[3] in every way except in the characteristically flattened apical area. Another isolate was discovered by Udagawa (1963) to have flattened appendages, but the size of the ascomata was smaller, resembling those from M. carminoparum.[3] Later, the species, M. chartarum and M. carminoparum were merged due to the high resemblance between the two species.
Growth and morphology
Growth in its natural environment
Ascocarps appear dark and spherical with short appendages, that can also appear green or copper when filled with spores. [2][3] The spore mass fills the ascocarps between one-third and three-fourths of the total volume at peak maturity.[2][3] Gymnothecium have appendages that are straight and elongated, with septa. Branching points present as uncinate or curved spines that are wider at the apices. [2][3] Commonly found in Myxotrichum species is the secondary and tertiary branching of peridial hyphae. These branches are identified by their lighter colour from the centrum of the fungi, or truncation, due to the fragility of such branching. These truncations were previously thought to have been the release of conidiophores, but no evidence was found on conidiophore attachment.[2] The centrally-located centrum is initially pale-white and turns yellow as it matures. Contained within are asci, which are hyaline, globular, and contain 8 spores each which is typical of ascospores.[2][3] The ascospores can also be described as being yellow to orange in colour with a fusoid shape having longitudinal striations.[2][3][7] The curved spines allow the ascocarp to adhere to the fur of animals, allowing the fungus to disperse to other areas.[6]
Life cycle
In the asexual or anamorph stage, artheroaleurispores and aleuriospores are present.[2][3] These anamorphs may belong to the genii, Malbranchea and Oidiodendron.[3]
Growth in laboratory culture
In culture and grown at 25°C, M. chartarum appears yellow and fluffy.[3] Some cultures had areas that were black in appearance, which were due to visible mature ascomata.[3] However, growth was restricted at this temperature, as fungi in the Myxotrichaceae family have a preference for temperatures below 18°C.[3][6] Optimal growing temperatures were described as being between +5°C and +7°C.[2][3] Production of a red-brown pigment when grown on mycelia and on certain culture media, functions to detoxify the surrounding environment.[3][8] This is due to a reaction produced by the laccases secreted in the presence of polyphenols.[8] The presence of pigmentation occurs early on for polyphenol detection.[8] However, this effect weakens when the fungus is exposed to higher levels of polyphenols, indicating metabolic function inhibition caused by the presence of these compounds.[8]
Habitat and ecology
M. chartarum has been recorded to inhabit these materials: paper, cardboard, drywall, straw, rotting wood, decaying leather, cloth, grouse dung, rabbit dung, bat guano, soil, leaves and fruit.[2][9][1][3][10]
The known distribution areas are as follows: Germany, Russia, Italy, France, Switzerland, England, Japan, Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Maine, Massachusetts, Ontario, New York.[2][3]
This fungus was named chartarum because it was discovered on the paper of old books,[4] and its ability to decay them through cellulolytic processes.[9] It was deemed a “material pathogen”, since it is able to degrade specific materials as a source of nutrition.[9]
It has been observed by multiple researchers that M. chartarum exhibited slow growth at 5-7°C and no growth at 37°C, so this fungus is classified as a psychrophilic organism.[2][4][3] Since it cannot grow at human body temperature, this fungus is not an opportunistic pathogen.[9] As found by Tribe and Weber (2002)[4], optimal growth can be achieved on mineral salt agar with a sheet of Cellophane as the only carbon source.[4] In basements, it has a preference for gypsum board ceilings and building paper on concrete surfaces on the cold side of foundation walls.[1] For optimal growth, it requires a relative humidity of greater than 98%.[1] Salinity and pH preferences are unknown, but it is probably halo-tolerant.[1]
References
- ^ a b c d e Nunez, M; Hammer, H (2014). "Microbial specialists in below‐grade foundation walls in Scandinavia". Int J Indoor Env and Health. 24 (5): 543–551. doi:10.1111/ina.12095.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Orr, G F; Kuehn, H H; Plunkett, O A (1963). "THE GENUS MYXOTRICHUM KUNZE". Can J of Botany. 41 (10): 1457-1480. doi:10.1139/b63-127.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Currah, R S (1985). . Taxonomy of the Onygenales: Arthrodermataceae, Gymnoascaceae, Myxotrichaceae and Onygenaceae (24 ed.). Mycotaxon. p. 1-216.
- ^ a b c d e f Tribe, H T; Weber, R W S (2002). "A low-temperature fungus from cardboard, Myxotrichum chartarum". Mycologist. 16 (1): 3-5. doi:10.1017/S0269-915X(02)00614-6.
- ^ Sato, Y; Aoki, M; Kigawa, R (2014). "Microbial deterioration of tsunami-affected paper-based objects" (PDF). National Research Institute for Cultural Properties Tokyo. (2012): 51–65.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j See, P (1919). La florule du papier. - Étude systématique et biologique des champignons chromogènes du papier piqué. Vol. 815. Université de Paris.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Ellis, M B; Ellis, J P (1988). Microfungi on miscellaneous substrates: an identification handbook (I ed.). Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9780855462482.
- ^ a b c d Guiraud, P; Steiman, R; Seiglemurandi, F; Benoitguyod, JL (1995). "Comparison of the toxicity of various lignin-related phenolic compounds toward selected fungi perfecti and fungi imperfecti" (PDF). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 32 (1): 29-33.
- ^ a b c d Sterflinger, K; Pinzari, F (2012). "The revenge of time: fungal deterioration of cultural heritage with particular reference to books, paper and parchment". Environ Microbiol. 14 (3): 559-66. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02584.x.
- ^ Nováková, A (2009). "Microscopic fungi isolated from the Domica Cave system (Slovak Karst National Park, Slovakia). A review". International Journal of Speleology. 38 (1): 8. doi:10.5038/1827-806X.38.1.8.