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This article is about the prophet recorded in the Biblical books of Samuel. For other persons named Samuel, see Samuel (name).
Not to be confused with Samael.
Samuel
Icon of the prophet Samuel, 17th century.
Prophet, Seer
Bornc. before 1070 BCE[1]
Diedc. 1012 BCE
Ramah in Benjamin (traditional)
Venerated inJudaism
Christianity
Islam
FeastAugust 20 (Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran & Roman Catholicism)
July 30 (Armenian Apostolic Church)
9 Paoni (Coptic Orthodox Church)

Samuel[a] is a figure who, in the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, plays a key role in the transition from the period of the biblical judges to the institution of a kingdom under Saul, and again in the transition from Saul to David. He is venerated as a prophet by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. In addition to his role in the Hebrew Scriptures, Samuel is mentioned in the New Testament, in rabbinical literature, and in the second chapter of the Qur'an, although here not by name.[3] He is also treated in the fifth through seventh books of Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews, written in the first century CE (AD). He is first called the Seer in 1 Samuel 9:9.

Biblical account

Gerbrand van den Eeckhout – Hannah presenting her son Samuel to the priest Eli c. 1665

Family

Samuel's mother was Hannah and his father was Elkanah. Elkanah lived at Ramathaim in the district of Zuph.[4][5] His genealogy is also found in a pedigree of the Kohathites (1 Chronicles 6:3–15) and in that of Heman the Ezrahite, apparently his grandson (1 Chronicles 6:18–33).

According to the genealogical tables in Chronicles, Elkanah was a Levite - a fact not mentioned in the books of Samuel. The fact that Elkanah, a Levite, was denominated an Ephraimite[6] is analogous to the designation of a Levite belonging to Judah (Judges 17:7, for example).[7]

According to 1 Samuel 1:1–28, Elkanah had two wives, Peninnah and Hannah. Peninnah had children; Hannah did not. Nonetheless, Elkanah favored Hannah. Jealous, Penninah reproached Hannah for her lack of children, causing Hannah much heartache. The relationship of Penninah and Hannah recalls that between Hagar and Sarah.[8] Elkanah was a devout man and would periodically take his family on pilgrimage to the holy site of Shiloh. The motif of Elkanah and Hannah as devout, childless parents will reoccur with Zachariah and Elizabeth and the birth of John the Baptist, and with Joachim and Saint Anne and the birth of Mary, mother of Jesus.[8]

On one occasion Hannah went to the sanctuary and prayed for a child. In tears, she vowed that if she were granted a child, she would dedicate him to God as a Nazirite.[8] Eli, who was sitting at the foot of the doorpost in the sanctuary at Shiloh, saw her apparently mumbling to herself and thought she was drunk but was soon assured of her motivation and sobriety. Eli was the priest of Shiloh, and one of the last Israelite Judges before the rule of kings in ancient Israel. He had assumed the leadership after Samson's death.[9] Eli blessed her and she returned home. Subsequently, Hannah became pregnant and gave birth to Samuel. Hannah's exultant hymn of thanksgiving resembles in several points Mary's later Magnificat.[10]

After the child was weaned, she left him in Eli's care,[4] and from time to time she would come to visit her son.[9]

Name

According to 1 Samuel 1:20, Hannah named Samuel to commemorate her prayer to God for a child. "... [She] called his name Samuel, saying, Because I have asked him of the Lord" (KJV). The Hebrew root rendered as "asked" in the KJV is "sha’al", a word mentioned seven times in 1 Samuel 1. Once it is even mentioned in the form "sha’ul", Saul’s name in Hebrew (1 Samuel 1:28).

According to the Holman Bible Dictionary, Samuel was a "[p]ersonal name in the Ancient Near East meaning, 'Sumu is God' but understood in Israel as 'The name is God,' 'God is exalted,' or 'son of God.'"[11]

Calling

Samuel worked under Eli in the service of the shrine at Shiloh. One night, Samuel heard a voice calling his name. According to the first-century Jewish historian Josephus, Samuel was about 11 years old.[12] Samuel initially assumed it was coming from Eli and went to Eli to ask what he wanted. Eli, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After this happened three times, Eli realised that the voice was the Lord's, and instructed Samuel on how to answer:

If He calls you, then you must say, "Speak, Lord, for Your servant hears".[13]

Once Samuel responded, the Lord told him that the wickedness of the sons of Eli had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction.[4] In the morning, Samuel was hesitant about reporting the message to Eli, but Eli asked him honestly to recount to him what he had been told by the Lord. Upon receiving the communication, Eli merely said that the Lord should do what seems right unto him.

This event established that Samuel was now "established as a prophet of the Lord" and "all Israel from Dan to Beersheba" became aware of his prophetic calling.[14] Anglican theologian Donald Spence Jones comments that "the minds of all the people were thus gradually prepared when the right moment came to acknowledge Samuel as a God-sent chieftain"[15]

Leader

Samuel offers God a sacrifice and erects a large stone at the battle site as the Israelites slaughter the Philistines in the background, as depicted in an 18th-century stained-glass window (Pena Palace, Portugal)

During Samuel's youth at Shiloh, the Philistines inflicted a decisive defeat against the Israelites at Eben-Ezer, placed the land under Philistine control, and took the sanctuary's Ark for themselves. Upon hearing the news of the capture of the Ark of the Covenant, and the death of his sons, Eli collapsed and died. When the Philistines had been in possession of the Ark for seven months and had been visited with calamities and misfortunes, they decided to return the Ark to the Israelites.[9]

According to Bruce C. Birch, Samuel was a key figure in keeping the Israelites' religious heritage and identity alive during Israel's defeat and occupation by the Philistines. "[I]t may have been possible and necessary for Samuel to exercise authority in roles that would normally not converge in a single individual (priest, prophet, judge)."[16]

After 20 years of oppression, Samuel, who had gained national prominence as a prophet (1 Samuel 3:20), summoned the people to the hill of Mizpah, and led them against the Philistines. The Philistines, having marched to Mizpah to attack the newly amassed Israelite army, were soundly defeated and fled in terror. The retreating Philistines were slaughtered by the Israelites. The text then states that Samuel erected a large stone at the battle site as a memorial, and there ensued a long period of peace thereafter.

King-maker

Samuel initially appointed his two sons Joel and Abijah as his successors; however, just like Eli's sons, Samuel's proved unworthy. The Israelites rejected them. Because of the external threat from other tribes, such as the Philistines, the tribal leaders decided that there was a need for a more unified, central government,[17] and demanded Samuel appoint a king so that they could be like other nations. Samuel interpreted this as a personal rejection, and at first was reluctant to oblige, until reassured by a divine revelation.[16] He warned the people of the potential negative consequences of such a decision. When Saul and his servant were searching for his father's lost asses, the servant suggested consulting the nearby Samuel. Samuel recognized Saul as the future king.

Just before his retirement, Samuel gathered the people to an assembly at Gilgal, and delivered a farewell speech[18] or coronation speech[19] in which he emphasised how prophets and judges were more important than kings, that kings should be held to account, and that the people should not fall into idol worship, or worship of Asherah or of Baal. Samuel promised that God would subject the people to foreign invaders should they disobey. This is seen by some as a deuteronomic redaction;[20] since archaeological finds indicate that Asherah was still worshipped in Israelite households well into the sixth century. However, 1 Kings 11:5, 33 and 2 Kings 23:13 note that the Israelites fell into Asherah worship later on.[21]

Critic of Saul

When Saul was preparing to fight the Philistines, Samuel denounced him for proceeding with the pre-battle sacrifice without waiting for the overdue Samuel to arrive. He prophesied that Saul's rule would see no dynastic succession.

Samuel directed Saul to "utterly destroy" the Amalekites in fulfilment of the commandment in Deuteronomy 25:17–19:

When the Lord your God has given you rest from your enemies all around, in the land which the Lord your God is giving you to possess as an inheritance, ... you will blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.

During the campaign against the Amalekites, King Saul spared Agag, the king of the Amalekites, and the best of their livestock. Saul told Samuel that he had spared the choicest of the Amalekites' sheep and oxen, intending to sacrifice the livestock to the Lord. This was in violation of the Lord's command, as pronounced by Samuel, to "... utterly destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay both man and woman, infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass" (1 Samuel 15:3, KJV). Samuel confronted Saul for his disobedience and told him that God made him king, and God can unmake him king. Samuel then proceeded to execute Agag. Saul never saw Samuel alive again after this.[22]

Apparition of the spirit of Samuel to Saul, by Salvator Rosa, 1668.

Samuel then proceeded to Bethelehem and secretly anointed David as king. He would later provide sanctuary for David, when the jealous Saul first tried to have him killed.

Death

Tomb of Samuel

Samuel is described in the biblical narrative as being buried in Ramah.[23] According to tradition, this burial place has been identified with Samuel's tomb in the West Bank village of Nabi Samwil.[24][25]

Some time after his death, Saul had the Witch of Endor conjure Samuel's ghost in order to predict the result of an up-coming battle. This passage is ascribed by textual scholars to the Republican Source. Classical rabbinical sources say that Samuel was terrified by the ordeal, having expected to be appearing to face God's judgment, and had, therefore, brought Moses with him (to the land of the living) as a witness to his adherence to the mitzvot.[20]

Documentary hypothesis

See also: Documentary hypothesis

National prophet, local seer

Some authors see the biblical Samuel as combining descriptions of two distinct roles:

  • A seer, based at Ramah, and seemingly known scarcely beyond the immediate neighbourhood of Ramah (Saul, for example, not having heard of him, with his servant informing him of his existence instead). In this role, Samuel is associated with the bands of musical ecstatic roaming prophets (Nevi'im – neb'im) at Gibeah, Bethel, and Gilgal, and some traditional scholars have argued that Samuel was the founder of these groups. At Ramah, Samuel secretly anointed Saul, after having met him for the first time, while Saul was looking for his father's lost donkeys, and treated him to a meal.
  • A prophet, based at Shiloh, who went throughout the land, from place to place, with unwearied zeal, reproving, rebuking, and exhorting the people to repentance. In this role, Samuel acted as a (biblical) judge, publicly advising the nation, and also giving private advice to individuals. Eventually Samuel delegated this role to his sons, based at Beersheba, but they behaved corruptly and so the people, facing invasion from the Ammonites, persuaded Samuel to appoint a king. Samuel reluctantly did so, and anointed Saul in front of the entire nation, who had gathered to see him.

Source-critical scholarship suggests that these two roles come from different sources, which later were spliced together to form the Book(s) of Samuel. The oldest is considered to be that marking Samuel as the local seer of Ramah, who willingly anointed Saul as king in secret, while the latter presents Samuel as a national figure, begrudgingly anointing Saul as king in front of a national assembly. This later source is generally known as the Republican Source, since it denigrates the monarchy (particularly the actions of Saul) and favours religious figures, in contrast to the other main source—the Monarchial Source—which treats it favourably. Theoretically if we had the Monarchial Source we would see Saul appointed king by public acclamation, due to his military victories, and not by cleromancy involving Samuel. Another difference between the sources is that the Republican Source treats the ecstatic prophets as somewhat independent from Samuel (1 Samuel 9:1ff) rather than having been led by him (1 Samuel 19:18ff).

The passage in which Samuel is described as having exercised the functions of a (biblical) judge, during an annual circuit from Ramah to Bethel to Gilgal (the Gilgal between Ebal and Gerizim) to Mizpah and back to Ramah, is foreshadowed by Deborah, who used to render judgments from a place beneath a palm between Ramah and Bethel.[26] Source-critical scholarship often considers it to be a redaction aimed at harmonizing the two portrayals of Samuel.[20]

The Book(s) of Samuel variously describe Samuel as having carried out sacrifices at sanctuaries, and having constructed and sanctified altars. According to the Priestly Code/Deuteronomic Code only Aaronic priests/Levites (depending on the underling tradition) were permitted to perform these actions, and simply being a nazarite or prophet was insufficient. The books of Samuel and Kings offer numerous examples where this rule is not followed by kings and prophets, but some critical scholars look elsewhere seeking a harmonization of the issues. In the Book of Chronicles, Samuel is described as a Levite, rectifying this situation; however critical scholarship widely sees the Book of Chronicles as an attempt to redact the Book(s) of Samuel and of Kings to conform to later religious sensibilities. Since many of the Biblical law codes themselves are thought to postdate the Book(s) of Samuel (according to the Documentary Hypothesis), this would suggest Chronicles is making its claim based on religious motivations. The Levitical genealogy of 1 Chronicles 4 is not historical, according to most modern scholarship.[20]

Deuteronomistic Samuel

According to the documentary hypothesis of Biblical source criticism, which postulates that "Deuteronomistic historians" redacted the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings), the Deuteronomists idealized Samuel as a figure larger than life, like Joshua. For example, Samuel's father Elkanah is described as having originated from Zuph, specifically Ramathaim-Zophim, which was part of the tribal lands of Ephraim, while 1 Chronicles states that he was a Levite.[27] Samuel is portrayed as a judge who leads the military, as the judges in the Book of Judges, and also who exercises judicial functions. In 1 Sam 12:6–17, a speech of Samuel that portrays him as the judge sent by God to save Israel may have been composed by the Deuteronomists.[28] In 1 Samuel 9:6–20, Samuel is seen as a local "seer". According to documentary scholarship, the Deuteronomistic historians preserved this view of Samuel while contributing him as "the first of prophets to articulate the failure of Israel to live up to its covenant with God."[28] For the Deuteronomistic historians, Samuel would have been an extension of Moses and continuing Moses' function as a prophet, judge, and priest, which makes the nature of the historical Samuel uncertain.[28]

Perspectives on Samuel

Judaism

Tomb of Samuel

According to the Book of Jeremiah [29] and one of the Psalms [30], Samuel had a high devotion to God. Classical Rabbinical literature adds that he was more than an equal to Moses, God speaking directly to Samuel, rather than Samuel having to attend the tabernacle to hear God.[31] Samuel is also described by the Rabbis as having been extremely intelligent; he argued that it was legitimate for laymen to slaughter sacrifices, since the Halakha only insisted that the priests bring the blood (cf Leviticus 1:5, Zebahim 32a).[32] Eli, who was viewed negatively by many Classical Rabbis, is said to have reacted to this logic of Samuel by arguing that it was technically true, but Samuel should be put to death for making legal statements while Eli (his mentor) was present.[32]

Samuel is also treated by the Classical Rabbis as a much more sympathetic character than he appears at face value in the Bible; his annual circuit is explained as being due to his wish to spare people the task of having to journey to him; Samuel is said to have been very rich, taking his entire household with him on the circuit so that he didn't need to impose himself on anyone's hospitality; when Saul fell out of God's favour, Samuel is described as having grieved copiously and having prematurely aged.[33]

His yahrzeit is observed on the 28th day of Iyar.[34]

Christianity

For Christians, Samuel is considered to be a prophet, judge, and wise leader of Israel, and treated as an example of fulfilled commitments to God. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, as well as the Lutheran calendar, his feast day is August 20. He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the commemoration of the departure of Samuel the Prophet is celebrated on 9 Paoni.

Herbert Lockyer and others have seen in Samuel's combined offices of prophet, priest, and ruler a foreshadowing of Christ.[35]

Islam

An Arabic sign denoting where Samuel was buried in the Tomb of Samuel.

Samuel (Template:Lang-ar) is seen as a prophet and seer in the Islamic faith. The narrative of Samuel in Islam focuses specifically on his birth and the anointing of Talut. Other elements from his narrative are in accordance with the narratives of other Prophets of Israel, as exegesis recounts Samuel's preaching against idolatry. He is not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, but referred to as a "prophet" instead.[36]

In the Islamic narrative, the Israelites after Moses wanted a king to rule over their country. Thus, God sent a prophet, Samuel, to anoint Talut as the first king for the Israelites. However, the Israelites mocked and reviled the newly appointed king, as he was not wealthy from birth. But, assuming Talut to be Saul, in sharp contrast to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur’an praises Saul greatly, and mentions that he was gifted with great spiritual and physical strength. In the Qur’anic account, Samuel prophesies that the sign of Talut's kingship will be that the Ark of the Covenant will come back to the Israelites.[37]

Portrayals

Actors who have portrayed Samuel include Leonard Nimoy in the 1997 TV-film David,[38] Eamonn Walker in the 2009 TV-series Kings[39] and Mohammad Bakri in the 2016 TV-series Of Kings and Prophets.[40][41]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Samuel (Biblical figure).

Notes

  1. ^ /ˈsæmjuːəl/[2]; Template:Lang-he-n Šəmūʾēl; Arabic: صموئيل Ṣamū’īl; Template:Lang-el Samouḗl; Template:Lang-la

References

  1. ^ I. Singer, "The Philistines in the Bible: A Reflection of the Late Monarchic Period?"; Zmanim (2006 Heb.), pp. 74–82; Garsiel, "The Valley of Elah Battle and the Duel of David with Goliath," pp. 404–410
  2. ^ LDS.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide" (retrieved 2012-02-25), IPA-ified from «săm´yū-ĕl»
  3. ^ Quran Search Engine, Ayat Search Samuel.Phonetic Search Engine. القرآن الكريم in Arabic, Urdu, English Translation Archived 2012-05-07 at the Wayback Machine Al-Baqara [2:247, 248 & 251]
  4. ^ a b c "Prophet Samuel". oca.org. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  5. ^ The Bible does not say specifically say that Elkanah lived in a place known as Zuph. There is, however, a "land of Zuph" mentioned (once only) in 1 Samuel 9:5, an area in which Samuel is said to have been found. Furthermore, 1 Samuel 1:1, as the text now stands, mentions Zuph as an ancestor of Elkanah. And, according to the theory explained in the Jewish Encyclopedia, "Elkanah" [1] the term "Zophim" in 1:1 is a corruption of the original identification of Elkanah as a "Zuphite." For confirmation that more contemporary scholarship still considers this theory seriously, see the Holman Bible Dictionary, "Ramathaim-Zophim." [2]
  6. ^ Hebrew Ephrathi, which is interpreted as meaning "Ephraimite" by Gesenius [3], and a variety of translations including NIV, NLT, NASB, HCSB, NET, JPS(1917), ASV [4]. See the Jewish Encyclopedia, "Elkanah" for details. [5]
  7. ^ "Hence in I Sam. i. 1 his ancestral line is carried back to Zuph (comp. I Sam. ix. 5 et seq.). The word צופים in I Sam. i. 1 should be amended to הצופי ('the Zuphite'), the final mem being a dittogram of that with which the next word, מהר, begins; as the LXX. has it, Σειφὰ. Elkanah is also represented in I Sam. i. 1 as hailing from the mountains of Ephraim, the word here אפרתי denoting this (comp. Judges xii. 5; I Kings xi. 26)—if indeed אפרתי is not a corruption for 'Ephraimite'—and not, as in Judges i. 2 and I Sam. xvii. 12, an inhabitant of Ephrata (see LXX.)." "Elkanah," in the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia.
  8. ^ a b c Bergant, Dianne; Karris, Robert J. (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament. Liturgical Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-8146-2210-0.
  9. ^ a b c "Samuel the Prophet". www.chabad.org. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  10. ^ Dunn, James; Rogerson, John W. (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
  11. ^ "Samuel –Holman Bible Dictionary". StudyLight.org. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  12. ^ Josephus. "Book 5 Chapter 10 Section 4". Antiquities of the Jews. Sacred Texts. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
  13. ^ 1 Samuel 3:9
  14. ^ 1 Samuel 3:20
  15. ^ Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers on 1 Samuel 3, accessed 21 April 2017
  16. ^ a b Birch, Bruce C., "Samuel", Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, and Astrid B. Beck, eds.), Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 978-0802824004
  17. ^ Zucker, David J., The Bible's Prophets, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013 ISBN 978-1630871024
  18. ^ Sub-heading in New International Version
  19. ^ Sub-heading in New King James Version
  20. ^ a b c d Hirsch, Emil G.; Bacher, Wilhelm; Lauterbach, Jacob Zallel (1906). "Samuel". Jewish Encyclopedia.
  21. ^ Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed; Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible?
  22. ^ Stern, David H. (1998) Complete Jewish Bible: An English Version of the Tanakh and B'rit Hadashah. Clarksville, Maryland: Jewish New Testament Publications pp. 314–15. Sh'mu'el Alef 15. ISBN 978-965-359-018-2
  23. ^ 1 Samuel 25:1
  24. ^ McCown, Chester Charlton (1921). "Muslim Shrines in Palestine". The Annual of the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. 2: 56. doi:10.2307/3768451. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  25. ^ "Israel's national parks gear up for weekend tours - Israel News - Jerusalem Post". www.jpost.com. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  26. ^ Christensen, Duane L., The Unity of the Bible, Paulist Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0809141104
  27. ^ 1 Chronicles 6:33–38
  28. ^ a b c Michael D. Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: the Hebrew Bible in its Context (New York: Oxford, 2009), 196.[ISBN missing]
  29. ^ Jeremiah 15:1
  30. ^ Psalm 99
  31. ^ Berakot 31b, Ta'anit 5b, Exodus Rashi 14:4
  32. ^ a b Berakot 31b
  33. ^ Berakot 10b, Nedarim 38a, Ta'anit 5b
  34. ^ Bikkurim 6b
  35. ^ Lockyer, Herbert. All the Messianic Prophecies of the Bible, Zondervan, 1988 ISBN 978-0310280910
  36. ^ Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Note 278 to verse 246: "This was Samuel. In his time Israel had suffered from much corruption within and many reverses without. The Philistines had made a great attack and defeated Israel with great slaughter. The Israelites, instead of relying on Faith and their own valor and cohesion, brought out their most sacred possession, the Ark of the Covenant, to help them in the fight. But the enemy captured it, carried it away, and retained it for seven months. The Israelites forgot that wickedness cannot screen itself behind a sacred relic. Nor can a sacred relic help the enemies of faith. The enemy found that the Ark brought nothing but misfortune for themselves, and were glad to abandon it. It apparently remained twenty years in the village (qarya) of Yaarim (Kirjath-jeafim): I. Samuel, 7:2. Meanwhile the people pressed Samuel to appoint them a king. They thought that a king would cure all their ills, whereas what was wanting was a spirit of union and discipline and a readiness on their part to fight in the cause of Allah."
  37. ^ Quran 2:246–248
  38. ^ Roberts, Jerry (5 June 2009). "Encyclopedia of Television Film Directors". Scarecrow Press. p. 368. Retrieved 14 February 2018 – via Google Books.
  39. ^ "David, My David". Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  40. ^ "ABC's 'Of Kings and Prophets': The bloody parts of the Bible". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  41. ^ "Mohammad Bakri as Samuel – Of Kings and Prophets". ABC. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
Samuel
Preceded by Judge of Israel Saul was Anointed king
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