Examine individual changes

'{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}} [[File:New World Domesticated plants.JPG|thumb|350px|[[New World]] native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. [[Maize]] (''Zea mays'') 2. [[Tomato]] (''Solanum lycopersicum'') 3. [[Potato]] (''Solanum tuberosum'') 4. [[Vanilla]] (''Vanilla'') 5. Pará [[rubber tree]] (''Hevea brasiliensis'') 6. [[Theobroma cacao|Cacao]] (''Theobroma cacao'') 7. [[Tobacco]] (''Nicotiana rustica'')]] [[File:Old World Domesticated plants1.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Old World]] native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. [[Citrus]] (Rutaceae); 2. [[Apple]] (''Malus domestica''); 3. [[Banana]] (''Musa''); 4. [[Mango]] (''Mangifera''); 5. [[Onion]] (''Allium''); 6. [[Coffea|Coffee]] (''Coffea''); 7. [[Wheat]] (''Triticum'' spp.); 8. [[Rice]] (''Oryza sativa'')]] The '''Columbian Exchange''' or '''Grand Exchange''' was the widespread transfer of animals, plants, culture, human populations, [[communicable diseases]], technology and ideas between the [[Americas|American]] and [[Afro-Eurasia]]n hemispheres in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade (including African/American slave trade) after [[Christopher Columbus]]' 1492 voyage.<ref name = "history">{{cite journal |last1= Nunn |first1= Nathan |last2= Qian |first2= Nancy |year= 2010 |title= The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal= [[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 163–188 |jstor= 25703506 |doi= 10.1257/jep.24.2.163 }}</ref> The contact between the two areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. Traders returned to Europe with [[maize]], [[potato]]es, and [[tomato]]es, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century. Similarly, Europeans introduced [[manioc]] and [[peanut]] to tropical [[Asia]] and [[West Africa]], where they flourished in soils that otherwise would not produce large yields.{{Citation needed|date = November 2014}} The term was first used in 1972 by American historian [[Alfred W. Crosby]] in his [[environmental history]] book ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]''.<ref name="Smithsonian">http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist</ref> It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known. ==Origin of term== In 1972 [[Alfred W. Crosby]], an American historian at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], published ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]''.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus' landing in the new world.<ref>Crosby, Alfred W. ''The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492'', Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972</ref> The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as [[Charles C. Mann]], whose book ''[[1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created|1493]]'' expands and updates Crosby's original research.<ref>{{cite book | last = de Vorsey | first = Louis | editor1-last = McIlwraith | editor1-first = Thomas F | editor2-last = Muller | editor2-first = Edward K | title = North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent | year = 2001 | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | location = Lanham, MD | isbn = | oclc = | lccn = | doi = | bibcode = | id = | page = 27 | quote = Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used… | chapter = The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange }}</ref> ==Influence== [[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Inca Empire|Inca]]-era [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraces]] on [[Taquile]] are used to grow traditional [[Andes|Andean]] [[Staple food|staples]] such as [[quinoa]] and [[potato]]es, alongside [[wheat]], a European introduction.]] ===Crops=== [[File:Namban-15.jpg|thumb|Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail of [[Nanban art|Nanban]] panel (1570–1616)]] Before AD 1500, [[potato]]es were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 1840s, [[Ireland]] was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] was a potato disease.<ref>[http://www.history-magazine.com/potato.html "The Impact of the Potato"], ''History Magazine''</ref>[[Maize]] and [[manioc]], introduced by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] from South America in the 16th century,<ref>[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa"], The Ohio State University</ref> have replaced [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] as Africa's most important food crops.<ref>[http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem"], ''Scitizen'', August 7, 2007</ref> 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to [[Asia]] from the Americas, including [[maize]] and [[sweet potatoes]], and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090924212813/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm "China's Population: Readings and Maps"], Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project</ref> [[Tomato]]es, which came to Europe from the New World via [[Spain]], were initially prized in [[Italy]] mainly for their ornamental value (see [[#Tomatoes in the Old World|below]]). From the 19th century [[tomato sauce]]s became typical of [[Neapolitan cuisine|Neapolitan cooking]] and, ultimately, [[Italian food]] in general.<ref name=Riley2007>{{cite encyclopedia| encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Italian Food | title=Tomato| editor=Riley, Gillian| year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-860617-8| pages=529&ndash;530}}</ref> [[Coffee]] from South America and [[sugar cane]] (introduced from [[South Asia]]) from the [[Spanish West Indies]] became the main export commodity crops of extensive [[Latin America]]n [[plantation]]s. Introduced to [[India]] by the Portuguese, [[chili pepper|chili]] and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of [[Indian cuisine]].<ref name=Collingham2006>{{cite book| last=Collingham| first=Lizzie | title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors| year=2006| chapter=Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chilli pepper | publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford| isbn=978-0-19-988381-3|pages=47&ndash;73}}</ref> Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no [[orange (fruit)|oranges]] in [[Florida]], no [[banana]]s in [[Ecuador]], no [[paprika]] in [[Hungary]], no potatoes in Ireland, no [[coffee]] in [[Colombia]], no [[pineapples]] in [[Hawaii]], no [[rubber]] trees in Africa, no chili peppers in [[Thailand]], and no [[chocolate]] in [[Switzerland]]. ===Livestock=== Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. [[Horse]]s, [[donkey]]s, [[mule]]s, [[pig]]s, [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[chicken]]s, large [[dog]]s, [[cat]]s and [[bee]]s were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.<ref name=Francis2006-livestock>{{cite encyclopedia|editor=Michael Francis, John|encyclopedia=Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia|title=Columbian Exchange—Livestock| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA303|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-421-9|pages=303&ndash;308}}</ref> One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a [[nomadic]] lifestyle, as opposed to [[agriculture]], based on hunting [[bison]] on horseback and moved down to the [[Great Plains]]. The existing Plains tribes extended their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.<ref>[[Evolution of the horse|This transfer reintroduced horses]] to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.</ref> ===Disease=== European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of [[quinine]], the first effective treatment for [[malaria]]. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants that can cause [[sickle cell anemia]].<ref name="history" />{{rp|164}} Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and [[infectious diseases]] that jumped to humans, such as [[smallpox]], were strikingly more numerous in the Old World than in the New. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their [[endemic]] status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining [[acquired immunity]]. By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] to the new diseases. [[Measles]] caused many deaths. The [[smallpox]] epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs"], ''Guns, Germs and Steel'', PBS {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5mr1L9bc6|date =January 17, 2010}}</ref> and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the [[Black Death]].<ref name="history"/>{{rp|164}} It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.<ref name="history"/>{{rp|165}} Similarly, [[yellow fever]] is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. Debate on the origins of [[syphilis]] has been raging for centuries. New genetic evidence supports the theory that Christopher Columbus brought syphilis to Europe from the New World. According to the study, genetic analysis of the syphilis family tree reveals that its closest relative was a South American disease that causes [[yaws]], an infection caused by a sub-species of the same [[bacterium]]. <ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUKN1443055520080115 'New study blames Columbus for syphilis spread'], Reuters, January 15, 2008</ref> ==Examples== {{See also|New World crops|Agriculture in Mesoamerica}} {| class="wikitable" |+Post-Columbian Transfers of Native Organisms with Close Ties to Humans !Type of organism !Old World to New World !New World to Old World |- |Domesticated animals | * [[cat barf]] (domestic – wild species already present) * [[chicken fart]] * [[cow dung]] * [[donkey kong]] * [[ferret terds]] * [[goat poop]] (the goats of the Old World, genus ''[[Capra (genus)|Capra]]'', are different from the [[mountain goat]] of the New World, genus ''[[Oreamnos]]'') * [[goose food]] (domestic – wild species already present) * [[Western honey bee|honey bee]] (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present) * [[horse]] * [[Domestic rabbit|rabbit (domestic)]] * [[pig]] * [[rat]]s * [[rock pigeon]] * [[sheep eater]] (domestic) * [[Bombyx mori|silkworm]] * [[Domestic buffalo|water buffalo]] * [[Domestic guineafowl|guineafowl]] | * [[alpaca]] * [[American mink]] ([[fur farming]]) * [[guinea pig]] * [[llama]] * [[Muscovy Duck]] * [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] |- |Domesticated plants | * [[ackee]] * [[almond]] * [[apple]] * [[apricot]] * [[artichoke]] * [[asparagus]] * [[banana]] (including [[plantains]]) * [[barley]] * [[basil]] * [[beet]] * [[bilberry]] (not to be confused with blueberry) * [[bitter melon]] * [[black pepper]] * ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''-derived vegetables ** [[kale]] and [[collard greens]] ** [[broccoli]] ** [[cabbage]] ** [[brussels sprouts]] ** [[cauliflower]] * [[cantaloupe]] * [[carambola]] * [[cardamom]] * [[carrot]] * [[celery]] * [[chickpea]] * [[cinnamon]] * [[clove]] * [[coffee]] * [[citrus]] ([[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[lemon]], etc.) * [[coriander]] (also known as ''cilantro'') * [[cucumber]] * [[cumin]] * [[Phoenix dactylifera|date palm]] * [[eggplant]] * [[fennel]] * [[Common fig|fig]] * [[flax]] * [[garlic]] * [[ginger]] * [[grape]] (''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the common wine grape) * [[hazelnut]] * [[hemp]] (including [[cannabis]]) * [[kola nut]] * [[leek]] * [[lettuce]] * [[lentil]] * [[mango]] * [[millet]] * [[mustard plant]] * [[nutmeg]] * [[oat]]s * [[okra]] * [[oil palm]] * [[olive]] * [[onion]] * [[opium]] * [[oregano]] * [[peach]] * [[pea]] * [[pear]] * [[pistachio]] * [[pomegranate]] * [[radish]] * [[rhubarb]] * [[rice]] * [[rye]] * [[sesame]] * [[sorghum]] * [[soybean]] * [[spinach]] * [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beets]] * [[taro]] * [[tea]] * [[timothy-grass]] * [[turmeric]] * [[turnip]] * [[wheat]] * [[Juglans regia|walnut]] (English) * [[watermelon]] * [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]] (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato") | * [[agave]] * [[allspice]] * [[amaranth]] (as grain) * [[arrowroot]] * [[avocado]] * [[common bean]]s (pinto, lima, kidney, etc.) * [[black raspberry]] * [[bell pepper]] * [[blueberry]] (not to be confused with bilberry, also called blueberry) * [[Pouteria campechiana|canistel]] * [[cashew]] * [[Salvia hispanica|chia]] * [[chicle]] * [[chirimoya]] * [[chili pepper]]s * [[cranberry|cranberries]] ([[cranberry#Species and description|large cranberry, or bearberry]] species) * [[coca]] * [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] * [[cotton]] (long-staple species) * [[culantro]] * [[Annona reticulata|custard apple]] * [[grape]] (fox grape and other species) * [[guava]] (common) * [[huckleberry]] * [[Jerusalem artichoke]] * [[jicama]] * [[maize]] (corn) * [[manioc]] (cassava, tapioca, yuca) * [[papaya]] * [[Passiflora edulis|passionfruit]] * [[peanut]] * [[pecan]] * [[pineapple]] * [[pitaya]] (dragon fruit) * [[potato]] * prickly pear ([[Opuntia ficus-indica]]) * [[pumpkin]] * [[quinoa]] * [[rubber]] * [[Manilkara zapota|sapodilla]] * [[soursop]] * [[squash (fruit)|squash]] * [[strawberry]] (commercial varieties) * [[sugar-apple]] * [[sunflower]] * [[sweet potato]] * [[tobacco]] * [[tomato]] * [[Solanum torvum|turkey berry]] * [[vanilla]] * [[wild rice]] (Indian rice, not directly related to Asian [[rice]]) * [[yerba maté]] * [[yucca]] * [[zucchini]] (courgette) |- |Infectious diseases | * [[bubonic plague]] * [[chicken pox]] * [[cholera]] * [[common cold]] * [[diphtheria]] * [[influenza]] * [[leprosy]] * [[malaria]] * [[measles]] * [[scarlet fever]] * [[smallpox]] * [[typhoid]] * [[typhus]] * [[whooping cough]] * [[yellow fever]] * [[yaws]] | * [[bejel]] * [[Chagas disease]] * [[pinta (disease)|pinta]] * [[syphilis]] |} ===Tomatoes in the Old World=== It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours." In 1544, [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]], a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of [[Cosimo de' Medici]], the grand duke of [[Tuscany]], wrote to the Medici private secretary that the basket of ''pomi d'oro'' "had arrived safely." At this time the label ''pomi d'oro'' was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.<ref name=Gentilcore>''A History of the Tomato in Italy Pomodoro!'', David Gentilcore (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010).</ref> In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of [[Aranjuez]] near Madrid, under the patronage of [[Philip II of Spain]] wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around {{convert|32000|acres|0|abbr=on}} of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.<ref name=Gentilcore/> == Unintentional introductions == {{further|Introduced species|Invasive species|List of invasive species}} Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in "ancient" times (or before 1492 in the UK) are called [[archaeophyte]]s, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called [[Neophyte (botany)|neophytes]]. In addition to the diseases mentioned above, many species of organisms were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as [[brown rat]]s, [[earthworms]] (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and [[zebra mussels]], which arrived on ships.<ref name = "Hoddle">{{cite web |first = M. S. |last = Hoddle |url=http://cisr.ucr.edu/quagga_zebra_mussels.html |title=Quagga & Zebra Mussels |publisher=Center for Invasive Species Research, [[UC Riverside]] |date= |accessdate=June 29, 2010}}</ref> [[Invasive species]] of [[plant]]s and [[pathogen]]s also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as [[Salsola|tumbleweeds]] (''Salsola spp.'') and [[Avena fatua|wild oats]] (''Avena fatua''). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the [[kudzu|kudzu vine]] introduced in 1894 from [[Japan]] to the United States to help control [[soil erosion]], have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment. Fungi have been transported, such as the one responsible for [[Dutch elm disease]], killing [[American elm]]s in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/simberloff.html | title=Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done | author=Simberloff, Daniel | journal=American Institute of Biological Sciences: Bringing biology to informed decision making. | year=2000}}</ref><ref>Fernández Pérez, Joaquin and Ignacio González Tascón (eds.) (1991). ''La agricultura viajera''. Barcelona, Spain: Lunwerg Editores, S. A.</ref> A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is ''[[Saccharomyces eubayanus]]'', the yeast responsible for [[lager]] beer now thought to have originated in [[Patagonia]].<ref>[http://news.discovery.com/history/lager-yeast-pagatonia-110823.html Elusive Lager Yeast Found in Patagonia], ''Discovery News'', August 23, 2011</ref> ==Introduced feral populations== Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often displacing native species. [[Eastern gray squirrel|Gray squirrels]] have been particularly successful in colonising [[Great Britain]] and populations of [[raccoon]]s can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as [[coypu]] and [[American mink]] have extensive populations in the Old World. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common. == See also == {{Portal|United Nations|Agriculture and Agronomy|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|New Spain}} * [[Alfred Crosby]] * [[Domestication]] * [[Great American Interchange]] * ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]'' * [[Population history of American indigenous peoples]] * [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]] * [[Transformation of culture]] * ''[[1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created]]'' * ''[[1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus]]'' == References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == External links == * [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Columbian_exchange:_plants,_animals,_and_disease_between_the_Old_and_New_World The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds] in the Encyclopedia of Earth by [[Alfred Crosby|Alfred W. Crosby]] * [http://www.wwnorton.com/worlds/index/ Worlds Together, Worlds Apart] by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al. * [http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/page5.html Foods that Changed the World] * [http://www.shmoop.com/columbian-exchange/ The Columbian Exchange] study guide, analysis, and teaching guide {{Indigenous peoples of the Americas}} {{Pre-Columbian North America}} {{Globalization}} [[Category:Age of Discovery]] [[Category:History of the Americas]] [[Category:History of Europe]] [[Category:History of agriculture]] [[Category:Introduced species]] [[Category:Invasive species]] [[Category:Horticulture and gardening]] [[Category:History of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]] [[Category:History of globalization]] [[Category:Globalization terminology]]'