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List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language

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Nations in which Arabic is an official language (de facto or de jure). Arabic in countries with more than 50% Arabic-speakers is considered a majority language, otherwise it is a minority language.
  Official as majority language
  Official as minority language
  Co-official as majority language
  Co-official as minority language
  Not official as minority language

Arabic and its different dialects are spoken by around 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world as well as in the Arab diaspora making it one of the five most spoken languages in the world. Currently, 22 countries are member states of the Arab League (as well as 5 countries were granted an observer status) which was founded in Cairo in 1945. Arabic is a language cluster comprising 30 or so modern varieties.[1]

Arabic is the lingua franca of people who live in countries of the Arab world as well as of Arabs who live in the diaspora, particularly in Latin America (especially Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Chile and Colombia) or Western Europe (like France, Spain, Germany or Italy).

Cypriot Arabic is a recognized minority language in the EU member state of Cyprus and, along with Maltese, is one of only two extant European varieties of Arabic, though it has its own standard literary form and has no diglossic relationship with Standard Arabic.[2] Maltese is one of the official languages of the EU.

Sovereign states where Arabic is an official language

[edit]

As of 2024, there are 24 sovereign states where Modern Standard Arabic is an official language. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic is an official language.

Sovereign states where Arabic is an official language
No. Sovereign state Population Notes Member state of the Arab League
1  Algeria 41,701,000 Co-official language, along with Berber Yes
2  Bahrain 1,343,000 Official language Yes
3  Chad 10,329,208 Co-official language, along with French Observer status
4  Comoros 798,000 Co-official language, along with Comorian and French Yes
5  Djibouti 810,179 Co-official language, along with French Yes
6  Egypt 102,442,939 Official language Yes
7  Iraq 36,004,552 Co-official language, along with Kurdish Yes
8  Jordan 6,655,000 Official language Yes
9  Kuwait 2,789,000 Official language Yes
10  Lebanon 4,965,914 Official language Yes
11  Libya 6,244,174 Official language Yesa
12  Mali 21,359,722 Co-official language, along with 12 other languages No
13  Mauritania 3,359,185 Official language Yes
14  Morocco 35,250,000 Co-official language, along with Berber Yes
15  Oman 4,055,418 Official language Yes
16  Palestineb 4,484,000 Official language in the State of Palestinec Yes
17  Qatar 2,155,446 Official language Yes
18  Saudi Arabia 30,770,375 Official language Yes
19  Somalia 10,428,043 Co-official language, along with Somali Yes
20  Sudan 40,235,000 Official language Yes
21  Syriad 20,956,000 Official language Yes
22  Tunisia 10,982,754 Official language Yes
23  United Arab Emirates 9,346,129 Official language Yes
24  Yemen 23,833,000 Official language Yese
– Total 417,338,722 Arabic Language International Council Arab League
a. Libya's seat is taken by the House of Representatives (Libya) (which is disputed by the Muslim Brotherhood-led General National Congress and Government of National Accord).
b. Out of the 193 member states of the United Nations, 144 member states currently recognize the State of Palestine.

c. The Palestinian territories (also called the Israeli-occupied territories) are occupied by Israel but do not legally belong to the State of Israel according to the Supreme Court of Israel and the International Court of Justice of the United Nations (UN).
d. The Syrian National Coalition is partially recognized as the sole legitimate government of the state Syrian Arab Republic.
e. Yemen's seat is taken by the Cabinet of Yemen (which is disputed by the Arab League-sceptic Houthi Supreme Revolutionary Committee).

States with limited recognition and territories where Arabic is an official language

[edit]

The following is a list of states with limited recognition as well as territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language.

States/territories where Arabic is an official language
No. State/Territory Population Notes Member state of the Arab League
1  Somalilanda 5,700,000 Co-official language, along with Somali and English No
2  Zanzibarb 1,303,569 Co-official language, along with Swahili and English No
3  Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republicc 502,585 Co-official language, along with Spanish No

a. Internationally recognised as part of Somalia.
b. A semi-autonomous region of Tanzania.
c. Presently occupied in large part by Morocco.

Countries where Arabic is a national/working language or a recognized minority language

[edit]

As of 2016, there are 5 independent countries where Arabic is a national/working language or a recognized minority language, but not primary language. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic is a national language or a recognized minority language.

Countries where Arabic is a national/working language
or a recognized minority language
No. Country Population National/Working language
or minority language 		Continent
1  Cyprus[note 1] 875,900 Minority language Asia, Europe
2  Eritrea 6,380,803 Working language Africa
3  Iran 83,145,546 Minority language Asia
4  Niger 22,314,743 National language Africa
5  Senegal 16,209,125 National language Africa
– Total 128,926,117

Cyprus

[edit]
See also: Languages of Cyprus

Cypriot Arabic (alongside Armenian) is one of the two recognized minority languages of Cyprus, since 2008.[3] It is spoken by the Maronite community, which is a minority in Cyprus especially in the cities Nicosia, Limassol and Larnaca.

Cypriot Arabic (also known as Cypriot Maronite Arabic) is taught at the Elementary School of St. Maron, which is located in Anthoupolis southern of Nicosia, Cyprus.[4]

Eritrea

[edit]
See also: Languages of Eritrea

Debate exists over the extent of Arabic in Eritrea; the government position is that the language was introduced by the British and is only in use by a professional elite and the Rashaida minority, whereas others have taken the view the language acts as the lingua franca of the country's Muslims.[5] Eritrea is an observer state in the Arab League.

Iran

[edit]
See also: Languages of Iran

Arabic is a recognized minority language of Iran. In addition, the constitution recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. After the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Arabic (as the language of Quran) became mandatory for pupils in Iran. Arabic courses are mandatory starting from 6th year of schooling (1st year of Middle School) until the 11th year (penultimate year of High School).

The local dialects of Arabic spoken by Arab minorities in Iran (like Ahwazi Arabs, Khamseh Arabs, Marsh Arabs as well as Arabs in Khorasan) are Khuzestani Arabic and Mesopotamian Arabic, (also known as Iraqi Arabic) mainly in Khuzestan Province as well as Khorasani Arabic especially in Khorasan Province.

There are several TV channels in Arabic language broadcasting from Iran, namely, Al-Alam, Al-Kawthar TV, iFilm, Ahwazna TV, Al Ahwaz TV and Al-Ahvaz TV. Currently, the sole newspaper in Arabic language published in Iran is Kayhan Al Arabi out of 23 Persian dailies and three English dailies newspapers in Iran.

In 2008, the public university Payame Noor University declared that Arabic will be the "second language" of the university, and that all its services will be offered in Arabic, concurrent with Persian.[6]

Niger

[edit]
See also: Languages of Niger

Arabic is one of the recognized national languages in Niger. Arabic is spoken by a minority in Niger especially by the Diffa Arabs (also known as Mahamid Arabs) an Arab nomadic tribespeople who is living in eastern Niger, mostly in the Diffa Region.

Senegal

[edit]
See also: Languages of Senegal

Arabic is one of the recognized national languages in Senegal. Hassaniya Arabic is spoken by a minority in Senegal.[7]

Countries where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution

[edit]

As of 2018, there are 5 independent countries where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution.

Countries where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution
No. Country Population Official language(s) Other recognized
language(s) 		Continent
1  Iran 83,145,546 Persian Arabica Asia
2  Israelb 9,149,960 Hebrew Arabicc Asia
3  Pakistan 218,396,000 Urdu, English Arabicd Asia
4  Philippines 100,981,437 Filipino, English "Regional Languages", Spanish, Arabice Asia
5  South Africa 60,142,978 English, isiZulu, isiXhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, Setswana, South African Sign Language, Sesotho, Xitsonga, siSwati (Swazi), Tshivenda, isiNdebele Khoi, Nama, San, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Portuguese, Tamil, Telegu, Urdu, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Arabicf Africa
– Total 471,815,921
a. ^ The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."[8]

b. Out of the 193 member states of the United Nations, 162 member states currently recognize the State of Israel.
c. ^ The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People (an Israeli Basic Law which specifies the nature of the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish People) states in No. 4 (B) that "The Arabic language has a special status in the state; Regulating the use of Arabic in state institutions or by them will be set in law." The law declares in No. 4 (C): "This clause does not harm the status given to the Arabic language before this law came into effect." The law was adopted by the Knesset 62 in favor, 55 against and two abstentions on 19 July 2018.[9]
d. ^ The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan states in Article 31 No. 2 that "The State shall endeavour, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan (a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language ..."[10]
e. ^ The 1987 Philippine constitution specifies "Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."[11]
f. ^ The constitution of the Republic of South Africa states in Chapter 1 (Founding Provisions) Section 6, Languages that "A Pan South African Language Board established by national legislation must (b) promote and ensure respect for – (i) all languages commonly used by communities in South Africa, including ...; and (ii) Arabic, ... for religious purposes in South Africa."[12]

Iran

[edit]
See also: Languages of Iran

The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."[8]

Israel

[edit]
See also: Languages of Israel

Arabic was an official language of Mandatory Palestine and was retained as an official language when the State of Israel was founded in 1948. In 2018, the Knesset upgraded the status of Hebrew from official to State language of Israel, and gave Arabic a special status in the State by adopting the relevant Basic Law. The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People (an Israeli Basic Law which specifies the nature of the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish People) states in No. 4 (B) that "The Arabic language has a special status in the state; Regulating the use of Arabic in state institutions or by them will be set in law." The law declares in No. 4 (C): "This clause does not harm the status given to the Arabic language before this law came into effect." The law was adopted by the Knesset 62 in favor, 55 against and two abstentions on 19 July 2018.[9]

Arabic is an indigenous language in the territory which form the state of Israel and which is still the lingua franca of Arab citizens of Israel as well as of Arab foreigners (especially Palestinians who have only a Palestinian Authority passport, not recognized by many countries. Thus, they consider Palestinians stateless). In addition, Arabic is spoken by Arab Jews in Israel who immigrated from different Arab countries to Israel (as Aliyah) and got the Israeli citizenship according to the Israeli Nationality Law of 1952.

Arabic names are shown on some seals of Arabic majority cities.

It is semi-official and used in ethnically mixed cities including Jerusalem, Haifa, and Tel Aviv-Yafo, as well as on most highway signage, official websites, and public buildings in areas with significant Arabic-speaking populations.

Pakistan

[edit]
See also: Languages of Pakistan

According to the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 the two languages Urdu (which is very close to Hindi, both also called Hindustani language which were two of the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan that time[13][14]) as well as Bengali (at that time the lingua franca in the territory which is today the independent state Bangladesh) became the national languages in the new founded state Islamic Republic of Pakistan. General Ayub Khan the second President of Pakistan advocated the institution of Arabic language teaching as part of national planning.[15] "Ayub`s educational plan emphasized Urdu and English as the primary language of Pakistan, but additionally recommended that Arabic be a secondary language of instruction along with English."[16] This recommendation was purely for religious reasons, as Pakistan is not an Arab country.

The Arabic language is mentioned in the constitution of Pakistan. It declares in article 31 No. 2 that "The State shall endeavour, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan (a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language ..."[10]

The National Education Policy 2017 declares in article 3.7.4 that: “Arabic as compulsory part will be integrated in Islamiyat from Middle to Higher Secondary level to enable the students to understand the Holy Quran.“ Furthermore, it specifies in article 3.7.6: “Arabic as elective subject shall be offered properly at Secondary and Higher Secondary level with Arabic literature and grammar in its course to enable the learners to have command in the language.“ This law is also valid for private schools as it defines in article 3.7.12: “The curriculum in Islamiyat, Arabic and Moral Education of public sector will be adopted by the private institutions to make uniformity in the society.“[17]

In 2021, Pakistan's upper house of parliament approved the ‘Compulsory Teaching of the Arabic Language Bill 2020’ which makes the teaching of Arabic mandatory at all primary and secondary schools in the capital, Islamabad.[18] The text of the bill says that Arabic should be taught from the first to the fifth grade and Arabic grammar should be taught from the sixth grade to the eleventh grade.[19][20] The main reasons given are that Arabic would open up more job opportunities for Pakistanis in the Middle East and lead to lower unemployment and increased remittances[18] and that Arabic is the language of the Quran, so making Arabic compulsory in school will help improve the understanding of it.[21]

Philippines

[edit]
See also: Languages of the Philippines

The Arabic language is mentioned in the Philippine constitution of 1986. It specifies that "Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."[11]

Arabic is mainly used by some Filipino Muslims in both a liturgical and instructional capacity since the arrival of Islam and establishment of several Sultanates (like Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Ranaw) and during Bruneian Empire in the present-day state Philippines. Along with Malay, Arabic was the lingua franca of the Malay Archipelago among Muslim traders and the Malay aristocracy in the Philippines' history.[citation needed] Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines.

South Africa

[edit]
See also: Languages of South Africa

The Arabic language is mentioned in the Constitution of South Africa. It declares in Chapter 1 (Founding Provisions) Section 6, Languages that "A Pan South African Language Board established by national legislation must (b) promote and ensure respect for – (i) all languages commonly used by communities in South Africa, including ...; and (ii) Arabic, ... for religious purposes in South Africa."[12]

Non-sovereign entities and territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language

[edit]

The following is a list of non-sovereign entities and autonomous regions as well as territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language.

Non-sovereign entities and territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language
No. Non-sovereign entity/Territory Population Notes Continent
1  Azawad/ Arab Movement of Azawad[22] 1,300,000 Co-official language, along with Tuareg Africa
2  Galmudug 1,230,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
3 Hirshabelle 1,800,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
4  Iraqi Kurdistan[23] 5,300,000 Co-official language, along with Kurdish Asia
5  Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 4,800,000 Official language Asia
6  Jubaland 1,000,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
7  Khatumo 2,000,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
8  Puntland 1,285,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
9  Rojava (also called Democratic Federation of Northern Syria) 4,600,000 Co-official language, along with Kurdish and Syriac Asia
10 South West State of Somalia 2,000,000 Co-official language, along with Somali Africa
11  Syrian Oppositiona[24] 3,500,000 Official language Asia
– Total 28,835,000
a. The Syrian National Coalition is partially recognized as the sole legitimate government of the state Syrian Arab Republic.

History

[edit]
Main article: Arab world § History

Umayyad Caliphate

[edit]
The expansion of the first Caliphates:
  Expansion under Islamic prophet Muhammad,
622–632 AD/ 1–11 AH
  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate,
632–661 AD/ 11–40 AH
  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate,
661–750 AD/ 40–129 AH
Expansion of the Abbasid caliphate, 750–1258 AD/ 132–923 AH
Expansion of the Omani Empire: 1696–1856 AD

The Muslim conquests (Arabic: الفتوحات الإسلامية, al-Futūḥāt al-Islāmiyya) and the following Expansion of Islam (Arabic: انتشار الإسلام, Intishar al-Islām) led to the expansion of the Arabic language in Northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Caucasus, Western Asia, Central Asia and South Asia. Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, Arabic number system and Arab customs spread throughout the entire Arab caliphate. The caliphs of the Arab dynasty established the first schools inside the empire which taught Arabic language and Islamic studies for all pupils in all areas within the caliphate. The result was (in those areas which belonged to the Arab empire) the creation of the society that was mostly Arabic-speaking because of the assimilation of native inhabitants.

During the period of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the 5th Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (646–705) established Arabic instead of the local languages as the sole official state language of government across the entire caliphate.[25]

Abbasid Caliphate

[edit]

While the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly was Arabized. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began gradually to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe and the Western world.[26]

Fatimid Caliphate

[edit]

The Arabic language remained the lingua franca of high culture under the Fatimids (909–1171), Spanish Umayyads (856–1031) in the Iberian Peninsula, and later Muslim dynasties in North Africa and Spain and of the Mamluks (1250–1517) in Egypt and Syria-Palestine.[27]

Al-Andalus

[edit]

In the history, Andalusian Arabic was the official language in Spain and Portugal, formerly Al-Andalus for more than 700 years until the fall of the last Islamic state in Iberia at Granada in 1492.

Italy and Malta

[edit]

Siculo-Arabic (or Sicilian Arabic) was a spoken language on the islands of Sicily and neighbouring Malta (at that time Emirate of Sicily (831–1091)) between the end of the ninth century and the end of the twelfth century.

Greece

[edit]

A form of Arabic was spoken on the Mediterranean island of Crete (Emirate of Crete) from the late 820s (c. 824 or 827/828) until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.

Omani Empire

[edit]

Arabic was the official language of the Omani Empire (1696–1856). Several Arabic dialects and languages were the lingua francas in the different areas of this empire, like Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, Persian, Balochi and Swahili.

South Sudan

[edit]

Arabic (alongside English) was an official language in South Sudan from 1863 (these days a part of Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867)) until 2011 (that time the independent state Republic of South Sudan), when the former government canceled Arabic as an official language. Since 2011 English is the sole official language of South Sudan. The Arabic dialect Juba Arabic is still the lingua franca of the people in South Sudan.

The Gambia

[edit]

In 2014, Gambian president Yahya Jammeh announced that The Gambia would drop English as the official language because it is a "colonial relic".[28][29] He replaced Gambia's official language English with Arabic in 2014.[30] However, such change was not enacted.

Israel

[edit]

The Arabic language (alongside Hebrew) also remained as an official language in the State of Israel for the first 70 years after the proclamation in 1948 until 2018. The Knesset canceled the status of Arabic as an official language by adopting the relevant Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People on 19 July 2018. This Israeli Basic Law states in No. 4 (A) that "The state’s language is Hebrew."[9]

Territories where Arabic was an official or de facto official language and later replaced or repealed

[edit]

There were several territories (which later became independent states) where Arabic was an official or de facto official language and where Arabic has been replaced by other languages or repealed. The following list specifies territories (which later became independent states) where Arabic was the official language when these territories were parts of the Umayyad Caliphate. During the reign of the fifth Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik, Arabic became the official language of the Umayyad Caliphate.[31][32][33][34] The previous local official languages in the different territories were replaced by the Arabic language.[35]

Territories where Arabic was an official or de facto official language and later replaced or repealed
No. Current country Current
official language(s) 		Current
spoken language(s) 		Historically
belonged to 		Historical
official language(s) 		Historical
spoken language(s) 		Time
period 		Continent
1  Afghanistan Pashto, Dari Pashto, Dari, various others Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Pashto, Dari, Uzbek, Turkmen, Central Asian Arabic 661–750 Asia
2  Armenia Armenian Armenian, various others Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Arabic, Armenian 661–750 Asia
3  Azerbaijan Azeri Azeri, various others Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Arabic, Azeri 661–750 Asia
4  Cyprus Greek, Co-official language, along with Turkish Greek, Turkish, various others Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Siculo-Arabic 661–750 Asia
5  France[36] French French, various others Narbonne and a part of Septimania belonged to the Umayyad Caliphate Arabic in the part of France which belonged to the Umayyad Caliphate Frankish, Latin, Vulgar Latin (Gallo-Roman), Gaulish, Arabic 719–759 Europe
6  Georgia Georgian Georgian Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Arabic, Georgian 661–750 Asia
7  Greece Greek Greek, various others Emirate of Crete Arabic Arabic, Greek, various others 824–961 Europe
8  Iran Persian Persian, various others Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Buyid dynasty Arabic Arabic, Persian 661–1062 Asia
9  Israel Hebrew Hebrew, Arabic, English, Russian, various others Rashidun Caliphate, several other Muslim dynasties Arabic Arabic, Hebrew 636–2018 Asia
10  Sicily[note 2] Italian Italian, various others Emirate of Sicily Arabic Siculo-Arabic, Byzantine Greek, Vulgar Latin 831–1091 Europe
11  Kenya Swahili, Co-official language, along with English Swahili, various others Omani Empire Arabic Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, Swahili 1696–1856 Africa
12  Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyz Kyrgyz, Uzbek Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Central Asian Arabic, Kyrgyz 651–750 Asia
13  Malta Maltese, Co-official language, along with English Maltese, English, various others Emirate of Sicily Arabic Siculo-Arabic, Byzantine Greek, Vulgar Latin 831–1091 Europe
14  Niger French Arabic, Hausa, Zarma, various others Sokoto Caliphate Arabic Classical Arabic, Hausa, Zarma 1804–1908 Africa
15  Nigeria English English, various others Sokoto Caliphate Arabic Classical Arabic, Hausa, Fula 1804–1908 Africa
16  Pakistan Urdu, Co-official language, along with English Urdu, various others Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Urdu, Central Asian Arabic 661–750 Asia
17  Portugal Portuguese Portuguese, various others Umayyad Caliphate, Emirate of Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba, Taifa of Badajoz, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate Arabic Andalusian Arabic, Mozarabic, Medieval Hebrew 711–1139 Europe
18  Spain[37] Spanish Spanish, various others Umayyad Caliphate, Emirate of Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba, Taifa of Zaragoza, Taifa Kingdom of Seville, Taifa of Córdoba, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Emirate of Granada Arabic Andalusian Arabic, Mozarabic, Medieval Hebrew 711–1492 Europe
19  South Sudan English Juba Arabic, various others Egypt Eyalet, Sudan Arabic Juba Arabic 1863–2011 Africa
20  Tajikistan Tajik Tajik Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Central Asian Arabic, Tajik 661–750 Asia
21  Tanzania Swahili, Co-official language, along with English, Arabic in Zanzibar Swahili, various others; Omani Arabic in Zanzibar Omani Empire Arabic Swahili, Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic 1696–1856 Africa
22  Turkey Turkish Turkish, various others Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate Arabic North Mesopotamian Arabic 661–1517 Asia
23  Turkmenistan Turkmen Turkmen Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Central Asian Arabic, Turkmen 661–750 Asia
24  Uzbekistan Uzbek, various others Uzbek Umayyad Caliphate Arabic Central Asian Arabic, Uzbek 661–750 Asia

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Geographically a part of Asia, but geopolitically a part of Europe.
  2. ^ A part of  Italy.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: ara".
  2. ^ Robert D Hoberman (2007). "13: Maltese Morphology". In Alan S. Kaye (ed.). Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Eisenbrown. ISBN 978-1575061092. Maltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia.
  3. ^ "Implementation of the Charter in Cyprus". Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  4. ^ Maronite Community of Cyprus: St Maron Elementary School, 11 December 2013, Retrieved 15 January 2018.
  5. ^ Mohammad, Abdulkader Saleh (2016-08-17). "Mother tongue versus Arabic: the post-independence Eritrean language policy debate". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 37 (6): 523–535. doi:10.1080/01434632.2015.1080715. ISSN 0143-4632. S2CID 146966189.
  6. ^ عربی دومین زبان دانشگاه پیام نور شد (in Persian). Radiozamaaneh.com. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
  7. ^ Ethnologue: Ethnologue Languages of the World – Senegal – Languages, Retrieved 31 December 2017.
  8. ^ a b Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran: Iran (Islamic Republic of)`s Constitution of 1979. – Article: 16 Official or national languages, 1979, retrieved 25 July 2018
  9. ^ a b c "Full text of Basic Law: Israel as the Nation State of the Jewish People". The Knesset: Press Releases. State of Israel. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  10. ^ a b Constitution of Pakistan: Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 – Article: 31 Islamic way of life, 1973, retrieved 13 June 2018
  11. ^ a b Joselito Guianan Chan; Managing Partner. "1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article XIV, Section 7". Chan Robles & Associates Law Firm. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
  12. ^ a b Constitution of South Africa: South African Government Information: Constitution Constitution of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1, Section 6, Languages, 1996, retrieved 19 September 2021
  13. ^ Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi (1994), Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts, University of Wisconsin, ... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...
  14. ^ Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher; Alex Pulsipher; Holly M. Hapke (2005), World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives, Macmillan, ISBN 0716719045, ... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...
  15. ^ Ayres, Alyssa (2009). Speaking Like a State, Language and Nationalism in Pakistan. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0521519311. General Ayub Khan was the first Pakistani leader to advocate the institution of Arabic language teaching as part of national planning.
  16. ^ Ayres, Alyssa (2009). Speaking Like a State, Language and Nationalism in Pakistan. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 39, 40. ISBN 978-0521519311. Ayub`s educational plan emphasized Urdu and English as the primary language of Pakistan, but additionally recommended that Arabic be a secondary language of instruction along with English.
  17. ^ Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training: National Education Policy 2017, p. 25, retrieved 19 June 2018
  18. ^ a b Arab News: Senate approves bill making Arabic classes compulsory at Islamabad schools, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  19. ^ Senate of Pakistan: The Islamabad Compulsory Teaching of the Arabic Language, Bill, 2020, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  20. ^ Pakistan Today: Arabic language bill sails through Senate, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  21. ^ Gulf News: Pakistan parliament approves compulsory Arabic classes in Islamabad schools, 2 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
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  23. ^ "Kurdistan: Constitution of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region". 2 November 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2021
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  25. ^ "'Abd al-Malik". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. I: A–Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1593398378.
  26. ^ Ochsenwald & Fisher 2004, p. 69
  27. ^ Hayrettin Yücesoy (2015) “Language of Empire: Politics of Arabic and Persian in the Abbasid World, p. 388.
  28. ^ Al-Jazeera: "Gambia to drop English as 'colonial relic'" 13 March 2014, Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  29. ^ Index on Censorship: Gambia’s president wants to ditch English as official language, 28 March 2014, retrieved 12 July 2018
  30. ^ France 24: "Gambia’s Yahya Jammeh, a dictator and ‘proud’ of it" 11 January 2017, Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  31. ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 94. ISBN 0791418278.
  32. ^ Kazhdan, Alexander P.; Talbot, Alice-Mary; et al. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York; Oxford: State Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0195046526.
  33. ^ Watkins, John; Reyerson, Kathryn L. (2016). Mediterranean Identities in the Premodern Era, Entrepots, Islands, Empires. New York: Routledge. p. 143. ISBN 978-1409455998.
  34. ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0195125584.
  35. ^ Bowen, Wayne H. (2008). The history of Saudi Arabia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0313340123.
  36. ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN 0791418278.
  37. ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0791418278.
Bibliography

Further reading

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