Jump to content

List of star extremes

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by VAN canada DAnieL "Danny" Fenton (talk | contribs) at 18:05, 14 March 2019. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Size comparison between the Sun and VY Canis Majoris. VY Canis Majoris is the the largest known star by radius.

A star is a sphere that is mainly composed of hydrogen and plasma, held together by gravity and is able to produce light through nuclear fusion. Stars exhibit many diverse properties, resulting from different masses, volumes, velocities, stage in stellar evolution and even proximity to earth. Some of these properties are considered extreme and sometimes disproportionate by astronomers.

Age and distance

Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Nearest star Sun 3rd century BC 1 AU Our local star's distance was first determined in the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos Reported for reference
Second-nearest star Proxima Centauri 1915 1.30 pc Also called Alpha Centauri C, it is the outlying star in a trinary star system. This is currently the nearest known neighbouring star to our own Sun. This star was discovered in 1915, and its parallax was determined at the time, when enough observations were established. [NB 1] [1][2] List of nearest stars
Most distant individually seen star MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1 (or Icarus (star)) 2018 z=1.49
9.0 Gly 		[3][4][5][6] List of the most distant astronomical objects
Most distant star Stars in GN-z11 2016 z=11.09

13.39 Gly

[7] List of the most distant astronomical objects
Oldest star HD 140283 14.5±0.8 billion years the "Methuselah star" [8] List of oldest stars
Youngest Stars are being formed constantly in the universe so it is impossible to tell which star is the youngest. For information on the properties of newly formed stars, See Protostar, Young Stellar Object and Star Formation.
Nearest stars by type
Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Nearest "average" star Alpha Centauri
A & B 		1839 1.34 parsecs (4.4 ly) This was the third star whose parallax was determined. Before Alpha Cen, the record was held by 61 Cygni, the first star whose parallax was determined. [NB 1][NB 2][NB 3]
Nearest normal star Alpha Centauri C
(Proxima Centauri) 		1915 1.30 parsecs (4.2 ly) Before Proxima, the title had been held by Alpha Centauri A&B. [NB 1][NB 3] [9][10]
Nearest red dwarf Before Proxima, the title had been held by Barnard's Star
Nearest degenerate star Sirius B 1852 8.6 light-years (2.6 pc) This is also the nearest white dwarf [NB 4]
Nearest borderline subgiant Procyon 11.5 light-years (3.5 pc) All stars closer to the Sun are either main sequence or dwarf stars.
Nearest undisputed subgiant Delta Pavonis 19.9 light-years (6.1 pc) A subgiant, but only slightly brighter than the Sun.
Nearest "true" giant star Pollux 33.8 light-years (10.4 pc)
Nearest red giant Arcturus 36.7 light-years (11.3 pc)
Nearest spectral type A or hotter Sirius 8.6 light-years (2.6 pc)
Nearest neutron star RX J185635-3754 2000 400 light-years (120 pc) [11][12][13]
Nearest white dwarf Sirius B 1852 8.6 light-years (2.6 pc) Sirius B is also the first white dwarf discovered. [9][14]
Nearest flare star Proxima Centauri
(Alpha Centauri C) 		1.30 parsecs (4.2 ly) α Cen C is also the nearest neighbouring star. [15]
Nearest brown dwarf Luhman 16 2013 6.5 light-years (2.0 pc) This is a pair of brown dwarfs in a binary system, with no other stars. [16]

Brightness and power

Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Brightest star from the Earth: Apparent magnitude Sun prehistoric m=−26.74 Reported for reference
[NB 5][NB 6]
Brightest star other than the Sun Sirius
(Alpha Canis Majoris) 		prehistoric m=−1.46
See also: Historical brightest stars
 [NB 5][NB 6][NB 7][NB 1] List of brightest stars
Brightest star in a transient event Progenitor of SN 1006 1006 m=−7.5 This was a supernova, and its remnant (SNR) is catalogued as PKS 1459-41 [NB 5][NB 6][NB 1] [17]
Dimmest star from the Earth UDF 2457 [NB 5][NB 6]
Most luminous star R136a1 2010 V=−8.09 [NB 8] [18] List of most luminous stars
Most luminous star in a transient event Progenitor of GRB 080916C 2008 V=−40 The star exploded in a gamma-ray burst with the total energy equal to 9,000 supernovae [NB 8] List of gamma-ray bursts
Least luminous normal star 2MASS J0523-1403 2013 V=20.6 [NB 3][NB 8] [19]
Most energetic star R136a1 2010 B=-12.5 [NB 9] [18] List of most luminous stars
Most energetic star in a transient event Progenitor of GRB 080916C 2008 [NB 9]
Least energetic normal star 2MASS J0523-1403 2013 L=0.000126LSun [NB 3][NB 9] [19]
Hottest normal star WR 102 T=210000 K [20] List of hottest stars
Coolest normal star S Cassiopeiae T=1800 K [21] List of coolest stars
Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Hottest degenerate star KPD 0005+5106
H1504+65 		2008
  		200,000 K
200,000 K 		[22][23]
Hottest neutron star At least 100,000K
Hottest white dwarf KPD 0005+5106 2008 200,000 K [24]
Hottest PG 1159 star/GW Vir star RX J2117+3412 1999 170,000 K [25]
Coolest brown dwarf WISE 1828+2650 250–400 K WISE 0855-0714 may be cooler at 225–260 K, but its status as a rogue planet or sub-brown dwarf is not well known as its mass is between 3 and 10 MJ.

Size and mass

Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Largest apparent size star Sun prehistoric
(3rd century BCE) 		31.6′ – 32.7′ The apparent size of the Sun was first measured by Eratosthenes in the 3rd Century BCE,[26] who was the second person to measure the distance to the Sun. However, Thales of Miletus provided a measurement for the real size of the Sun in the 6th century BCE, as 1⁄720 the great circle of the Sun (the orbit of the Earth)[27] Reported for reference
[NB 6]
Largest apparent size star other than the Sun R Doradus 1997 0.057" This replaced Betelgeuse as the largest, Betelgeuse having been the first star other than the Sun to have its apparent size measured. [NB 6][NB 1] [28]
Smallest apparent size star [NB 6]
Largest radius

(uncertain)

VY Canis Majoris 2012 r=1,420–2,200 R☉ VY Canis Majoris has been known to be an extreme object since the 20th century. The first meaningful estimates of its properties showed a very large star and is sometimes the largest known star in the Milky Way. Several galactic red supergiants such as Westerlund 1-26 with a radius of 1,530 - 2,550 R☉ could be potentially larger although they have less accurate size estimates. [29][30][31] List of largest stars
Smallest radius EBLM J0555-57Ab 2017 r=0.084 RSun [NB 3] [32][33][34] List of least voluminous stars
Most massive star R136a1 2010 315 MSun This exceeds the predicted limit of 150 solar masses, previously believed to be the limit of stellar mass, according to the leading star formation theories. [NB 10] [18] List of most massive stars
Least massive normal star VB 10 0.075 MSun [NB 3] List of least massive stars
Most massive stars by type
Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Most massive brown dwarf PPl 15 1996 80 MJupiter This is at the limit between brown dwarfs and red dwarfs.[35][36] [35][37][38][39]
Most massive degenerate star The most massive type of degenerate star is the neutron star. See Most massive neutron star for this recordholder. [NB 4]
Most massive neutron star PSR J0348+0432 2013 2.01 MSun A Black Widow Pulsar called PSR B1957+20 may be more massive than PSR J0348+0432. However, the mass of PSR B1957+20 is quite uncertain. This neutron star’s mass is at least 1.66 solar mass, and the upper limit is about 2.4 solar mass. Even so, it will still place within the range of Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit.[40] [41]
Most massive white dwarf RE J0317-853 1998 1.35 MSun [42][43]
Least massive stars by type
Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Least massive degenerate star The least massive type of degenerate star is the white dwarf. See Least massive white dwarf for this recordholder. [NB 4]
Least massive neutron star PSR J0737-3039B 2004 1.249 MSun [44]
Least massive white dwarf SDSS J091709.55+463821.8
(WD J0917+4638) 		2007 0.17 MSun [45][46][47][48]
Least massive brown dwarf Jupiter(disputed) Antiquity 1 MJupiter Largest possible degenerate object by diameter. Would qualify as a sub brown dwarf, based on mass.

Motion

Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Highest proper motion Barnard's Star 10.3 "/yr This is also the fourth closest star to the Solar System. [49][50]
Lowest proper motion
Highest radial velocity
Lowest radial velocity
Highest peculiar motion
Lowest peculiar motion
Highest rotational speed of a normal star VFTS 102 2013 600 km/s [NB 3] [51]
Lowest rotational speed

Star systems

Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Least stars in a star system There are many single star systems.
Most stars in a star system Septuple star system Both are called 7-star systems in the 1997 MSC,[52] and appear in the 2008 MSC.[53] [NB 11] [52][53]
Stars in the closest orbit around one another There are many stars that are in contact binary systems (where two or more stars are in physical contact with each other).
Stars in the most distant orbit around one another HD 134439/HD 134440 0.56±0.25 light-years Orbit is most likely unstable long-term [NB 11]
Nearest multiple star system Alpha Centauri 1839 1.30 parsecs (4.2 ly) This was one of the first three stars to have its distance measured.[54][55] [9][56]
Nearest binary star system Luhman 16 2013 1.998 parsecs (6.52 ly) Brown dwarf binary system. The nearest non-brown dwarf binary is Sirius, and the nearest composed entirely of main-sequence stars is Luyten 726-8.
Nearest trinary star system Alpha Centauri 1839 1.38 parsecs (4.5 ly) Also nearest multiple star system, and nearest star system of any type
Nearest quaternary star system Gliese 570 5.88 parsecs (19.2 ly) K4 star orbited by a pair of M stars, all orbited by a T7 brown dwarf.
Nearest quintenary star system V1054 Ophiuchi 6.46 parsecs (21.1 ly) M3 star orbited by a pair of pair of M4 stars, together orbited by an M3.5 star, all orbited by an M7 star.
Nearest sextenary star system Castor 1718 15.6 parsecs (51 ly) A1 star orbited by a red dwarf, both orbited by another A star orbited by a red dwarf, all orbited by two red dwarfs orbiting each other.
Nearest septenary star system Nu Scorpii 150 parsecs (490 ly) A B3V star orbited by an unknown star, both orbited by another unknown star, together orbited by another unknown star, all orbited by a B9III star orbiting a pair of stars which are a B9III and unknown star.
Star systems by type
Title Object Date Data Comments Notes Refs See more
Shortest period black hole binary system MAXI J1659-152 2013 2.4 hours This exceeds the preceding recordholder by about one hour (Swift J1753.5-0127 with a 3.2 hour period) [57]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f Other than the Sun
  2. ^ An "average" star is a normal star which is larger than a red dwarf, but smaller than a giant star. Depending on the definition, this can also be called "Sun-like star".
  3. ^ a b c d e f g A normal star is a star that is past its protostar period, in its main fusion period, before becoming a degenerate star, black hole, or post-stellar nebula, and is not a failed star (brown dwarf).
  4. ^ a b c Not including stellar-mass black holes, or exotic stars
  5. ^ a b c d By visual magnitude (m)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g This is the appearance in the sky from Earth.
  7. ^ This does not include brightest stars due to outbursts
  8. ^ a b c Luminosity here represents how bright a star is if all stars were equally far away, in visible light.
  9. ^ a b c Energetic here is the total electromagnetic energy emitted by a star in all wavelengths.
  10. ^ Not including stellar black holes
  11. ^ a b The allowable distance between components of a star system is debated.

References

  1. ^ Template:De icon "Innes' Sterne bei α Centauri", Astronomische Nachrichten, volume 206, 1918 Bibcode:1918AN....206...97H
  2. ^ Harold L. Aden, "Alpha and Proxima Centauri", Astronomical Journal, vol. 39, issue 913, 1918 Bibcode:1928AJ.....39...20A
  3. ^ Kelly, Patrick L.; et al. (2 April 2018). "Extreme magnification of an individual star at redshift 1.5 by a galaxy-cluster lens". Nature. 2: 334–342. arXiv:1706.10279. Bibcode:2018NatAs...2..334K. doi:10.1038/s41550-018-0430-3. Retrieved 2 April 2018. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  4. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (2 April 2018). "Rare Cosmic Alignment Reveals Most Distant Star Ever Seen". Space.com. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  5. ^ Sanders, Robert (2 April 2018). "Hubble peers through cosmic lens to capture most distant star ever seen". Berkeley News. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  6. ^ Parks, Jake (2 April 2018). "Hubble spots farthest star ever seen". Astronomy. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  7. ^ "A Remarkably Luminous Galaxy at z = 11.1 Measured with Hubble Space Telescope Grism Spectroscopy". The Astrophysical Journal. 819 (2): 129. 2016. arXiv:1603.00461. Bibcode:2016ApJ...819..129O. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/129. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ ScienceDaily, "Hubble Finds 'Birth Certificate' of Oldest Known Star", 7 March 2013
  9. ^ a b c Atlas of the Universe, "The Universe within 12.5 Light Years: The Nearest Stars", Richard Powell, 30 July 2006 (accessed 2010-11-01)
  10. ^ Universe Today, "How Far is the Nearest Star?", Fraser Cain, 13 November 2009 (accessed 2010-11-02)
  11. ^ NASA Images, "Hubble Sees Bare Neutron Star Streaking Across Space" Archived 2012-11-02 at the Wayback Machine, NASA, 9 November 2000 (accessed 2010-11-01)
  12. ^ RedOrbit, "The Motion of RX J185635-3754 - The Nearest Neutron Star to Earth", 8 February 2005 (accessed 2010-11-01)
  13. ^ Astronomy 122: Astronomy of Stars and Galaxies, "Lecture 19: Neutron Stars"[permanent dead link‍], Sharon Morsink, University of Alberta, term:Winter 2011, published:2010 (accessed 2010-11-01)
  14. ^ BBC News, "Hubble finds mass of white dwarf", Christine McGourty, 14 December 2005 (accessed 2010-11-01)
  15. ^ Universe Today, "What is the Nearest Star to the Sun?", Fraser Cain, 7 October 2009 (accessed 2010-11-02)
  16. ^ SpaceDaily, "The Closest Star System Found in a Century", Barbara K. Kennedy, 12 March 2013
  17. ^ NOAO, "Astronomers Peg Brightness of History’s Brightest Star", 5 March 2003 (accessed 2010-10-25)
  18. ^ a b c Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, "The R136 star cluster hosts several stars whose individual masses greatly exceed the accepted 150 Msun stellar mass limit", Paul A Crowther, Olivier Schnurr, Raphael Hirschi, Norhasliza Yusof, Richard J Parker, Simon P Goodwin, Hasan Abu Kassim, Volume 408, Issue 2, pp. 731-751, October 2010, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17167.x , Bibcode:2010MNRAS.408..731C , arXiv:1007.3284
  19. ^ a b Dieterich, Sergio B.; Henry, Todd J.; Jao, Wei-Chun; Winters, Jennifer G.; Hosey, Altonio D.; Riedel, Adric R.; Subasavage, John P. (2014). "The Solar Neighborhood XXXII. The Hydrogen Burning Limit". The Astronomical Journal. 147: 94. arXiv:1312.1736. Bibcode:2014AJ....147...94D. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/147/5/94.
  20. ^ Tramper, F.; Straal, S. M.; Sanyal, D.; Sana, H.; de Koter, A.; Gräfener, G.; Langer, N.; Vink, J. S.; de Mink, S. E.; Kaper, L. (2015). "Massive stars on the verge of exploding: The properties of oxygen sequence Wolf-Rayet stars" (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics. 581 (110): A110. arXiv:1507.00839. Bibcode:2015A&A...581A.110T. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425390.
  21. ^ Ramstedt, S.; Olofsson, H. (2014). "The 12CO/13CO ratio in AGB stars of different chemical type. Connection to the 12C/13C ratio and the evolution along the AGB". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 566: A145. arXiv:1405.6404. Bibcode:2014A&A...566A.145R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423721.
  22. ^ "What is the origin of the hottest known white dwarf?". HST Proposal. 2011. Bibcode:2011hst..prop12483W. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  23. ^ "UV spectroscopy of the hot bare stellar core H1504+65 with the HST Cosmic Origins Spectrograph". Astrophysics and Space Science. 335: 121–124. Bibcode:2011Ap&SS.335..121W. doi:10.1007/s10509-011-0617-x.
  24. ^ Indian News, "Astronomers discover Universes hottest white dwarf", ANI, 13 December 2008 (accessed 2010-11-09)
  25. ^ 11th European Workshop on White Dwarfs, ASP Conference Series #169, "RX J2117+3412, the hottest known pulsating PG 1159 star", Vauclair, G.; Moskalik, P.; The Wet Team, 1999, ISBN 1-886733-91-0 , Bibcode:1999ASPC..169...96V , pg.96
  26. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-10-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  27. ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Thales of Miletus (c. 620 BCE – c. 546 BCE)", Patricia O’Grady, 17 September 2004 (accessed 2010-10-25)
  28. ^ ESO, "The Biggest Star in the Sky", 11 March 1997 (accessed 2010-10-25)
  29. ^ Alcolea, J; Bujarrabal, V; Planesas, P; Teyssier, D; Cernicharo, J; De Beck, E; Decin, L; Dominik, C; Justtanont, K; De Koter, A; Marston, A. P; Melnick, G; Menten, K. M; Neufeld, D. A; Olofsson, H; Schmidt, M; Schöier, F. L; Szczerba, R; Waters, L. B. F. M (2013). "HIFISTARSHerschel/HIFI observations of VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 559: A93. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321683.
  30. ^ Wittkowski, M.; Hauschildt, P. H.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J. M. (2012). "Fundamental properties and atmospheric structure of the red supergiant VY Canis Majoris based on VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 540: L12. arXiv:1203.5194. Bibcode:2012A&A...540L..12W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219126.
  31. ^ Page 11 in Kamiński, T; Gottlieb, C. A; Menten, K. M; Patel, N. A; Young, K. H; Brünken, S; Müller, H. S. P; McCarthy, M. C; Winters, J. M; Decin, L (2013). "Pure rotational spectra of TiO and TiO2 in VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 551 (2013): A113. arXiv:1301.4344. Bibcode:2013A&A...551A.113K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220290. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |class= ignored (help)
  32. ^ Eric Mack (11 July 2017). "Saturn-sized star is the smallest ever discovered". cnet.
  33. ^ "Smallest-ever star discovered by astronomers". University of Cambridge. 2017.
  34. ^ "The EBLM project; III. A Saturn-size low-mass star at the hydrogen-burning limit". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 12 June 2017. arXiv:1706.08781. Bibcode:2017A&A...604L...6V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731107. EBLM_III. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  35. ^ a b Astrophysical Journal Letters, "Brown Dwarfs in the Pleiades Cluster Confirmed by the Lithium Test", Rebolo, R.; Martin, E. L.; Basri, G.; Marcy, G. W.; Zapatero-Osorio, M. R., v.469, p.L53, September 1996, doi:10.1086/310263 , Bibcode:1996ApJ...469L..53R , arXiv:astro-ph/9607002
  36. ^ Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, 'In Cool Stars, Stellar Systems, and the Sun: Ninth Cambridge Workshop', "An I. K Survey of the Pleiades", Jameson, R. F.; Hodgkin, S. T.; Pinfield, D. J., vol. 109, p. 363, eds. R. Pallavicini, A. K. Dupree, 1996, Bibcode:1996ASPC..109..363J
  37. ^ SIMBAD, "Cl* Melotte 22 IPMBD 23" (accessed 2010-11-11)
  38. ^ Astronomy and Astrophysics, "Brown dwarfs in the Pleiades cluster: a CCD-based R, I survey", Zapatero Osorio, M. R.; Rebolo, R.; Martin, E. L., v.317, p.164-170, January 1997, Bibcode:1997A&A...317..164Z , arXiv:astro-ph/9604079
  39. ^ Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, 'Proceedings of the 9th Cambridge workshop', "Lithium, rotation and activity in young clusters", Soderblom, D. R., volume 109, p.315, eds. Roberto Pallavicini, Andrea K. Dupree, October 1995, Bibcode:1996ASPC..109..315S
  40. ^ Van Kerkwijk, M. H.; Breton, R. P.; Kulkarni, S. R. (2011). "Evidence for a Massive Neutron Star from a Radial-Velocity Study of the Companion to the Black-Widow Pulsar Psr B1957+20". The Astrophysical Journal. 728 (2): 95. arXiv:1009.5427. Bibcode:2011ApJ...728...95V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/728/2/95.
  41. ^ Antoniadis, J.; Freire, P. C. C.; Wex, N.; Tauris, T. M.; Lynch, R. S.; Van Kerkwijk, M. H.; Kramer, M.; Bassa, C.; Dhillon, V. S.; Driebe, T.; Hessels, J. W. T.; Kaspi, V. M.; Kondratiev, V. I.; Langer, N.; Marsh, T. R.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Pennucci, T. T.; Ransom, S. M.; Stairs, I. H.; Van Leeuwen, J.; Verbiest, J. P. W.; Whelan, D. G. (2013). "A Massive Pulsar in a Compact Relativistic Binary". Science. 340 (6131): 1233232. arXiv:1304.6875. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..448A. doi:10.1126/science.1233232.
  42. ^ Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, "The Record Breaking Magnetic White Dwarf RE J0317-853", Burleigh, M. R.; Jordan, S., Vol. 29, p.1234, January 1998, Bibcode:1998AAS...191.1511B
  43. ^ Wolfram Scienceworld, "White Dwarf", Eric W. Weisstein, 2007 (accessed 2010-30-10)
  44. ^ https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0405178.pdf
  45. ^ CfA, "Cosmic Weight Loss: The Lowest Mass White Dwarf", 17 April 2007 (accessed 2010-10-30)
  46. ^ JUMK.de, "Special Stars: SDSS J091709.55+463821.8" (accessed 2010-10-30)
  47. ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, "No Neutron Star Companion to the Lowest Mass SDSS White Dwarf", Marcel Agüeros et al., Volume 700, Issue 2, pp. L123-L126, August 2009, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/L123 , Bibcode:2009ApJ...700L.123A , arXiv:0906.5109
  48. ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Science, "White Dwarf", David Darling (accessed 10-30-2010)
  49. ^ Hayden Planetarium, "Stellar Orbits" Archived 2011-03-22 at the Wayback Machine, Sébastien Lépine, Brian Abbott (accessed 2010-11-20)
  50. ^ Ohio State University, Astronomy 143: The History of the Universe (Fall 2009); "Stars and Galaxies in Motion", Barbara Sue Ryden, 15 October 2009 (accessed 2010-11-20)
  51. ^ Jiang, Dengkai; Han, Zhanwen; Yang, Liheng; Li, Lifang (2013). "The binary merger channel for the progenitor of the fastest rotating O-type star VFTS 102". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 428 (2): 1218. arXiv:1302.6296. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.428.1218J. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts105.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  52. ^ a b Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series, "MSC - a catalogue of physical multiple stars", Tokovinin, A. A., Vol. 124, July 1997, pp.75-84, July 1997, doi:10.1051/aas:1997181 , Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T , VizieR (accessed 2010-10-27)
  53. ^ a b Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, "A catalogue of multiplicity among bright stellar systems", Eggleton, P. P.; Tokovinin, A. A., Volume 389, Issue 2, pp. 869-879, September 2008, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13596.x , Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E , arXiv:0806.2878v1 , VizieR (accessed 2010-10-27)
  54. ^ "Report of the Council of the Society to the Nineteenth Annual General Meeting", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 4 No. 20, 8 February 1839, Royal Astronomical Society, Bibcode:1836MNRAS...4....3M
  55. ^ Kentucky New Era, "A Problem That The Star Sharps Are Trying To Solve", New York World, 3 July 1895 (accessed 22 March 2010)
  56. ^ Universe Today, "Distance to Nearest Star", Fraser Cain, 30 December 2009 (accessed 2010-11-02)
  57. ^ SpaceDaily, "Black hole-star pair orbiting at dizzying speed", 22 March 2013
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=List_of_star_extremes&oldid=887765224"