Examine individual changes

'{{Other uses}} '''Hacienda''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|h|æ|s|i|ˈ|ɛ|n|d|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|US|ˌ|h|ɑː|s|i|ˈ|ɛ|n|d|ə}}; {{IPA-es|aˈθjenda|lang}} or <small>American Spanish:</small> {{IPA-es|aˈsjenda|}}) is a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word for an [[Estate (land)|estate]]. Some haciendas were [[plantation]]s, [[Mining|mines]] or [[Factory|factories]]. Many haciendas combined these productive activities. The term hacienda is imprecise, but usually refers to landed estates of significant size. Smaller holdings were termed [[estancias]] or [[ranchos]] that many Spaniards or mixed-race individuals in the Hispanic sector owned.<ref>[[Ida Altman]], et al., ''The Early History of Greater Mexico,'' Pearson, 2003, p. 164</ref> In Argentina, the term [[estancia]] is used for large estates that in Mexico would be termed haciendas. The hacienda system of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Mexico]], [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Peru]] was a system of large land holdings. A similar system existed on a smaller scale in the [[Philippines]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. ==Origins and Growth== Haciendas were developed as profit-making, economic enterprises linked to regional or international markets. The owner of an hacienda was termed an ''hacendado.'' Although the hacienda is not directly linked to the early grants of Indian labor, the [[encomienda]], many Spanish holders of encomiendas did acquire land or develop enterprises where they had access to that forced labor. Even though the private landed estates that comprised most haciendas did not have a direct tie to the encomienda, they are nonetheless linked. Encomenderos were in a position to retain their prominence economically via the hacienda. Since the encomienda was a grant from the crown holders were dependent on the crown for its continuation. As the crown moved to eliminate the encomienda with its labor supply, Spaniards consolidated private landholdings and recruited free labor on a permanent or casual basis. The long term trend then was the creation of the hacienda as secure private property, which survived the colonial period and into the twentieth century. Estates were integrated into a market-based economy aimed at the Hispanic sector and cultivated crops such as sugar, wheat, fruits and vegetables and produced animal products such as meat, wool, leather, and tallow.<ref>[[James Lockhart]], "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies," ''Hispanic American Historical Review,'' 1969, 59: 411-29,</ref><ref>James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, ''Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil,'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 134-142.</ref> [[File:Teatro de Atequiza, Mexico.JPG|thumb|right|[[Gristmill|Wheat mill]] and theatre of [[Gilberto Rincón Gallardo|Vicente Gallardo]]; Hacienda Atequiza, [[Jalisco, Mexico]], 1886.]] Haciendas originated in Spanish [[land grant]]s, made to many ''[[conquistador]]s'' and crown officials, but many ordinary Spaniards could also petition for land grants from the crown. The system is considered to have started in present-day Mexico, when the Spanish Crown granted to [[Hernán Cortés]] the title of [[Marquis]] of the [[Valley of Oaxaca]] in 1529. It gave him a tract of land that included all of the present state of [[Morelos]]. Cortés was also granted encomiendas, that gave him access to a vast pool of indigenous labor. ==Personnel== In [[Hispanic America|Spanish America]], the owner of an hacienda was called the ''hacendado'' or ''patrón''. Most owners of large and profitable haciendas preferred to live in Spanish cities, often near the hacienda, but in Mexico, the richest owners lived in Mexico City, visiting their haciendas at intervals.<ref>Ricardo Rendón Garcini, ''Daily Life on the Haciendas of Mexico,'' Banamex-Accova;S/A/ de C.V., Mexico: 1998, p. 31.</ref> Onsite management of the rural estates was by a paid administrator or manager, which was similar to the arrangement with the encomienda. Administrators were often hired for a fixed term of employment, receiving a salary and at times some share of the profits of the estate. Some administrators also acquired landholdings themselves in the area of the estate they were managing.<ref>Ida Altman et al., ''The Early History of Greater Mexico,'' Pearson, 2003 165-66.</ref> The work force on haciendas varied, depending on the type of hacienda and where it was located. In central Mexico near indigenous communities and growing crops to supply urban markets, there was often a small, permanent workforce resident on the hacienda. Labor could be recruited from nearby indigenous communities on an as-needed basis, such as planting and harvest time.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, ''Early Latin America:A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil,'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 134-142</ref> The permanent and temporary hacienda employees worked land that belonged to the ''patrón'' and under the supervision of local labor bosses. In some places small scale cultivators or ''campesinos'' worked small holdings belonging to the hacendado, and owed a portion of their crops to him. In a number of places, the economy of the eighteenth century was largely a [[barter]] system,{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} with little specie circulated on the ''hacienda''. Stock raising was central to ranching haciendas, the largest of which were in areas without dense indigenous populations, such as northern Mexico, but as Indian populations declined in central areas, more land became available for grazing.<ref>Ida Altman et al., ''The Early History of Greater Mexico,'' Pearson, 2003, p. 163.</ref> Livestock were animals originally imported from Spain, including cattle, horses, sheep, and goats were part of the [[Columbian Exchange]] and produced significant ecological changes. Sheep in particular had a devastating impact on the environment due to overgrazing. <ref>Elinor G.K. Melville, ''A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico," Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997.</ref> Mounted ranch hands variously called ''[[Vaquero|vaqueros]]'' and ''[[Gaucho|gauchos]]'' (in the [[Southern Cone]]), among other terms worked for pastoral haciendas. Where the hacienda included working [[mining|mine]]s, as in Mexico, the ''patrón'' might gain immense wealth. The unusually large and profitable [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] ''hacienda'' Santa Lucía, near Mexico City, established in 1576 and lasting to the expulsion in 1767, has been reconstructed by Herman Konrad from archival sources. This reconstruction has revealed the nature and operation of the hacienda system in Mexico, its labor force, its systems of [[land tenure]] and its relationship to larger Hispanic society in Mexico. [[File:Hacienda San Gabriel.jpg|thumb|left|Gardens of the Hacienda San Gabriel in [[Guanajuato, Guanajuato]], [[Mexico]].]] The [[Catholic Church]] and [[Catholic religious order|orders]], especially the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], acquired vast ''hacienda'' holdings or preferentially loaned money to the hacendados. As the hacienda owners' mortgage holders, the Church's interests were connected with the landholding class. In the history of Mexico and other [[Latin America]]n countries, the masses developed some hostility to the church; at times of gaining independence or during certain political movements, the people confiscated the church haciendas or restricted them. Haciendas in the [[Caribbean]] were developed primarily as sugar [[plantation]]s, dependent on the labor of [[African peoples|African]] [[Slavery in the Spanish Empire|slaves]] imported to the region. were staffed by slaves brought from [[Africa]].<ref name="Diaz">[http://web.archive.org/web/20071214000250/http://www.ipoaa.com/africa_puertorico.htm African Aspects of the Puerto Rican Personality by (the late) Dr. Robert A. Martinez, Baruch College]. (Archived from [http://www.ipoaa.com/africa_puertorico.htm the original] on July 20, 2007). Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref> In Puerto Rico, this system ended with the [[African immigration to Puerto Rico|abolition of slavery]] on March 22, 1873.<ref>[http://www.enciclopediapr.org/ing/article.cfm?ref=06102001 ''Abolition of Slavery (1873).''] Encyclopedia Puerto Rico. 2012. Fundación Puertorriqueña de las Humanidades. Retrieved 20 November 2012.</ref> ==South American haciendas== In [[South America]], the ''hacienda'' remained after the [[Spanish American wars of independence|collapse]] of the [[Spanish Empire|colonial system]] in the early nineteenth century when nations gained independence. In some places, such as [[Dominican Republic]], with independence came efforts to break up the large plantation holdings into a myriad of small [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence farmers']] holdings, an agrarian revolution. In Argentina and elsewhere, a second, international, money-based economy developed independently of the ''haciendas,'' which sank into rural poverty.{{cn|date=July 2012}} [[File:Entrada al Palacio San José.JPG|thumb|right|[[Palacio San José]], Argentina; owned by [[Justo José de Urquiza]], 19th century.]] In most of [[Latin America]] the old holdings remained. In Mexico the ''haciendas'' were [[Agrarian land reform in Mexico|abolished]] by law in 1917 during the [[Mexican Revolution|revolution]], but remnants of the system affect Mexico today. In rural areas, the wealthiest people typically affect the style of the old hacendados even though their wealth these days derives from more capitalistic enterprises.<ref>reference needed</ref> In [[Bolivia]], haciendas were more prevalent until the [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro#The 1952 Revolution|1952 Revolution]] of [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]]. He established an extensive program of land distribution as part of the [[Agrarian Reform]]. Likewise, [[Peru]] had haciendas until the Agrarian Reform (1969) of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]], who expropriated the land from the hacendados and redistributed it to the peasants. ==Other locations== ===Philippines=== The Philipines had as many as 30 million haciendas in the late 1500s. The overall productivity was astounding, pulling in as much as 15,000,000,000 dollars in todays value. ===Puerto Rico=== [[File:Francisco Oller - Hacienda Aurora.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Francisco Oller's depiction of ''Hacienda Aurora'' (1899) in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico]]]] Haciendas in [[Puerto Rico]] developed during the time of Spanish colonization. An example of these was the 1833 [[Hacienda Buena Vista]], which dealt primarily with the cultivation, packaging, and exportation of coffee.<ref>Robert Sackett, Preservationist, PRSHPO (Original 1990 draft). Arleen Pabon, Certifying Official and State Historic Preservation Officer, State Historic Preservation Office, San Juan, Puerto Rico. September 9, 1994. In National Register of Historic Places Registration Form—Hacienda Buena Vista. United States Department of the Interior. National Park Service. (Washington, D.C.). Page 16.</ref> Today, Hacienda Buena Vista, which is listed in the United States [[National Register of Historic Places]], is operated as a museum.<ref>[http://www.architectmagazine.com/blogs/postdetails.aspx?BlogId=beyondbuildingsblog&postId=100422 ''Exotic Vernacular: Hacienda Buena Vista in Puerto Rico.''] Aaron Betsky. "Beyond Buildings," ''Architect: The Magazine of the American Institute of Architects''. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref> The 1861 [[Hacienda Mercedita]] was a sugar [[plantation]] that once produced, packaged and sold sugar in the ''Snow White'' brand name.<ref>Nydia R. Suarez. ''The Rise and Decline of Puerto Rico's Sugar Industry.'' Sugar and Sweetener: S&O/SSS-224. Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. December 1998. Page 25.</ref> In the late 19th century, Mercedita became the site of production of [[Don Q]] rum.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=l6ex-yW0Ds8C&pg=PA99 ''Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink That Conquered the World.''] Charles A. Coulombe. New York: Kensington Publishing. 2004. Page 99. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref> Its profitable rum business is today called [[Destilería Serrallés]].<ref>[http://www.destileriaserralles.com/history.swf ''Our History.''] Destileria Serralles. Ponce, Puerto Rico. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref> The last of such haciendas decayed considerably starting in the 1950s, with the industrialization of Puerto Rico via ''[[Operation Bootstrap]]''.<ref>[http://www.enciclopediapr.org/ing/article.cfm?ref=06102003 ''Operation Bootstrap (1947).''] Encyclopedia Puerto Rico. "History and Archaeology." Fundación Puertorriqueña para las Humanidades. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.ocpr.gov.pr/comunicados_de_prensa/comunicados_98_99/division_cp/cp_98_17.htm ''Informes Publicados: Central y Refinería Mercedita.''] Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico. Oficina del Controlador. Corporación Azucarera de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Informe Número: CP-98-17 (23 June 1998). Released: 1 July 1998. Retrieved: 13 July 2012.</ref> At the turn of the 20th century, most coffee haciendas had disappeared. The sugar-based haciendas changed into ''centrales azucares.''<ref name="azucar">[http://www.enciclopediapr.org/ing/article.cfm?ref=08111801 "Economy: Sugar in Puerto Rico"], ''Encyclopedia Puerto Rico'', "Economy." Fundación Puertorriqueña para las Humanidades. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref> Yet by the 1990s, and despite significant government fiscal support, the last 13 Puerto Rican ''centrales azucares'' were forced to shut down. This marked the end of haciendas operating in Puerto Rico.<ref>Nydia R. Suarez. ''The Rise and Decline of Puerto Rico's Sugar Industry.'' Sugar and Sweetener: S&O/SSS-224. Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. December 1998. Page 31.</ref> In 2000, the last two sugar mills closed, after having operated for nearly 100 years.<ref name="azucar"/><ref name="sugar">[http://www.minneapolisfed.org/research/sr/sr477.pdf Benjamin Bridgman, Michael Maio, James A. Schmitz, Jr. "What Ever Happened to the Puerto Rican Sugar Manufacturing Industry?"], Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Staff Report 477, 2012</ref> {{clear}} ==In popular culture== In popular culture, haciendas are often portrayed in [[telenovela]]s, such as ''[[A Escrava Isaura (2004 TV series)|A Escrava Isaura]]'' and ''[[Zorro: La Espada y la Rosa|Zorro]]''. ==Other meanings== In the present era, the ''"Ministerio de Hacienda"'' is the [[Ministry (government department)|government department]] in [[Spain]] that deals with [[finance]] and [[taxation]], and which is equivalent to the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]] in the United States or the [[HM Treasury|British Treasury]] in the United Kingdom. ==List of haciendas== [[File:LaChonita16.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Main house of the [[La Chonita Hacienda]], in [[Tabasco|Tabasco, Mexico]], still a working cacao farm]] *[[Hacienda Cocoyoc]] *[[Hacienda Buena Vista]] *[[Juriquilla|Hacienda Juriquilla]] *[[Hacienda Luisita]] *[[Hacienda Mercedita]] *[[Hacienda Napoles]] *[[Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel]] *[[Palacio San José]] *[[Hacienda Chactun|Hacienda San Jose Chactún]] *[[Yorba Hacienda|Hacienda Yorba]] ==See also== {{portal|Home}} * [[Encomienda]] * [[Estancia]] * [[Fazenda]] * [[Feudalism]] * [[Plantation]] * [[Ranch]] ==References== <references /> * Bauer, Arnold. "Modernizing landlords and constructive peasants: In the Mexican countryside," ''Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos'' (Winter 1998) 14#1 pp 191-212 *{{citation | last = Konrad| first = Herman W.| title = A Jesuit Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa Lucía, 1576–1767| publisher = Stanford University Press| year = 1980| isbn = 978-0-8047-1050-3}} * Lyons, Barry J. ''Remembering the Hacienda: Religion, Authority and Social Change in Highland Ecuador'' (2006) * Mörner, Magnus. "The Spanish American Hacienda: A Survey of Recent Research and Debate," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (1973) 53#2 pp. 183-216 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2512251 in JSTOR] * Tayor, William B. "Landed Society in New Spain: A View from the South," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (1974) 54#3 pp. 387-413 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2512930 in JSTOR] ==Further reading== * Balletto, Barbara ''Insight Guide Puerto Rico'' * De Wagenheim, Olga J. ''Puerto Rico: An Interpretive History from Precolumbia Times to 1900'' * Figueroa, Luis A. ''Sugar, slavery and freedom in nineteenth century Puerto Rico'' * Scarano, Francisco A. ''Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 1800–1850'' * Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher ''Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1833–1874'' * Soler, Luis M. D. ''Historia de la esclavitud negra en Puerto Rico'' ==External links== {{Wiktionary|hacienda}} *[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_10/lec_10.html Hacienda system described] *[http://www.yucatanliving.com/destinations/yucatan-haciendas.htm Haciendas in the Yucatan] *[http://www.colonial-estates.pvoss.de/mexico-historical-haciendas.htm historic Haciendas in Mexico] *[http://www.historicfazendasbrazil.peervoss.de/ historic Fazendas in Brazil] [[Category:Encomenderos]] [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]] [[Category:Unfree labor]] [[Category:Debt bondage]] [[Category:History of Colombia]] [[Category:Culture in Rio Grande do Sul]] [[Category:Economic history of Mexico]] [[Category:Economic history of Brazil]] [[Category:Economic history of Argentina]]'