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This section will cover a selection of animals that have been found to have bouligand structures. These species covered will be lobster  and crab shells , arapaima fish scales , and the mantis shrimp . The purpose of the bouligand structure and relation to an evolutionary advantage for each species will be discussed. In addition, the mechanical properties that are relevant to each species’ application of the bouligand structure will be included. One or two micrograph images of the bouligand structure selected from one of the above species will be selected to show the physical structure.

Background

Mechanical Properties

data table of tensile, yield, modulus, etc? - it may be too difficult to compare one lab's report on collagen / chitin (done one way) to another lab's report on mineralized collagen vs another lab's report on mineralized collagen in bouligand structure.

Toughening Mechanisms

The Bouligand structure found in many natural materials is credited with imparting a very high toughness and fracture resistance to the overall material it is a part of. The mechanisms by which this toughening occurs are many, and no one mechanism has yet to be identified as the main source of the structure's toughness. Both computational work and physical experiments have been done to determine these pathways by which the structure resists fracture so that synthetic tough Bouligand structures can be taken advantage of.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

"crack bridging, deflection, arrest, and twisting. deflection and arrest slow propagation, crack twist allow multiple cracks to grow from various nucleation sites without coalescing. High crack surface to volume ratio maximizes energy dissipation. crack bridging at impact locations minimizes crack tip stress concentration - arrests further crack opening"[3]

Citation 4: attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC 3.0) - ie. can use figures fromthis

Fracture Modes

Bouligand structure model and as found in nature
Picoindentation of Bouligand Structure in Dactyl Club


[fracture images [3]] (Citation 6: CC BY 4.0) - ie. can use figures from this

Adaptability

[rotation mechanisms[4]]

Single vs. Double Bouligand Structure

[single vs double image might have to make it yourself]

The most common Bouligand structure found in nature is the twisted plywood structure where there is a constant angle of misalignment between layers. A rare variation of this structure is the so-called "double twisted" Bouligand structure. This structure uses stacks of two as units to be twisted with respect to each other at some constant misalignment angle. The two fibril layers in each of these units in this case lay such that their fibril orientation is perpendicular to each other. It is also found in nature that this double twisted structure is accompanied by extra "interlbundle fibrils" that run up through the planes of the twisted Bouligand structure.

The mechanical differences between the single and double twisted bouligand structure has been observed.

[summarize finds since not open source and figures are not available]

It has also been observed that a structure can form mostly similar to the single twisted bouligand structure, but with a non-constant angle of misalignment (link to nature section?). It is still unclear how this structural difference affects mechanical properties.[4]

Density, Specific Ballistic Limit Velocity, and Specific Energy Absorption as a Function of Pitch in Bouligand Structured Nanocellulose Film

Impact Resistance

[figures [1]]


Examples in Nature

Arthropods

Arthropods have exoskeletons that provide protection from the environment, mechanical load support, and body structure. The outer layer, called the epicuticle, is thin and waxy and is the main waterproofing barrier. Below is the procuticle, which is designed as the main structural element to the body. The procuticle is made of two sections, the exocuticle on the outer part, and the endocuticle on the inner part. The exocuticle is denser than the endocuticle; the endocuticle makes up about 90 volume % of the exoskeleton. Both the exocuticle and endocuticle are made with a Bouligand structure. [7]

Crab

In crab exoskeletons, the Bouligand structure is formed by a chitin-protein matrix deposited with calcite or amorphous calcium carbonate minerals. Long, flexible tubules penetrate through the exoskeleton, perpendicular to the surface. The tubules provide transportation of ions and nutrition after molting. [7]

Lobster


[8]


Mantis Shrimp

Stomatopods have thoracic appendages that are used to hunt prey. The appendages can either be spear-like or club-like, depending on the species. [9] Mantis shrimp with a club-like appendage, or "dactyl club", uses it to smash the shell of prey such as mollusks or crabs. [10] The peacock mantis shrimp is a species of mantis shrimp that has a dactyl club. The clubs are able to withstand fracture under the high stress waves associated with blows against prey. This is possible due to the multi-regional structure of the clubs, which includes a region incorporating a Bouligand structure. [9]

The outer, top region of the club is called the impact region. The impact region is supported periodic zones and a striated region. The periodic regions are below the impact region, on the inside of the club. The striated region is present on the sides of the club, surrounding the edges of the periodic region. [9]

The impact region is about 50 to 70 μm thick, and is made with highly crystallized hydroxyapatite. The periodic region is dominated by an amorphous calcium carbonate phase. [11] Surrounded by the amorphous mineral phase are chitin fibrils, which make up a Bouligand structure. The layered arrangement of the periodic region corresponds to a compete 180° rotation of the fibers. The impact region has a similar structure, but with a larger pitch distance (length between compete 180° rotation). [9] The striated region is made of highly aligned parallel chitin fiber bundles. [11]

The club appendage can sustain high intensity load by shear wave filtering because of the periodicity and chirality of its Bouligand structure. [9] Catastrophic crack growth is hindered in two ways. When crack growth follows the helicodial structure between layers of chitin fibers, a large surface area per crack length is produced. Therefore, there is high total energy dissapated during club impact and crack propagation. When cracks propagate through neighboring layers, growth is hampered because of modulus oscillation. The Bouligand structure has anisotropic stiffness, resulting in an elastic modulus oscillation through the layers. Overall damage tolerance is improved, with crack propagation depending on growth direction in relation to chitin fiber orientation. [11]

Fish

Arapaima

The Arapaima fish's outer scales are designed to resist piranha bites. This is achieved through the scales' hierarchical architecture. [12] The thinness of the scales and their overlapping arrangement allow for flexibility during movement. This also influences how much a single scale will bend when a predator attacks. [12]

In the species Arapaima gigas, each scale has two distinct structural regions which results in a scale that is resistant to puncture and bending. The outer layer is about 0.5 mm thick and is highly mineralized, which makes it hard, promoting predator tooth fracture. The inner layer is about 1 mm thick and is made of mineralized collagen fibrils arranged in a Bouligand structure. [12] In the fibrils, collagen molecules are embedded with hydroxyapatite mineral nanocrystals. Collagen fibrils align in the same direction to make a layer of collagen lamella, of about 50 μm in thickness. Lamellae are stacked with a misalignment in orientation, creating a Bouligand structure. [12]

When the scales bend during an attack, stress is distributed due to the corrugated morphology. The largest deformation is designed to occur in the inner core layer. The inner layer can support more plastic deformation than the brittle outer layer. This is because the Bouligand structure can adjust its lamellar layers to adapt to applied forces. [12]

Adjustment of the Bouligand structure during loading has been measured using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The two adjustment effects are the change in angle between the collagen fibrils and tensile axis, and the stretching of collagen fibrils. There are four mechanisms through which these adjustments occur. [12] [NOTE: Add image of the four mechanisms here]

  1. Fibrils rotate because of interfibrillar shear: As a tensile force is applied, fibrils rotate to align with the tensile direction. During deformation, the shear component of the applied stress causes the hydrogen bonds between fibrils to break and then reform after fibril adjustment. [12]
  2. Collagen fibrils stretch: Collagen fibrils can elastically stretch, resulting in fibrils re-orientating to align with the tensile direction. [12]
  3. Tensile opening of interfibillar gaps: Fibrils highly misoriented with the tensile direction can separate, creating an opening. [12]
  4. "Sympathetic" lamella rotation: A lamella is able to rotate away from the tensile direction if it is sandwiched between two lamellae that are reorienting themselves towards the tensile direction. This can happen if the bonding between these lamellae is high. [12]

Ψ refers to the angle between the tensile axis and the collagen fibril. Mechanisms 1 and 2 both decrease Ψ. Mechanisms 3 and 4 can increase Ψ, as in, the fibril moves away from the tensile axis. Fibrils with a small Ψ stretch elastically. Fibrils with a large Ψ are compressed, since adjacent lamellae contract in accordance with Poisson's ratio, which is a function of strain anisotropy. [12]

Fibrils adapting to the loading environment enhance the flexibility of the lamellae. This contributes resistance to scale bending, and therefore increases fracture resistance. As a whole, the outer scale layer is hard and brittle, while the inner layer is ductile and tough. [12]

Biomimicry


Additive Manufacturing

Hi, just an example of signing on your sandbox MTLE4470 EFP (talk) 18:43, 2 April 2020 (UTC)
  1. ^ a b Qin, Xin; Marchi, Benjamin C.; Meng, Zhaoxu; Keten, Sinan (2019-04-09). "Impact resistance of nanocellulose films with bioinspired Bouligand microstructures". Nanoscale Advances. 1 (4): 1351–1361. doi:10.1039/C8NA00232K. ISSN 2516-0230.
  2. ^ Yin, Sheng (2019). "Hyperelastic phase-field fracture mechanics modeling of the toughening induced by Bouligand structures in natural materials". J. Mechanics & Physics of Solids. 131: 204–220.
  3. ^ a b c Natarajan, Bharath (2018 Feb 13). "Bioinspired Bouligand cellulose nanocrystal composites: A review of mechanical properties". Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ a b c Zimmermann, Elizabeth A.; Gludovatz, Bernd; Schaible, Eric; Dave, Neil K. N.; Yang, Wen; Meyers, Marc A.; Ritchie, Robert O. (2013-10-15). "Mechanical adaptability of the Bouligand-type structure in natural dermal armour". Nature Communications. 4 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1038/ncomms3634. ISSN 2041-1723.
  5. ^ Song, Zhaoqiang (June 2019). "Fracture modes and hybrid toughening mechanisms in oscillated/twisted plywood structure". Acta Biomaterialia. 91: 284–293 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  6. ^ Quan, Haocheng (September 2018). "Novel Defense Mechanisms in the Armor of the Scales of the "Living Fossil" Coelacanth Fish" (PDF). Advanced Functional Materials.
  7. ^ a b Chen, Po-Yu; Lin, Albert Yu-Min; McKittrick, Joanna; Meyers, Marc André (2008-05-01). "Structure and mechanical properties of crab exoskeletons". Acta Biomaterialia. 4 (3): 587–596. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2007.12.010. ISSN 1742-7061.
  8. ^ Raabe, D.; Sachs, C.; Romano, P. (2005-09-01). "The crustacean exoskeleton as an example of a structurally and mechanically graded biological nanocomposite material". Acta Materialia. 53 (15): 4281–4292. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2005.05.027. ISSN 1359-6454.
  9. ^ a b c d e Guarín-Zapata, Nicolás; Gomez, Juan; Yaraghi, Nick; Kisailus, David; Zavattieri, Pablo D. (2015-09-01). "Shear wave filtering in naturally-occurring Bouligand structures". Acta Biomaterialia. 23: 11–20. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2015.04.039. ISSN 1742-7061.
  10. ^ Venere, Emil (June 25, 2018). "Creature feature: Twisting cracks impart superhero toughness to animals". Purdue University.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  11. ^ a b c Weaver, James C.; Milliron, Garrett W.; Miserez, Ali; Evans-Lutterodt, Kenneth; Herrera, Steven; Gallana, Isaias; Mershon, William J.; Swanson, Brook; Zavattieri, Pablo; DiMasi, Elaine; Kisailus, David (2012-06-08). "The Stomatopod Dactyl Club: A Formidable Damage-Tolerant Biological Hammer". Science. 336 (6086): 1275–1280. doi:10.1126/science.1218764. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22679090.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Zimmermann, Elizabeth A.; Gludovatz, Bernd; Schaible, Eric; Dave, Neil K. N.; Yang, Wen; Meyers, Marc A.; Ritchie, Robert O. (15 October 2013). "Mechanical adaptability of the Bouligand-type structure in natural dermal armour". Nature Communications volume.
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