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Juneteenth

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For other uses, see Juneteenth (disambiguation).

Juneteenth
Ashton Villa, where General Order No. 3 was read on June 19, 1865
Also calledFreedom Day, Jubilee Day, Cel-Liberation Day, Emancipation Day
Observed byResidents of the United States, especially African Americans,
Mascogos
47 states of the United States[1]
TypeEthnic, historical
SignificanceEmancipation of the last remaining enslaved African Americans in the Confederacy
ObservancesExploration and celebration of African American history and heritage
DateJune 19
Next timeJune 19, 2025 (2025-06-19)
FrequencyAnnual

Juneteenth (a portmanteau of June and nineteenth),[2] also known as Freedom Day,[3] Jubilee Day,[4] and Cel-Liberation Day,[5] is an American holiday celebrated annually on June 19. It commemorates June 19, 1865, when Union general Gordon Granger read federal orders in Galveston, Texas, that all previously enslaved people in Texas were free.[6] Although the Emancipation Proclamation had formally freed them almost two and a half years earlier, and the American Civil War had largely ended with the defeat of the Confederate States in April, Texas was the most remote of the slave states, with a low presence of Union troops, so enforcement of the proclamation had been slow and inconsistent.[6]

Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. It spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. During the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, it was eclipsed by the struggle for postwar civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and arts.[7] By the 21st century, Juneteenth was celebrated in most major cities across the United States. Activists are campaigning for the United States Congress to recognize Juneteenth as a national holiday. Juneteenth is recognized as a state holiday or special day of observance in 47 of the 50 U.S. states.[8]

Modern observance is primarily in local celebrations. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing", and reading of works by noted African-American writers such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. The Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles, of Coahuila, Mexico, also celebrate Juneteenth.

History

End of slavery in Texas

Further information: Emancipation Proclamation
General Order No. 3, June 19, 1865
Areas covered by the Emancipation Proclamation are in red. Slave-holding areas not covered are in blue.

During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862.[9] It was formally issued on January 1, 1863, declaring that all enslaved persons in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were to be freed.

More isolated geographically, planters and other slaveholders had migrated into Texas from eastern states to escape the fighting, and many brought enslaved people with them, increasing by the thousands the enslaved population in the state at the end of the Civil War.[10] Although most lived in rural areas, more than 1,000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns.[11] By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 enslaved people in Texas.[10][12]

The news of General Robert E. Lee's surrender on April 9, 1865 reached Texas later in the month.[13] The western Army of the Trans-Mississippi did not surrender until June 2.[14] On June 18, Union Army General Gordon Granger arrived at Galveston Island with 2,000 federal troops to occupy Texas on behalf of the federal government.[15] The following day, standing on the balcony of Galveston's Ashton Villa, Granger read aloud the contents of "General Order No. 3", announcing the total emancipation of those held as slaves:

The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere.[16]

Although this event is popularly thought of as "the end of slavery", the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to those enslaved in Union-held territory, who would not be freed until the proclamation of the Thirteenth Amendment several months later, on December 18, 1865.[17] The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given legal status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874.[18]

Early celebrations

An early celebration of Emancipation Day (Juneteenth) in 1900

Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement.[5] The following year, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of "Jubilee Day" on June 19.[16] Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed slaves.[19] Early independence celebrations often occurred on January 1 or 4.[20]

In some cities African Americans were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations.[10][16] The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a "calendar of public events" by 1872.[17] That year black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of 10 acres (4 ha) of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park.[21] The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 blacks celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations.[17][22] By the 1890s Jubilee Day had become known as Juneteenth.[12]

Emancipation Day celebration in Richmond, Virginia in 1905

In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status.[23] Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because "upwardly mobile blacks [...] were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school [...] and other pursuits." Others who migrated to the Northern United States couldn't take time off or simply dropped the celebration.[22]

The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work. In these urban environments, African Americans had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. The Second Great Migration began during World War II, when many black people migrated to the West Coast where skilled jobs in the defense industry were opening up.[23] A revival of Juneteenth began right before World War II began.[12] From 1936 to 1951 the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936 an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Texas governor J. V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:[24]

Whereas, the Negroes in the State of Texas observe June 19 as the official day for the celebration of Emancipation from slavery; and

Whereas, June 19, 1865, was the date when General Robert [sic] S. Granger, who had command of the Military District of Texas, issued a proclamation notifying the Negroes of Texas that they were free; and

Whereas, since that time, Texas Negroes have observed this day with suitable holiday ceremony, except during such years when the day comes on a Sunday; when the Governor of the State is asked to proclaim the following day as the holiday for State observance by Negroes; and

Whereas, June 19, 1938, this year falls on Sunday; NOW, THEREFORE, I, JAMES V. ALLRED, Governor of the State of Texas, do set aside and proclaim the day of June 20, 1938, as the date for observance of EMANCIPATION DAY

in Texas, and do urge all members of the Negro race in Texas to observe the day in a manner appropriate to its importance to them.

70,000 people attended a "Juneteenth Jamboree" in 1951.[24] From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, "The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went."[25] In 1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by an immigrant from Texas, Wesley Johnson.[26]

During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated regionally in Texas).[19][20] It soon saw a revival as blacks began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the "Solidarity Day of the Poor People’s Campaign".[26][17] In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged[27] as well as across the Eastern United States.[28] In 1974 Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again,[12] and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year.[19] The 1978 Milwakee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees.[28]

Official recognition

Governor Tom Wolf signing legislation to officially recognize Juneteenth in Pennsylvania

In the late 1970s the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a "holiday of significance [...] particularly to the blacks of Texas".[20] It was the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday under legislation introduced by freshman Democratic state representative Al Edwards.[29] The law passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January 1, 1980.[17] Juneteenth is a "partial staffing" holiday in Texas; government offices do not close but agencies may operate with reduced staff, and employees may either celebrate this holiday or substitute it with one of four "optional holidays" recognized by Texas.[30] In the late 1980s there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C.[12]

In 1996 the first legislation to recognize "Juneteenth Independence Day" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J. Res. 195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997 Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution 11 and House Joint Resolution 56. In 2013 the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution 175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage) who "successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation.[31] In 2018 Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official US holidays.[32]

Activists are pushing Congress to recognize Juneteenth as a national holiday.[33] Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation are seeking a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance.[10]

Subsequent growth

Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities, and has seen increasing mainstreaming in the US.[22][34] In 1991 there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called “Juneteenth ’91, Freedom Revisited”.[27] In 1994 a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth.[22][34] Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris.[35] Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups.[35][36] In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel Juneteenth was published, increasing recognition of the holiday.[37] By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day.[27]

Although the holiday is still mostly unknown outside African-American communities, it has gained mainstream awareness through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series Atlanta (2016)[38] and Black-ish (2017),[39] the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots,[40] and Fonzworth Bentley.[41][42] In 2020, several American corporations including Twitter, the National Football League, and Nike announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers.[43]

Recognition

Date of recognition:
  Recognized before 2000
  Recognized between 2000 and 2009
  Recognized in 2010 or after

After Texas recognized the date in 1980, many states followed suit. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth[44] and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday.[20] By 2008, nearly half of US states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance.[7] Forty-seven of the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have recognized Juneteenth as either a state holiday or ceremonial holiday, a day of observance. The three states that do not recognize Juneteenth are Hawaii, North Dakota, and South Dakota.[45]

United States congressional representative Sheila Jackson campaigns for Juneteenth to be a national holiday.
State Year of recognition[46]
Alabama 2011
Alaska 2001
Arizona 2016
Arkansas 2005
California 2003
Colorado 2004
Connecticut 2003
Delaware 2000
Florida 1991
Georgia 2011
Hawaii N/A
Idaho 2001
Illinois 2003
Indiana 2010
Iowa 2002
Kansas 2007
Kentucky 2005
Louisiana 2003
Maine 2011
Maryland 2014
Massachusetts 2007
Michigan 2005
Minnesota 1996
Mississippi 2010
Missouri 2003
Montana 2017
Nebraska 2009
Nevada 2011
New Hampshire 2019
New Jersey 2004
New Mexico 2006
New York 2004
North Carolina 2007
North Dakota N/A
Ohio 2006
Oklahoma 1994
Oregon 2001
Pennsylvania 2001
Rhode Island 2012
South Carolina 2008
South Dakota N/A
Tennessee 2007
Texas 1980
Utah 2016
Vermont 2007
Virginia 2007
Washington 2007
West Virginia 2008
Wisconsin 2009
Wyoming 2003
File:American Flags of Freedom.png
American and Juneteenth flags

Celebrations

The holiday is considered the "longest running African-American holiday"[22] and has been called "America's second Independence Day".[44] It is often celebrated on the third Sunday in June.[35] Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: "to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate".[47] Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing.[22] It was common for former slaves and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston.[27] As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they "served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'. "[48]

Observance today is primarily in local celebrations.[49] In many places Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday.[50] Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing", and reading of works by noted African-American writers such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou.[49] Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests.[22][27][35][51][52] Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration.[27] The Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles, of Coahuila, Mexico also celebrate Juneteenth.[53]

Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture.[47] The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in Emerge that "community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth." Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories.[54] The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In Tourism Review International, Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that "Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations".[55]

See also

References

  1. ^ "All but four US states celebrate Juneteenth as a holiday".
  2. ^ "Juneteenth Celebrated in Coachella". Black Voice News. June 22, 2011. Archived from the original on January 22, 2012.
  3. ^ "Juneteenth: Our Other Independence Day". Smithsonian. Retrieved June 27, 2019.
  4. ^ "Cel-Liberation Style! Fourth Annual Juneteenth Day Kicks off June 19". Milwaukee Star. June 12, 1975. Retrieved May 7, 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  5. ^ a b "It Happened: June 19". Milwaukee Star, vol. 14, no. 42. June 27, 1974. Retrieved May 5, 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ a b Gates Jr., Henry Louis (January 16, 2013). "What Is Juneteenth?". PBS.org. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
  7. ^ a b Cruz, Gilbert (June 18, 2008). "A Brief History of Juneteenth". Time. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
  8. ^ . Congressional Research Service https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44865.pdf. Retrieved June 16, 2020. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ "Preliminary Emacipation Proclamation, 1862". The National Archives. Retrieved June 3, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ a b c d Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. "What Is Juneteenth?". The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross. PBS. Originally posted on The Root. Retrieved September 30, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Barr (1996), p. 24.
  12. ^ a b c d e Garrett-Scott, Shennette (2013). ""When Peace Come": Teaching the Significance of Juneteenth". Black History Bulletin. 76 (2): 19–25. JSTOR 24759690.
  13. ^ "Juneteenth Celebrated in Coachella". Black Voice News. June 22, 2011. Archived from the original on January 22, 2012.
  14. ^ Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. "What Is Juneteenth?". The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross. PBS. Originally posted on The Root. Retrieved September 30, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference cruz2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ a b c "Juneteenth". Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved July 6, 2006.
  17. ^ a b c d e Wynn 2009.
  18. ^ Campbell, Randolph (1984). "The End of Slavery in Texas: A Research Note". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 88 (1): 71–80. JSTOR 30239840.
  19. ^ a b c "Juneteenth Adds Continuity to Black Tradition". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. June 13, 1976. p. 100. Retrieved June 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com Open access icon.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ a b c d Wilson 2006, p. 239.
  21. ^ Mustakeem 2007.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Knight 2011.
  23. ^ a b Adams, Luther (November 29, 2010). Way Up North in Louisville: African American Migration in the Urban South, 1930–1970. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807899434.
  24. ^ a b Wiggins, Jr., William H. "Juneteenth: A Red Spot Day on the Texas Calendar". Juneteenth Texas. University of North Texas Press. pp. 237–254 – via Project MUSE.
  25. ^ Wilkerson, Isabel (2010). The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America's Great Migration. New York: Random House. Retrieved June 19, 2015.
  26. ^ a b Emily Blanck, "Galveston on San Francisco Bay: Juneteenth in the Fillmore District, 1945–2016." Western Historical Quarterly 50.2 (2019): 85-112.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Jaynes 2005.
  28. ^ a b Wiggins, William (June–July 1993). "Juneteenth: tracking the progress of an emancipation celebration". American Visions.
  29. ^ Dingus, Anne (June 2001). "Once a Texas-only holiday marking the end of slavery, Juneteenth is now celebrated nationwide with high spirits and hot barbecue". Texas Monthly. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
  30. ^ "State of Texas Holiday Schedule - Fiscal 2019". comptroller.texas.gov. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
  31. ^ "S.Res.175 – A resolution observing Juneteenth Independence Day, June 19, 1865, the day on which slavery finally came to an end in the United States". United States Congress. June 19, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2015.
  32. ^ Ciaccia, Chris (February 16, 2018). "Apple's iCal calendar mysteriously deletes Easter". Fox News.
  33. ^ E.H. Turner, . "Juneteenth: The Evolution of an Emancipation Celebration." European Contributions to American Studies. 65 (2006): 69-81.
  34. ^ a b Chandler, D.L. (June 19, 2012). "Juneteenth: Celebrating The Early Moments Of Freedom Today". News One. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
  35. ^ a b c d Moskin, Julie (June 18, 2004). "Late to Freedom's Party, Texans Spread Word of Black Holiday". The New York Times. Retrieved April 28, 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  36. ^ "The World Celebrates Freedom". Juneteenth.com. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
  37. ^ Guzzio 1999.
  38. ^ Ho, Rodney (October 25, 2016). "FX's 'Atlanta' recap ('Juneteenth'): season 1, episode 9". Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
  39. ^ Framke, Caroline (October 4, 2017). "Black-ish's musical episode about Juneteenth is a pointed lesson on American ignorance". Vox. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
  40. ^ "I Am A Slave". YouTube. ABC News. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
  41. ^ "We Built This". YouTube. ABC Television Network. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
  42. ^ Butler, Berhonie (October 4, 2017). "'Blackish' gives a powerful history lesson – with nods to 'Hamilton' and 'Schoolhouse Rock'". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
  43. ^ "Starting the trend for making Juneteenth a company holiday". CBS News. Retrieved June 12, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  44. ^ a b Dart, Bob (June 19, 2002). "Juneteenth Crossing Nation". The Baltimore Sun. pp. A2. Retrieved June 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com Open access icon.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  45. ^ "All but four US states celebrate Juneteenth as a holiday". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
  46. ^ "Juneteenth: Fact Sheet" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. June 3, 2020. Retrieved June 5, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  47. ^ a b Hume & Arceneaux 2008, p. 156.
  48. ^ Hume & Arceneaux 2008, p. 159.
  49. ^ a b Taylor, 2002. pp. 28–29.
  50. ^ Hume & Arceneaux 2008, p. 158.
  51. ^ Taylor, Nicole (June 13, 2017). "Hot Links and Red Drinks: The Rich Food Tradition of Juneteenth". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.
  52. ^ Acosta, Teresa Palomo (June 15, 2010). "Juneteenth". Texas Historical Society. Retrieved June 5, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  53. ^ "Mascogos. Siempre listos para partir". El Universal (in Spanish). September 19, 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2017. Sin embargo, la fiesta de la comunidad es el 19 de junio – el Juneteenth Day en Estados Unidos – el día que los esclavos de Galveston, Texas, supieron que eran libres.
  54. ^ Thomas, Karen M. (June 1993). "Texas: Juneteenth Day". Emerge. 8 (4): 31.
  55. ^ Donovan, Anne; DeBres, Karen (2006). "Foods of Freedom: Juneteenth as a Culinary Tourist Attraction". Tourism Review International. 9: 379–389.

Bibliography

  • Barr, Alwyn (1996). Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806128788.
  • Hume, Noah; Arceneaux, Janice (2008). "Public Memory, Cultural Legacy, and Press Coverage of the Juneteenth Revival". Journalism History. 34 (3): 155–162.
  • Taylor, Charles A. (2002). Juneteenth: A Celebration of Freedom. Open Hand Pub Llc. ISBN 978-0940880689.
  • Turner, E. H. "Juneteenth: The Evolution of an Emancipation Celebration." European Contributions to American Studies. 65 (2006): 69-81.
  • Wiggins Jr, William H. "They Closed the Town Up, Man! Reflections on the Civic and Political Dimensions of Juneteenth." in Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual, ed. Victor Turner (1982): 284-295.
  • Wilson, Charles R. (2006). The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 4: Myth, Manners, and Memory. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/9781469616704_wilson. ISBN 978-0-8078-3029-1.
  • Wynn, Linda T. (2009). "Juneteenth". In Carney Smith, Jessica (ed.). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Credo Reference.
  • Mustakeem, Sowandé (2007). "Juneteenth". In Rodriguez, Junius (ed.). Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World. Routledge.
  • Guzzio, Tracie Church (1999). "Juneteenth". In Samuels, Wilford D. (ed.). Encyclopedia of African-American Literature. Facts on File.
  • Knight, Gladys L. (2011). "Juneteenth". Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture. Greenwood. pp. 798–801. OCLC 694734649.
  • Jaynes, Gerald David (2005). "Juneteenth". Encyclopedia of African American Society. SAGE Publications. pp. 481–482.
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