Examine individual changes

[ 0 => '{{Refimprove|date=July 2011}}', 1 => '{{Fertile Crescent myth}}', 2 => 'The [[religion]]s of the [[ancient Near East]] were mostly [[polytheistic]], with some early examples of primitive [[monolatry]] ([[Marduk|Mardukites]]), [[Ashurism]] and [[Monism]] ([[Atenism]]). Some scholars believe that the similarities between these religions indicate that the religions are related, a belief known as [[patternism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Siege Perilous: Essays in Biblical Anthropology and Kindred Subjects|author=Samuel H. Hooke|publisher=Ayer Publishing|year=1970|page=174|isbn=0-8369-5525-0}}</ref>', 3 => false, 4 => 'The [[Luwian]] and [[Hittite]] pantheons of [[Asia Minor]] exerted a strong influence on the [[ancient Greek religion]], while the [[Sumero-Akkadian]]-[[Assyro-Babylonian religion]] influenced [[Achaemenid]]-era [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Judaism]], and together with Egyptian and Greek traditions, in turn strongly influenced [[Christianity]], [[Mandeanism]] and [[Islam]].', 5 => false, 6 => '==Overview==', 7 => 'The history of the [[ancient Near East]] spans more than two millennia, from the [[Bronze Age]] to the [[Early Iron Age]], in the region now known as the [[Middle East]], centered around the [[Fertile Crescent]]. There was much cultural contact, so that it is justified to summarize the whole region under a single term, but that does not mean, of course, that each historical period and each region should not be looked at individually for a detailed description. This article will attempt to outline the common traits of ancient Near Eastern religions, and refer to sub-articles for in-depth descriptions.', 8 => false, 9 => '{{Middle Eastern deities}}', 10 => 'The ancient Near East includes the following subregions:', 11 => '*[[Mesopotamia]] ([[Sumer]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] and [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]): [[Assyro-Babylonian religion]], [[Sumerian religion]], [[Mesopotamian mythology]]', 12 => '*[[Elam]]', 13 => '*[[Ancient Egypt]]: [[ancient Egyptian religion]]', 14 => '*The [[Levant]] ([[Canaan]], [[Ugarit]], [[Ebla]], [[Mitanni]]): [[Canaanite religion]], [[Judaism]]', 15 => '*[[Anatolia]] (the [[Hittite Empire]], [[Assuwa]], [[Arzawa]]): [[Hittite mythology]], [[Hurrian mythology]]', 16 => '*the [[Caucasus]] and the [[Armenian Highland]] ([[Urartu]])', 17 => '*[[Cyprus]], [[Crete]] ([[Minoan civilization]]): [[Minoan religion]]', 18 => false, 19 => 'The earliest sources, from c. 2500 BC, allow glimpses of [[Mesopotamian mythology]] and [[Ancient Egyptian Religion|Egyptian religion]].', 20 => false, 21 => 'The early [[Hittite religion]] bore traits descended from [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] religion, but the later Hittite religions became more and more assimilated to Semitic [[Assyria]].', 22 => false, 23 => '[[Ancient Greek religion]] was strongly influenced by ancient Near Eastern mythology, but is usually not included in the term. The [[Greco-Roman mysteries|Mystery religion]]s of [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenism]] were again consciously connected with Egyptian religion.', 24 => false, 25 => 'There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common:', 26 => '* [[ritual purity|Purification and cleansing rituals]]', 27 => '* [[Sacrifice]]s ([[plant]] and [[animal sacrifice]], [[libation]]s, rarely, but prominently in mythology, [[human sacrifice]])', 28 => '* [[Polytheism]] (Though Egypt and Greece were [[Henotheistic]] societies)', 29 => '* State ([[Cities of the ancient Near East|city-state]])–sponsored religions ([[theocracy]])', 30 => '* [[Sacred prostitution]]', 31 => '* [[Divination]]', 32 => '* [[magic (paranormal)|Magic]] ([[invocation]]s, [[Conjuration|conjurings]] and [[Amulet|Talisman]]s)', 33 => false, 34 => 'Typically, ancient Near Eastern religions were centered around [[theocracy|theocracies]], with a dominating regional cult of the god of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities, such as the God [[Tammuz (deity)|Tammuz]] and the [[descent to the underworld]].', 35 => false, 36 => '[[Divination]]s:', 37 => '*[[Apantomancy]]: seeing animals', 38 => '*[[Cleromancy]]: drawing lots', 39 => '*[[Hepatoscopy]]: observing the liver of an animal', 40 => '*[[Nephomancy]]: cloud-watching', 41 => '*[[Ornithomancy]]: watching birds in flight', 42 => '*[[Capnomancy]]: divination through smoke', 43 => '*[[Oneiromancy]]: divination through dreams', 44 => false, 45 => '==Mesopotamia==', 46 => '{{main|Sumerian religion|Assyro-Babylonian religion}}', 47 => '[[File:Khashkhamer seal moon worship.jpg|thumb|250px|Impression of the cylinder seal of Ḫašḫamer, patesi (High Priest) of [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] at [[Iškun-Sin]], c. 2400 BC]]', 48 => false, 49 => '===Astrology===', 50 => 'Identification of the Gods and Goddesses with heavenly bodies &mdash; planets and stars, besides Sun and Moon &mdash; and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the Heavens is found in [[Assyro-Babylonian religion]].', 51 => false, 52 => 'The personification of the two great luminaries &mdash; the Sun and the Moon &mdash; was the first step in the unfolding of this system, and this was followed by placing the other deities where [[Shamash]] and [[Sin]] had their seats. This process, which reached its culmination in the post-Hammurabic period, led to identifying the Planet [[Venus]] with [[Ishtar]], [[Jupiter]] with [[Marduk]], [[Mars]] with [[Nergal]], [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] with [[Nabu]], and [[Saturn]] with [[Ninurta]].', 53 => false, 54 => 'The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular origin, the other the outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia. The popular factor is the belief in the influence exerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on occurrences on earth &mdash; a belief naturally suggested by the dependence of life, vegetation and guidance upon the two great luminaries. Starting with this belief the Priests and Priestesses built up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in the Heavens. The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer, the conclusion was drawn of a connection between the changes and the everchanging movement in the fate of individuals and of nature as well as in the appearance of nature.', 55 => false, 56 => 'To read the signs of the Heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth, and with this accomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to one another of Sun, Moon, Planets and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens, which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the Earth.', 57 => false, 58 => 'All the [[God]]s, [[Daemon (classical mythology)|Demons]] and [[Spirit]]s had their places assigned to them in the Heavens, and facts, including such as fell within the domain of [[political history]], were interpreted in terms of astral theology. So completely did this system in the course of time sway men's minds that the Cults and Sects, from being an expression of [[animistic beliefs]], took on the color derived from the "astral" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in [[incantations]], [[omens]] and hymns, and it gave birth to [[astronomy]], which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria.', 59 => false, 60 => '"Chaldaean wisdom" (a misnomer, as the Chaldeans had long disappeared) became, in the classical world, the synonym of this science, which in its character was so essentially religious. The persistent prominence which astrology continued to enjoy down to the border-line of the scientific movement of our own days, and which is directly traceable to the [[divination method]]s perfected in the Euphrates valley, is a tribute to the scope and influence attained by the astral theology of the Babylonian and Assyrian priests.', 61 => false, 62 => 'As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to the all-pervading astral theory, it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this process of the view developed in a very early period which apportioned the control of the universe among the three Gods Anu, Enlil and Ea. Disassociating these Gods from all local connections, Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens, to Enlil was assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it, while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer of all the Gods to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between the heavens and the earth, Anu, Enlil and Ea became the three "ways" (as they are called) on the heavens.', 63 => false, 64 => 'The "ways" appear in this instance to have been the designation of the [[ecliptic circle]], which was divided into three sections or zones &mdash; a northern, a middle and a southern zone, Anu being assigned to the first, Enlil to the second, and Ea to the third zone. The astral theology of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, while thus bearing the ear-marks of a system devised by the priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts to systematize the more popular aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse elements was secured that led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of the astral-theological system{{what?|date=May 2013}}.', 65 => false, 66 => '===Ethic===', 67 => 'On the [[ethics|ethical]] sides, the religion of Babylonia more particularly, and to a less extent that of Assyria, advances to noticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man. Shamash, the Sun-God, was invested with justice as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy and kindness, and Ea is in general the protector of mankind, a father who takes them under his protection. The Gods, to be sure, are easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects predominated, but the view becomes more and more pronounced that there is some cause always for the [[divine wrath]]. Though, in accounting for the anger of the Gods, no sharp distinction is made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect, yet the stress laid in the hymns and prayers, as well as in the elaborate [[wikt:atonement|atonement]] ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger of the Gods, on the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper aspect of [[humility]], and above all the need of confessing one's guilt and sins without any reserve &mdash; all this bears testimony to the strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the Religion.', 68 => false, 69 => 'This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning [[life after death]]. Throughout all periods of Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a large dark cavern below the earth, not far from the [[Apsu]]&mdash; the fresh water abyss encircling and flowing underneath the earth &mdash; in which all the dead were gathered and where they led a miserable existence of inactivity, amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a favoured individual was permitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would appear also that the rulers were always singled out for [[divine grace]], and in the earlier periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that the rulers stood nearer to the Gods than other mortals, the kings were deified after death, and in some instances divine honours were paid to them even during their lifetime.', 70 => false, 71 => '===Demonology===', 72 => '''Main Article: [[Mesopotamian demon|Mesopotamian Demon]]''', 73 => false, 74 => 'Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent, neutral and malevolent Demons (which more resembled Greek [[Daemon (classical mythology)|Daemon]]s than the [[Christian]] concept of Evil Demons), and much of medicine consisted of [[Exorcism]]s, e.g. of [[Lamashtu]], the [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] Demoness responsible for complications at childbirth and infant deaths.', 75 => false, 76 => 'In Assyrian and Babylonian mythology the seven evil Demons were known as ''[[Shedu]] or [[Lamassu]]'', meaning "Storm-Demon". They were represented in [[Bull (mythology)|winged bull form]], derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name "Shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in [[Babylon]]ian magical literature.<ref>See Delitzsch, ''Assyrisches Handwörterbuch''. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, ''Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen'', 1900, p. 453; [[Archibald Sayce]], l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; [[François Lenormant|Lenormant]], l.c. pp. 48-51.</ref>', 77 => false, 78 => '===Later influence===', 79 => 'Mesopotamian empires such as the [[Akkadian Empire]], [[Neo-Sumerian Empire]], [[Old Assyrian Empire]], [[Babylonian Empire]], [[Middle Assyrian Empire]], [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo Assyrian Empire]] and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo Babylonian Empire]] asserted Mesopotamian dominance (particularly during the [[Neo Assyrian Empire]] 911-605 BC) from the [[Caucasus Mountains]] to [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Egypt]], and from [[Cyprus]] and the east [[Mediterranean Sea Region, Turkey|Mediterranean]] to [[Persia]]. ', 80 => false, 81 => 'Thus the influence exerted by the Assyrian-Babylonian religion was particularly profound on other [[Semites]], including the [[Hebrews]], [[Amorites]], [[Eblaites]], [[Suteans]], [[Chaldean people|Chaldeans]], [[Canaanites]], [[Arameans]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Nabateans]], [[Carthaginians]] and [[Arabs]], while their astral theology affected the ancient world in general, including ''non-Semitic'' peoples such as the [[Hittites]], [[Elamites]], [[Kassites]], [[Phrygians]], [[Lydians]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgian people|Georgians]], and the later [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. ', 82 => false, 83 => 'The impetus to the purification of the old Semitic ''polytheistic'' religions to which the [[Hebrews]] for a long time clung in common with their fellows &mdash; the various branches of nomadic [[Amorites]], [[Canaanites]], [[Arameans]], [[Suteans]], [[Chaldeans]] and [[Arab]]s &mdash; was largely furnished by the remarkable civilization unfolded in the Euphrates valley and in many of the traditions, myths and legends embodied in the [[Old Testament]]; traces of direct adaptation from and responses to Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia may be discerned, while the indirect influences in the domain of the prophetical books, as also in the Psalms and in the so-called "[[wisdom literature]]", are even more noteworthy. Stories in the [[Tanakh]], [[Old Testament]] and [[Quran]] such as the [[Genesis creation narrative]], [[Tower of Babel]], [[The Great Flood]] and the book of [[Esther]], as well as various biblical characters such as [[Noah]], [[Nimrod]], [[Lilith]] and [[Asnapper]] bear very clear influence from Assyria and Babylonia.<ref>[[Julian Jaynes]] (2000). [[The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind]]. [[Mariner Books]]. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</ref><ref>Georges Contenau La Magie chez les Assyriens et les Babyloniens, Paris, 1947.</ref><ref>Harris, Stephen L. (2002). Understanding the Bible. McGraw-Hill. pp. 50–51.ISBN 9780767429160.</ref>', 84 => false, 85 => 'Even when we reach the [[New Testament]] period, we have not passed entirely beyond the sphere of Babylonian-Assyrian influences. In such a movement as early Christian [[gnosticism]], Assyrio-Babylonian elements &mdash; modified, to be sure, and transformed &mdash; are largely present, while the growth of an [[apocalyptic literature]] is ascribed with apparent justice by many scholars to the recrudescence of views, the ultimate source of which is to be found in the astral-theology of the [[Babylonia]]n and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Priests.', 86 => false, 87 => 'The [[Assyrians]] began to form and adopt a distinct [[Eastern Rite Christianity]] ([[Church of the East]]), with its accompanying [[Syriac literature|Syriac Literature]], between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, however native religion was still alive and well into the 4th century AD, and pockets survived into the 10th century AD and possibly as late as the 17th century in [[Mardin]]. However, the religion is now dead, and the indigenous [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] (a.k.a. [[Chaldo-Assyrian]]) people of northern [[Iraq]], southeast [[Turkey]], northeast [[Syria]] and northwest [[Iran]], though still retaining Akkadian infused [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] dialects as a mother tongue, together with personal, family and tribal names harking back to their past, are now wholly Christian.', 88 => false, 89 => '==Egypt==', 90 => '{{main|Ancient Egyptian religion}}', 91 => 'The dominant religious rituals and beliefs of [[ancient Egypt]] merged and developed over time.', 92 => 'As an example, during the [[New Kingdom]], the Gods [[Ra]] and [[Amun]] were syncretized into a single God, [[Amun-Ra]].<ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, ''Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide'', Harvard University Press 2004, p.9</ref>', 93 => 'Such syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as "families" such as Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Over time, Gods took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and [[Horus]] into [[Ra-Herakty]].', 94 => 'Similarly, Ptah, [[Seker]], and [[Osiris]] became''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''.', 95 => false, 96 => '==Levant==', 97 => '{{main|Canaanite religion|Judaism}}', 98 => 'The deities worshipped in [[Canaanite religion]] during the Late Bronze Age notably included', 99 => '[[El Elyon]] and his sons, the [[Elohim]], the goddess [[Anat]] and [[Hadad]], the storm god and heroic slayer of [[Yam (god)|Yam]]. ', 100 => 'The composition of the [[Hebrew Bible]] began centuries after the [[Bronze Age collapse]], but many of these names are still reflected in Biblical Hebrew, especially the Elohim in the [[Elohist]] source, and the title [[Ba'al]], originally a title of Hadad, as the rival or nemesis of [[Yahweh]].', 101 => false, 102 => '==Anatolia==', 103 => '[[File:HittiteSeatedDeityAnatolia13thCenturyBCE.jpg|thumb|200px|Seated deity, late Hittite Empire (13th century BC)]]', 104 => false, 105 => '{{main|Hittite mythology}}', 106 => '{{see|Song of Kumarbi}}', 107 => false, 108 => 'Heavily influenced by [[Mesopotamian mythology]], the religion of the [[Hittites]] and [[Luwian]]s retains noticeable [[Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] elements, for example [[Teshub|Tarhunt]] the God of thunder, and his conflict with the Serpent-God [[Illuyanka]].', 109 => false, 110 => 'Tarhunt has a son, [[Telepinu (god)|Telepinu]] and a daughter, [[Inara (goddess)|Inara]]. Inara is involved with the [[Puruli]] spring festival. She is a protective Goddess (^dLAMMA). [[Ishara]] is a Goddess of the oath.', 111 => false, 112 => '==Books==', 113 => '===General===', 114 => '*Gordon, Cyrus. ''The Ancient Near East'', 3rd Edition, Revised. W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., New York, 1965.', 115 => '*[[E. O. James|James, E.O]]. ''The Ancient Gods: The History and Diffusion of Religion in the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean'', 1960.', 116 => '*Pritchard, James B., editor. ''The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures''. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1958.', 117 => '*Pritchard, James B., editor. ''The Ancient Near East, Volume II: A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures''. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1975.', 118 => '*Jack Sasson et al., eds., ''Civilizations of the Ancient Near East''. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1995.', 119 => '*Smith, Morton, ''The Common Theology of the Ancient near East'', Journal of Biblical Literature (1952).', 120 => '*{{cite book|last=van der Toorn|first=Karel|title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible.|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=0-8028-2491-9}}', 121 => '*Mark S. Smith, ''God in translation: deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world'', vol. 57 of "Forschungen zum Alten Testament", Mohr Siebeck, 2008, ISBN 978-3-16-149543-4.', 122 => false, 123 => '===Canaan and Ugarit===', 124 => '*Pardee, Dennis. Ritual and Cult at Ugarit. Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, Georgia. 2002.', 125 => '*Parker, Simon B., ed. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Society of Biblical Literature, U.S.A., 1997.', 126 => '*Smith, Mark S. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume I: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1-1.2. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands, 1994.', 127 => false, 128 => '==See also==', 129 => '* [[Ancient Near East]]', 130 => '* [[Kemetism]] (Revival of [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian religion]])', 131 => '* [[Semitic Neopaganism]] (Revival of [[Canaanite religion]])', 132 => false, 133 => '==References==', 134 => '{{reflist}}', 135 => false, 136 => '==External links==', 137 => '*[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/ Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses], on Oracc', 138 => '*[http://www.ancient.eu.com/Mesopotamian_Religion/ Mespototamian Religion] and [http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/221/ Mesopotamian Pantheon] on ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''', 139 => '*[http://www.asor.org/outreach/links/ANEarchy.html ASOR (American Schools of Oriental Research), Boston University]', 140 => '*[http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/magic/intro.html University of Michigan. Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity]', 141 => '*[http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/ugarit/home.htm The Edinburgh Ras Shamra Project]', 142 => '*[http://home.comcast.net/~chris.s/canaanite-faq.html Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.2] by Chris Siren', 143 => '*[http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Canaan/index.html Canaan and Ancient Israel] by the [[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]].', 144 => false, 145 => '{{History of religions}}', 146 => '{{Religion topics}}', 147 => false, 148 => '{{DEFAULTSORT:Religions Of The ancient Near East}}', 149 => '[[Category:Ancient Near East mythology|*]]', 150 => '[[Category:Ancient Semitic religions]]', 151 => '[[Category:Mesopotamian mythology]]', 152 => '[[Category:Middle Eastern mythology]]', 153 => '[[Category:Religion in ancient history]]', 154 => false, 155 => '[[hr:Mezopotamska mitologija]]' ]