Examine individual changes

'{{Other uses}} {{Redirect|Porto Rico}} {{redirect|Borinquen}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Commonwealth of Puerto Rico |native_name = {{nowrap|''Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico''}} |common_name = Puerto Rico |image_flag = Flag of Puerto Rico.svg |image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Puerto_Rico.svg |symbol_type = Coat of arms |national_motto = {{native phrase|la|"[[Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico#History|Ioannes est nomen eius]]"|italics=off}} |Englishmotto = "John is his name" |national_anthem = {{unbulleted list | "[[La Borinqueña]]"<br /><center>[[File:United States Navy Band - La Borinqueña.ogg]]</center> }}''[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]''{{ref label|natlanthem|a|}}<center>[[File:The Star-Spangled Banner - U.S. Army 1st Armored Division Band.ogg]]</center> |image_map = Puerto_Rico_(orthographic_projection).svg |image_map2 = Puerto Rico - Location Map (2013) - PRI - UNOCHA.svg|250px |status = [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|Unincorporated Territory]] |capital = [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] |latd=18 | latm=27 | latNS=N |longd=66 |longm=6 |longEW=W |largest_city = capital |official_languages = [[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]] |ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 75.8% [[White Puerto Rican|White]] | 12.4% [[Afro-Puerto Rican|Black or African American]] | 3.3% [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] | 0.5% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|American Indian and Alaskan Native]] | 0.2% [[Asian American|Asian]] | 0.1% [[Pacific Islands American|Pacific Islander]] | 7.8% [[2010 United States Census|Other]]<ref name="2010profile">{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10_thematic/2010_Profile/2010_Profile_Map_Puerto_Rico.pdf |title=2010 Census: Puerto Rico Profile |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2014-06-26}}</ref> }} |demonym = {{unbulleted list |[[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] |{{nowrap|[[Puerto Rican people#Boricua|Boricua]] {{small|(colloquial)}}}}}} |membership_type = [[Sovereign&nbsp;state]] |membership = [[United States]] |government_type = [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|Unincorporated territory of the United States]] |leader_title1 = [[President of the United States|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Barack Obama]] |leader_title2 = [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] |leader_name2 = [[Alejandro García Padilla]] |leader_title3 = [[List of current United States Senators|U.S. Senators]] |leader_name3 = Vacant |leader_title4 = [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House Delegation]] |leader_name4 = [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Resident Commissioner]] [[Pedro Pierluisi]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) |legislature = [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|Legislative Assembly]] |upper_house = [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Senate]] |lower_house = [[House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|House of Representatives]] |sovereignty_type = [[Political status of Puerto Rico|Unincorporated territory]] |sovereignty_note = within the [[United States]] |established_event1 = [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Cession from Spain]] |established_date1 = December 10, 1898 |established_event2 = [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] |established_date2 = March 2, 1917 |established_event3 = [[Puerto Rican constitutional referendum, 1952|Commonwealth Constitution]] |established_date3 = July 25, 1952 |area_rank = 169th |area_magnitude = 1 E9 |area_km2 = 9,104 |area_sq_mi = 3,515<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 1.6 |population_estimate = 3,548,397<ref name=PopEstUS/> |population_estimate_rank = 130th |population_estimate_year = 2014 |population_density_km2 = 418 |population_density_sq_mi = 1082 |population_density_rank = 29th |GDP_PPP = $127 billion<ref>[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD/countries/order%3Dwbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last?order=wbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc&display=default "Gross domestic product 2012, PPP", World Bank, accessed on 11 Aug 2013]</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = 72nd |GDP_PPP_year = 2012 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $34,527<ref>[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?order=wbapi_data_value_2012+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc "GDP per capita, PPP (current international $)", World Development Indicators database], World Bank. Database updated on 8 May 2014. Accessed on 10 May 2014.</ref> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 29th |GDP_nominal = $105.1 billion<ref name="World Development Indicators">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators |title=World Bank World Development Indicators, July 2013 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=August 21, 2013}}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 60th |GDP_nominal_year = 2013 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $28,509<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2014-15/PuertoRico.pdf|website=World Economic Forum}}</ref> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 32th |Gini = 53.1 |Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr11-02.pdf |title=Household Income for States: 2010 and 2011 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=September 2012 |website= |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=May 16, 2014}}</ref> |Gini_year = 2011 |HDI = 0.865 |HDI_ref = <ref>[https://www.academia.edu/6582860/An_Approximation_of_Puerto_Ricos_Human_Development_Index_Forthcoming_ An Approximation of Puerto Rico's Human Development Index (Forthcoming)], Ricardo R. Fuentes-Ramírez, Caribbean Studies Journal {{wayback|url=https://www.academia.edu/6582860/An_Approximation_of_Puerto_Ricos_Human_Development_Index_Forthcoming_ |date=20140713005558 |df=y }}</ref> |HDI_rank = 29th |HDI_year = 2012 |currency = [[United States dollar]] ($) |currency_code = USD |time_zone = [[Atlantic Time Zone|Atlantic]] |utc_offset = -4 |time_zone_DST = not observed |utc_offset_DST = -4 |drives_on = right |cctld = [[.pr]] |iso3166code = PR |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Puerto Rico|+1-787, +1-939]] |footnote_a = {{note|natlanthem}} "The Star-Spangled Banner" serves as the national anthem for the United States of America and its territories. }} '''Puerto Rico''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˌ|p|ɔr|t|ə|_|ˈ|r|iː|k|oʊ}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|w|ɛər|t|ə|_|ˈ|r|iː|k|oʊ}};{{efn|In 1932, the U.S. Congress officially corrected what it had been misspelling as ''Porto Rico'' back into ''Puerto Rico''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pedro A. Malavet|title=America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico|url=https://books.google.com/?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC|year=2004|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-5680-5|pages=[https://books.google.com/?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC&pg=PA43 43], [https://books.google.com/?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC&pg=PA181 181 note 76]}}</ref> It had been using the former spelling in its legislative and judicial records since it acquired the territory. Patricia Gherovici states that both "Porto Rico" and "Puerto Rico" were used interchangeably in the news media and documentation before, during, and after the U.S. invasion of the island in 1898. The "Porto" spelling, for instance, was used in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]], but "Puerto" was used by ''[[The New York Times]]'' that same year. Nancy Morris clarifies that "a curious oversight in the drafting of the [[Foraker Act]] caused the name of the island to be officially misspelled."<ref>{{cite book|author=Patricia Gherovici|title=The Puerto Rican syndrome|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC|year=2003|publisher=Other Press, LLC|isbn=978-1-892746-75-7|pages=[https://books.google.com/?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC&pg=PA140 140–141]}}</ref>}} {{IPA-es|ˈpweɾto ˈriko|lang}}), officially the '''Commonwealth of Puerto Rico''' ({{lang-es|link=no|Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico}}<!-- {{IPA-es|esˈtaðo ˈliβɾe asoˈsjaðo ðe ˈpweɾto ˈriko|}} -->, literally the "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico"), is a [[United States]] [[Territories of the United States|territory]] located in the northeastern [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]]. Puerto Rico is an [[archipelago]] that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands. The capital and largest city is [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]. The territory does not observe [[daylight saving time]], and its official languages are [[Spanish language|Spanish]], which is predominant, and [[English language|English]].<ref>http://www.prfaa.pr.gov/puertoricond2.asp</ref> The island's population is approximately 3.6 million. Puerto Rico's rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned [[Puerto Rican cuisine|traditional cuisine]] and attractive [[Taxation in Puerto Rico|tax incentives]] make it a popular destination for visitors from around the world. Its location in the Caribbean, combined with centuries of colonization and subsequent migration, has made Puerto Rican [[Puerto Ricans|culture]] a distinct melting pot of Amerindian, Spanish, African and North American influences.<ref>Puerto Rico Convention Center. "Puerto Rico: Culture". ''About Puerto Rico''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.meetpuertorico.com/about_pr/culture.asp| title = "Puerto Rico: Culture", Puerto Rico Convention Center.| accessdate = August 2, 2015|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070102060922/http://www.meetpuertorico.com/about_pr/culture.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = January 2, 2007}}</ref><ref name="morales-carrion-political-and-cultural-history">{{Cite book| last = Morales Carrión| first = Arturo | year = 1983| title = Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History| publisher = Norton & Co.| location = New York}}</ref> Originally populated by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|aboriginal]] [[Taíno people]], the island was claimed in 1493 by [[Christopher Columbus]] for the [[Kingdom of Spain]], enduring several invasion attempts by the French, Dutch, and British. During the four centuries of Spanish rule, the island's cultural and physical landscape were transformed, with European knowledge, customs, and traditions being introduced, especially [[Roman Catholicism in Puerto Rico|Roman Catholicism]] and the [[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish language]]. In 1898, following the [[Spanish American war|Spanish American War]], Spain ceded the island to the United States under the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]]. Puerto Ricans are [[Birthright citizenship in the United States|natural-born citizens]] of the United States.<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1402 8 U.S. Code § 1402 - Persons born in Puerto Rico on or after April 11, 1899] (1941) Retrieved: January 14, 2015.</ref> The territory operates under [[Constitution of Puerto Rico|a local constitution]], and its citizens elect [[Governor of Puerto Rico|a governor]]. Puerto Rico's residents are unable to vote in the [[U.S. Congress]], which has plenary jurisdiction over the territory under the [[Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950]]. A [[Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012|2012 referendum]] showed a majority (54% of the electorate) disagreed with "the present form of territorial status," with full statehood as the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status.<ref name="ballot">{{cite web |url=http://www.ceepur.org/es-pr/Documents/PapeletaModeloPlebiscito12.pdf |title=Papeleta Modelo Plebiscito 2012 |work=CEEPUR}}</ref> Following this vote, the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] enacted a [[concurrent resolution]] to request the [[U.S. President|President]] and the [[Congress of the United States]] to end the current status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico to the Union as a State.<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/2012-concurrent-resolution.pdf The Senate and the House of Representative of Puerto Rico Concurrent Resolution]</ref> As of 2015, Puerto Rico remains an unincorporated U.S. territory. {{TOC limit}} ==Etymology== [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Ricans]] often call the island ''Borinquen'' - a derivation of ''Borikén'', its [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Taíno]] name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord".<ref>Allatson, Paul. ''Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies'', p. 47. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-4051-0250-0.</ref><ref>[http://www.taino-tribe.org/terms1.htm#anchor250018 Dictionary: Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean] Retrieved: February 21, 2008. (Based on the encyclopedia ''Clásicos de Puerto Rico'', 2nd edition. Ed. Cayetano Coll y Toste. Ediciones Latinoamericanas, S.A., 1972.).</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=qAMQAAAAIAAJ |title=H. B. Grose, Advance in the Antilles: the new era in Cuba and Porto Rico, Presbyterian Home Missions, 1910 |publisher= |date=August 8, 2006 |accessdate=February 6, 2011|author1=Grose|first1=Howard Benjamin}}</ref> The terms ''boricua'' and ''borincano'' derive from ''Borikén'' and ''Borinquen'' respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as ''la isla del encanto'', meaning "the island of enchantment".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rc7FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 ''The New York's World Fair: 1939-1940.''] ''¡Adelante Hermanas de la Raza!, Josefina Silva de Cintron and Puerto Rican Women's Feminismo.'' In, Exploring the Decolonial Imaginary: Four Transnational Lives, by Patricia A. Schechter. (New York: MacMillan, 2012) Note: The phase "The Island of Enchantment" has been traced back to a travel guide by that title that Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. offered in "House and Garden" magazine in 1938.</ref> Columbus named the island ''San Juan Bautista,'' in honor of the [[Catholic church|Catholic]] Saint [[John the Baptist]], while the capital city was named ''Ciudad de Puerto Rico'' ({{lang-en|''Rich Port City''}}). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city.{{efn|Proyecto Salón Hogar (in Spanish) "Los españoles le cambiaron el nombre de Borikén a San Juan Bautista y a la capital le llamaron Ciudad de Puerto Rico. Con los años, Ciudad de Puerto Rico pasó a ser San Juan, y San Juan Bautista pasó a ser Puerto Rico."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/HistoriaPR1.htm |title=Historia de Puerto Rico |publisher=Proyectosalonhogar.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>}} ==History== {{Main|History of Puerto Rico}} ===Pre-Columbian era=== [[File:Taino Village.JPG|thumb|250px|A Taíno Village at the [[Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center|Tibes Ceremonial Center.]]]] The ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other larger, more advanced indigenous communities in the New World ([[Aztec]] and [[Inca]]) whose people left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, the indigenous population of Puerto Rico left scant artifacts and evidence. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by [[Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra]] in 1786, almost three centuries after the first Spaniards arrived on the island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abbad y Lasierra |first=Iñigo |title=Historia Geográfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico}}</ref> The first settlers were the [[Ortoiroid people]], an [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic Period]] culture of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]] hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years.<ref name =Rouse>Rouse, Irving. ''The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus'' ISBN 0-300-05696-6.</ref> An archeological dig at the island of [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]] in 1990 found the remains of a man, named the "Puerto Ferro Man", which was dated to around 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mahaffy, Cheryl|title = Vieques Island - What lies beneath|date = January 28, 2006|publisher = Edmonton Journal|url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7|accessdate=February 11, 2006}}</ref> The Ortoiroid were displaced by the [[Saladoid]], a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.<ref name=Rouse/> The [[Igneri]] tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400&nbsp;AD from the region of the [[Orinoco]] river in northern South America. The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries. Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the Taíno culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000&nbsp;AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the ''[[cacique]]'' (chief) [[Agüeybaná (The Great Sun)|Agüeybaná]], inhabited the island. They called it ''Boriken'', meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord."<ref>{{cite web|author=Pedro Torres|work=Taíno Inter-Tribal Council Inc.|title=The Dictionary of the Taíno Language|url=http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/tedict.html|accessdate=February 11, 2006}}</ref> The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women's gathering and processing of indigenous [[cassava]] root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7 |title=Vieques Island: What lies beneath |author=Cheryl Mahaffy |date=January 30, 2006 |publisher=Edmonton Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newberry.org/exhibits/PuertoRico.html |title=500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others|publisher=The Newberry library - Newberry.org |date=July 12, 2008 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> ===Spanish colony (1493–1898)=== {{Further|Captaincy General of Puerto Rico}} [[File:RUIDIAZ(1893) 1.083 JUAN PONCE DE LEÓN.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|right|[[Juan Ponce de León]] ([[Santervás de Campos]], [[Province of Valladolid|Valladolid]], Spain), was the first governor of Puerto Rico. His grandson [[Juan Ponce de León II]] was the first criollo governor of Puerto Rico.]] When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on {{Nowrap|November 19}}, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it ''Borikén'' (''Borinquen'' in Spanish transliteration).{{efn|Today, Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas, or people from Borinquen.}} Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand <ref>{{cite web |title=King Ferdinand's letter to the Taino-Arawak Indians |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/before-1600/king-ferdinands-letter-to-the-taino-arawak-indians.php |publisher=University of Groningen}}</ref> empowered by a [[Inter caetera|papal bull]] that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the [[Spanish Empire]] and the Christian faith. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of the Catholic saint, [[John the Baptist]]. [[Juan Ponce de León]], a [[lieutenant]] under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, [[Caparra Archaeological Site|Caparra]], on August 8, 1508. He later served as the first [[List of Governors of Puerto Rico|governor]] of the island.{{efn|[[Vicente Yañez Pinzón]] is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, but he never arrived from Spain.}} Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading/shipping port. In the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the [[Laws of Burgos]] of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an [[encomienda]] system of [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|forced labor]] in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European [[infectious]] diseases.{{efn|[[PBS]], to which they had no natural [[immunity (medical)|immunity]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Arthur C. Aufderheide |author2=Conrado Rodríguez-Martín |author3=Odin Langsjoen |title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qubTdDk1H3IC |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55203-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA204 204]}}</ref> For example, a [[smallpox]] outbreak in 1518–1519 killed much of the Island's indigenous population.<ref>{{cite book |first=George C. |last=Kohn |title=Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA160 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2008 |page=160 |isbn=0-8160-6935-2}}</ref> "The first ''repartimiento'' in Puerto Rico is established, allowing colonists fixed numbers of Tainos for wage-free and forced labor in the gold mines. When several priests protest, the crown requires Spaniards to pay native laborers and to teach them the Christian religion; the colonists continue to treat the natives as slaves."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/americancollection/woman/timeline.html |title=Masterpiece Theatre &#124; American Collection &#124; Almost a Woman &#124; Puerto Rico: A Timeline |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>}}{{efn|Tavenner (2010) "The Taíno people living [in Puerto Rico] at the time [...] were forced into slavery."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com.pr/books?id=AxEnOpIEnJsC&lpg=PA38&ots=SkOXohQl8z&dq=puerto%20rico%20taino%20forced%20into%20slavery&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q=puerto%20rico%20taino%20forced%20into%20slavery&f=false |title=Puerto Rico, 2006: Memoirs of A Writer in Puerto Rico - Mary Hilaire Tavenner - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com.pr |date=2010-12-15 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>}}{{efn|Poole (2011) "[The Taíno] began to starve; many thousands fell prey to smallpox, measles and other European diseases for which they had no immunity [...]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/What-Became-of-the-Taino.html |title=History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places &#124; Smithsonian |publisher=Smithsonianmag.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>}}{{efn|[[PBS]] "[The Taíno] eventually succumbed to the Spanish soldiers and European diseases that followed Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/spirits/html/body_taino.html |title=taino |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130208073734/http://www.pbs.org:80/wnet/nature/spirits/html/body_taino.html |archivedate=8 February 2013 }}</ref>}}{{efn|[[Yale University]] "[...] the high death rate among the Taíno due to enslavement and European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) persisted."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/ |title=Puerto Rico &#124; Colonial Genocides &#124; Genocide Studies Program &#124; Yale University |publisher=Yale.edu |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130520120915/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/ |archivedate=20 May 2013 }}</ref>}} In 1520, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]] issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html |title=Puerto Rico &#124; Colonial Genocides &#124; Genocide Studies Program |publisher=Yale University |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110908234849/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html |archivedate=8 September 2011 }}</ref> The Spanish began to import slaves from sub-Saharan Africa to have sufficient laborers to develop agriculture and settlements. The number of slaves on the island was smaller than on Cuba, Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe, where Spanish and French developed large sugar plantations based on slave labor.<ref name=Dietz>Dietz, p. 38.</ref> [[File:EAGLE Old San Juan 2014.jpg|thumb|300px|The 16th century [[Fort San Felipe del Morro]] in San Juan, Puerto Rico]] [[African immigration to Puerto Rico|African slaves were used primarily in the coastal ports and cities]] where the island's population was concentrated. The interior of the island continued to be essentially unexplored and undeveloped. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and a significant port for the [[Spanish Main]] colonial expansion. They built various forts and walls, such as [[La Fortaleza]], [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro]] and [[Castillo San Cristóbal]], to protect the strategic port of San Juan from numerous European raids and invasion attempts. San Juan served as an important port-of-call for ships of all European nations, who needed to take on water, food and other commercial provisions and mercantile exchange as part of the Atlantic trade. Regular convoys of the [[Spanish treasure fleet|West Indies Fleet]] linked the island to Spain, sailing between [[Cádiz]] and the [[Spanish West Indies]] every year. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. The island of Puerto Rico was left virtually unexplored, undeveloped, and (excepting coastal outposts) largely unsettled before the 19th century. As independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, Spain began to pay attention to Puerto Rico as one of its last remaining maritime colonies. In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European [[Peninsular War]], the [[Junta (Peninsular War)|Supreme Central Junta]] based in [[Cádiz]] recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain. It gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened [[Cádiz Cortes|Spanish parliament]] (Cádiz Cortes), with equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands). [[Ramón Power y Giralt]], the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|parliamentary and constitutional reforms]] were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand&nbsp;VII]]. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island's ethnic European population and economy, and expanded Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island. Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by [[Marcos Xiorro]] in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico's folklore.<ref name="GB">Guillermo A. Baralt, ''Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 1795-1873''; Markus Wiener Publishers. ISBN 1-55876-463-1, ISBN 978-1-55876-463-7</ref> In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico had an independence movement which, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of [[Simón Bolívar]] in establishing a [[United Provinces of New Granada]], which included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General [[Antonio Valero de Bernabé]] and [[María de las Mercedes Barbudo]]. The movement was discovered and Governor [[Miguel de la Torre]] had its members imprisoned or exiled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raquelrosario.net/Historias%20Claridad%20Mercedes%20Bar.pdf |title=María de las Mercedes Barbudo; Primera mujer independentista de Puerto Rico; ''CLARIDAD''; December 1994; p. 19 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> [[File:Intentona de Yauco.jpg|thumb|300px|The flag flown by Fidel Vélez and his men during the "Intentona de Yauco" revolt.]] With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the [[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]]. Printed in three languages: Spanish, English and French, it was intended to attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of families, mainly from [[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico|Corsica]], [[French immigration to Puerto Rico|France]], [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|Germany]], [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico|Ireland]], Italy and Scotland, immigrated to the island.<ref name="Graces"/> Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.<ref name="Graces">{{cite web|url=http://www.ensayistas.org/antologia/XIXE/castelar/esclavitud/cedula.htm |title=Real Cédula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros" |language= Spanish |publisher=Ensayistas.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> It was very successful and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico today still receives Spanish and European immigration. Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as ''[[Grito de Lares]].'' It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián. [[File:LARESFLAG2.jpg|thumb|230px|The Lares Revolutionary Flag.]] Leaders of this independence movement included [[Ramón Emeterio Betances]], considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as [[Segundo Ruiz Belvis]]. Slavery in Puerto Rico was abolished in 1873.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Ways of ending slavery |work=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |accessdate=April 29, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130309101044/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |archivedate=9 March 2013 }}</ref> Leaders of "El Grito de Lares" went into exile in New York City. Many joined the [[Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee]], founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, [[Antonio Mattei Lluberas]] and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the ''[[Intentona de Yauco]]''. They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag, which was adopted as the national flag. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.<ref name="HMPR">{{Cite book|title=Historia militar de Puerto Rico|first= Héctor Andrés |last=Negroni |authorlink=Hector Andres Negroni|publisher=Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario |year=1992|language= Spanish|isbn=978-84-7844-138-9|ref=harv}}</ref> In 1897, [[Luis Muñoz Rivera]] and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self-government to the island by [[Decree|royal decree]] in the Autonomic Charter, including a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]].<ref>[http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/Carta_Autonomica.htm] Retrieved: January 08, 2015. Carta Autonómica de Puerto Rico, 1897.</ref> In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, quasi-autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province" of Spain. This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the [[Monarchy of Spain|King of Spain]] - who held the power to annul any legislative decision - and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General [[Manuel Macías y Casado|Manuel Macías]] inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on {{Nowrap|July 17}}, 1898.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.solboricua.com/history2.htm#usa |title=USA Seizes Puerto Rico |year=2000 |work=History of Puerto Rico |publisher=solboricua.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history4.shtml |title=History |accessdate=October 1, 2007 |author=Magaly Rivera |publisher=topuertorico.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html |title=Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War |work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War |publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress}}</ref> ===United States territory=== {{Main| Puerto Rican Campaign}} [[File:First Company of native Puerto Ricans in the American Army.jpg|thumb|The first Company of native Puerto Ricans enlisted in the U.S. Army, 1899.]] In around 1890, Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled ''[[The Influence of Sea Power upon History]]'' in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the [[Isthmus of Panama]], to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.<ref name="SP">Jorge Rodriguez Beruff, ''Strategy as Politics'', Universidad de Puerto Rico: La Editorial; p. 7; ISBN 978-0-8477-0160-5</ref> [[William H. Seward]], the former Secretary of State under presidents [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Ulysses Grant]], had also stressed the importance of building a canal in [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] or [[Panama]]. He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of {{Nowrap|160 million}} dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.<ref name="SP"/> Since 1894, the United States [[Naval War College]] had been developing [[contingency plan]]s for a war with Spain. By 1896, the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Except for one 1895 plan, which recommended annexation of the island then named ''Isle of Pines'' (later renamed as [[Isla de la Juventud]]), a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain's forces in and around Cuba.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pg=PA72 |author=David F. Trask |title=The War with Spain in 1898|pages=72–78 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |accessdate=February 6, 2011|isbn=978-0-8032-9429-5|year=1996}}</ref> Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station, and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar – a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked.<ref>Jorge Rodriguez Beruff, ''Strategy as Politics'', La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 13; ISBN 978-0-8477-0160-5</ref> [[File:Children in a company housing settlement, Puerto Rico 1a34030u.jpg|thumb|265px|Children in a company housing settlement.]] On July 25, 1898, during the [[Spanish–American War]], the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]]. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the [[Philippines]] and [[Guam]], then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]]. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp |title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain |date=December 10, 1898 |work=The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School |publisher=Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library}}</ref> The United States and Puerto Rico began a long-standing metropolis-colony relationship.<ref>Truman R. Clark. ''Puerto Rico and the United States, 1917-1933.'' 1975. University of Pittsburgh Press. Page 129.</ref> In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the military, with officials including the governor appointed by the [[President of the United States]]. The [[Foraker Act]] of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States. At the time, the US did not have popular election of senators. Until passage of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, most US senators were elected by their respective state legislatures. Its judicial system was constructed to follow the [[Law of the United States|American legal system]]; a [[Supreme Court of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Supreme Court]] and a [[United States territorial court|United State District Court]] for the territory were established. It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner", who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable" to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.<ref name=status>{{cite web |url=http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf |title= Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status |date=December 2005 |accessdate=October 1, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref> The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable," including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature.<ref name="status"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Efrén Rivera Ramos|title=American Colonialism in Puerto Rico: The Judicial and Social Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/?id=J5l55R3_mPoC|year=2007|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-410-1|pages=[https://books.google.com/?id=J5l55R3_mPoC&pg=PA54 54–55]}}</ref> During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.<ref name="status"/><ref>{{cite news |title= Porto Rico En Fete: President's Auto Tour Amid Shower of Roses: He Promises Citizenship |work= The Washington Post |page= 1 |date= November 22, 1906 |url= http://search.proquest.com/docview/144628701/137535EE2B32E7AAC9B/1?accountid=46320 }}</ref> In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional," and in violation of the 1900 [[Foraker Act]].<ref name="Gonzalez" /> ====U.S. citizenship & Puerto Rican citizenship==== [[File:Puerto Ricans in WWII.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|65th Infantry]] training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941.]] In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]], popularly called the Jones Act, which granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898 |first1= Sanford |last1= Levinson |first2= Bartholomew H. |last2= Sparrow |location= New York |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year= 2005 |pages= 166, 178. |quote= U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987) }}</ref> Opponents, who included all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates, which voted unanimously against it, said that the US imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I became likely.<ref name="Gonzalez">Juan Gonzalez; ''Harvest of Empire'', pp. 60-63; Penguin Press, 2001; ISBN 978-0-14-311928-9</ref> The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as a [[bill of rights]]. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four-year term. Natural disasters, including a major [[1918 San Fermín earthquake|earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] in 1918, and several [[hurricane]]s, and the [[Great Depression]] impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://redsismica.uprm.edu/spanish/tsunami/index.php |title=Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe |publisher=Red Sísmica de Puerto Rico |language=Spanish |accessdate=February 6, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110123161343/http://redsismica.uprm.edu:80/Spanish/tsunami/index.php |archivedate=23 January 2011 }}</ref> Some political leaders, such as [[Pedro Albizu Campos]], who led the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]], demanded change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the [[University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus|University of Puerto Rico]] in 1935, in which [[Río Piedras massacre|four were killed]] by police. In 1936, US Senator [[Millard Tydings]] introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico, but it was opposed by [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] of the [[Liberal Party of Puerto Rico]].<ref name="Gatell"/> (Tydings had co-sponsored the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]], which provided independence to the [[Philippines]] after a 10-year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.<ref name="Gatell">[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2510353 Frank Otto Gatell, "Independence Rejected: Puerto Rico and the Tydings Bill of 1936"], ''Hispanic American Historical Review'', Vol. 38, No. 1 (Feb. 1958), pp. 25-44, accessed December 15, 2012</ref> In 1937, Albizu Campos' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]]. The Insular Police, resembling the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]], opened fire upon unarmed<ref name=1937inquiry /> cadets and bystanders alike.<ref name=1937inquiry /> The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S. Congressman [[Vito Marcantonio]] and confirmed by the report of the Hays Commission, which investigated the events. The commission was led by [[Arthur Garfield Hays]], counsel to the [[American Civil Liberties Union]].<ref name=1937inquiry>{{cite web|url=http://www.llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre,%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry,%201937 |title=Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission, 70p, np, May&nbsp;22, 1937 |publisher=Llmc.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20101214194610/http://llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre,%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry,%201937 |archivedate=14 December 2010 }}</ref> Nineteen persons were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in their backs while running away.<ref name=5yrs>[http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html "Five Years of Tyranny", Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives.] The entire speech is contained in the ''Congressional Record'' of {{Nowrap|August 14}}, 1939. It is reported in the Cong. Rec., and various other publications elsewhere, that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who "was killed through the back while running to a nearby church"</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Antonio de la Cova |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/ponce-1937.htm |title=Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders running away |publisher=Latinamericanstudies.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> The Hays Commission declared it a [[List of events named massacres|massacre]] and police mob action,<ref name=5yrs /> and it has since been known as the [[Ponce massacre]]. In the aftermath, on April 2, 1943, Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.<ref name="status"/> During the latter years of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]–[[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administrations, the internal governance was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican-born governor, [[Jesús T. Piñero]]. Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico. The citizenship is internationally recognized by Spain, which considers Puerto Rico to be an Ibero-American nation. Therefore, Puerto Rican citizens have the ability to apply for Spanish citizenship after only two years residency in Spain (instead of the standard 10 years). ===Commonwealth (1952–)=== In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own [[governor of Puerto Rico|governor]]. In 1948, [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico. [[File:US 65th Infantry Regiment.Painting.Korean War.Bayonet charge against Chinese division.jpg|thumb|280px|Painting of bayonet charge by the [[U.S. 65th Infantry Regiment]], made up of Puerto Rican troops, against a Chinese division during the [[Korean War]].]] A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the PPD, and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín.<ref>[http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ "La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948-2008)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón] {{wayback|url=http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ |date=20150714013346 |df=y }}</ref> The bill, also known as the [[Puerto Rico's Gag Law|Gag Law]] (''Ley de la Mordaza'' in Spanish), was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a pro-independence tune, to talk of independence, or to campaign for independence. The bill, which resembled [[Smith Act|the Smith Act passed in the United States]], was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [[Jesús T. Piñero]], and became known as "Law 53" (''Ley 53'' in Spanish).{{efn|Cockcroft (2001; in Spanish) "[La Ley 53] fué llamada la "pequeña ley Smith", debido a la semejanza con la Ley Smith de Estados Unidos [...]"<ref>{{cite book |first=James |last=Cockcroft |title=América Latina y Estados Unidos: historia y política país por país |publisher=Siglo XXI Editores |language=Spanish |year=2001 |accessdate={{date|2013-09-24|mdy}} |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rUGFqxW_zHQC&lpg=PA383&dq=peque%C3%B1a%20ley%20smith%20puerto%20rico&pg=PA383#v=onepage&q=peque%C3%B1a%20ley%20smith%20puerto%20rico&f=false |isbn=9682323320 }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |title=Puerto Rican History |publisher=Topuertorico.org |date=January 13, 1941 |accessdate=November 20, 2011}}</ref> In accordance with this law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 dollars (US), or both. According to Dr. [[Leopoldo Figueroa]], a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the [[US Constitution]], which guarantees [[Freedom of Speech]]. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The infamous law was repealed in 1957.<ref name="LG">{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes_s_t._pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p |title=La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría |publisher=Issuu.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-18}}</ref> In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81-600), which allowed for a democratic [[referendum]] in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution.<ref>Act of {{Nowrap|July 3}}, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319.</ref> This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact". It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the ''Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act''.<ref name="View">{{cite web|url=http://www.puertoricousa.com/english/views.htm |title='&#39;View of Congress, the Courts and the Federal Government'&#39; |publisher=Puertoricousa.com |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2004/vol8n42/CBOnNatureV.html |title=On The Nature Of Commonwealth V |publisher=Puertorico-herald.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> U.S. Secretary of the Interior [[Oscar L. Chapman]], under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner: <blockquote>The bill (to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own constitution and to organize a local government...The bill under consideration would not change Puerto Rico's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States.<ref>[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2002/vol6n30/LetPRDecideHow2End-en.html "Let Puerto Rico Decide How to end its Colony Status: True Nationhood Stands on the Pillar of Independence".] Rosalinda de Jesus. ''The Allentown Morning Call''. Republished by the ''Puerto Rico Herald''. July 21, 2002. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved June 21, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.independencia.net/ingles/let_pr_decide "Let Puerto Rico Decide How To End Its Colony Status".] Rosalinda De Jesus. ''The Morning Call''. July 21, 2002. Retrieved June 21, 2012. {{wayback|url=http://www.independencia.net/ingles/let_pr_decide |date=20120114122818 |df=y }}</ref></blockquote> {{external media | headerimage=[[File:Aguadilla Pueblo.jpg|210px]] | align = right | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_71hkXrTTf8 Puerto Rico], U.S. Embassy in Vienna, October 24, 2014 | video2 = View newsreel scenes in Spanish of the {{YouTube|RfOJj0nmGEU|''Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s''}} }} On October 30, 1950, [[Pedro Albizu Campos]] and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s]]. The most notable occurred in [[Jayuya]] and [[Utuado]]. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the [[Jayuya Uprising]], the Puerto Rican governor declared [[martial law]], and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The [[Utuado Uprising]] culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On {{Nowrap|November 1}}, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, [[Griselio Torresola]] and [[Oscar Collazo]], [[Truman assassination attempt|attempted to assassinate]] President [[Harry S Truman]] at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979. Don Pedro Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in [[Atlanta]], for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web|last=García |first=Marvin |url=http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm |title=Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos |publisher=National-Louis University |accessdate=April 28, 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20051224214401/http://www3.nl.edu:80/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm |archivedate=24 December 2005 }}</ref> The [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]] was approved by a Constitutional Convention on {{Nowrap|February 6}}, 1952, and 82% of the voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on {{Nowrap|July 3}} of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on {{Nowrap|July 25}}, 1952. This was the anniversary of the {{Nowrap|July 25}}, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the [[Puerto Rican Campaign]] of the [[Spanish–American War]], until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday. [[File:MODERN BUILDINGS TOWER OVER THE SHANTIES CROWDED ALONG THE MARTIN PENA CANAL - NARA - 546368.jpg|thumb|295px|A [[shantytown]] along the Martin Peña Channel, 1973.]] Puerto Rico adopted the name of ''Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico'' (literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"<ref>[https://books.google.com/?id=DcMh3sI0daAC&pg=PA56 ''Responses from Hon. Luis G. Fortuño to questions from Senator Domenici.''] Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on the Report by the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status. United States Senate. One Hundredth Ninth Congress. Second Session. U.S. Senate 109-796. November 15, 2006. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2007. Page 56.) Retrieved December 13, 2012.</ref>), officially translated into English as [[Commonwealth (United States insular area)|Commonwealth]], for its [[body politic]].{{efn|However, as Robert William Anderson states on page 14 of his book "Party Politics in Puerto Rico" (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 1965.), ''No one disputes the ambiguous status of the current Commonwealth. It is illustrated in the very different images conjured up by the English term "commonwealth" and the Spanish version, Estado Libre Asociado (literally, free associated state). The issue seems to be whether this ambiguity is a purposeful virtue or a disguised colonial vice.''}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico – in Spanish |publisher=Lexjuris.com |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico – (English translation) |publisher=Topuertorico.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> "The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, the currency, the postal service, [[foreign policy]], military defense, communications, [[labor relations]], the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others."<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ayINMX_RtkEC&pg=PA166 |title=The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. Ed. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Cloth, ISBN 0-7425-4983-6. Paper, ISBN 0-7425-4984-4.) pp. 166–167 |publisher= |accessdate=November 5, 2012|isbn=978-0-7425-4984-5|year=2005|author1=Levinson|first1=Sanford|last2=Sparrow|first2=Bartholomew H}}</ref> During the 1950s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to ''Operación Manos a la Obra'' ("[[Operation Bootstrap]]"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.<ref name=pharma>{{cite web|url=http://www.pharmaceuticalonline.com/article.mvc/Puerto-Ricos-Pharmaceutical-Industry-40-Years-0003|title=Puerto Rico's Pharmaceutical Industry|date=September 20, 2006|accessdate=November 18, 2010}}</ref> Four plebiscites have been held since the late 20th century to resolve the political status. The most recent, in [[Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012|2012]], showed a majority (54% of the voters) in favor of a change in status, with full statehood the preferred option, but it was highly controversial: many ballots were left blank and the results were criticized by several parties.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} Support for the pro-statehood party, [[Partido Nuevo Progresista]] (PNP), and the pro-commonwealth party, [[Partido Popular Democrático]] (PPD), remains about equal.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} The only registered pro-independence party, the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]] (PIP), usually receives 3–5% of the electoral votes. ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Puerto Rico|Geology of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Rico (1).png|thumb|550px|A map of Puerto Rico.]] Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]], [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]], [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]], [[Desecheo Island|Desecheo]], and [[Caja de Muertos, Puerto Rico|Caja de Muertos]]. Of these last five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Culebra, which is only 18 miles away from the mainland, is home to Flamenco Beach, one of the top ten beaches in the world.<ref name=cnn.com>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/18/travel/tripadvisor-best-beaches/ |title= TripAdvisor Picks: World's best beaches |publisher=cnn.com |date= |access-date=July 19, 2015}}</ref> Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other smaller islands, including [[Monito Island|Monito]] and "La Isleta de San Juan," which includes [[Old San Juan]] and [[Puerta de Tierra]], and is connected to the main island by bridges. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of {{convert|13790|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, of which {{convert|8870|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is land and {{convert|4921|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is water.<ref name=ciafactbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html#Geo |title=The World Factbook – Puerto Rico#Geography |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> The maximum length of the main island from east to west is {{convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}}, and the maximum width from north to south is {{convert|65|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=topuertorico.com>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml|title=Welcome to Puerto Rico!|publisher=topuertorico.org|accessdate=December 30, 2007 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of [[Jamaica]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html#Geo |title=The World Factbook – Jamaica |publisher=[[CIA]] |accessdate=April 24, 2008}}</ref> just over 18% of the size of [[Hispaniola]] and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html#Geo |title=The World Factbook – Cuba |publisher=CIA |accessdate=April 24, 2008}}</ref> The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "[[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|La Cordillera Central]]" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, [[Cerro de Punta]] {{convert|1338|m|ft|sp=us}},<ref name="ciafactbook"/> is located in this range. Another important peak is [[El Yunque, Puerto Rico|El Yunque]], one of the highest in the ''Sierra de Luquillo'' at the [[El Yunque National Forest]], with an elevation of {{convert|1065|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev_066593.html |title=Caribbean National Forest – El Yunque Trail #15 |publisher=GORP.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> [[File:Patillas Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|300px|The coast at Patillas, Puerto Rico.]] Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than [[List of Puerto Rico rivers|50 rivers]], most originating in the Cordillera Central.<ref>{{Wayback |date=20070629135950 |url=http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm |title=Los Lagos de Puerto Rico }}{{Dead link|date=April 2014}} (archived from [http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm the original]{{Dead link|date=February 2011}} on June 29, 2007). {{es icon}}</ref> Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher [[Volumetric flow rate|water flow rates]] than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Puerto Rico is composed of [[Cretaceous]] to [[Eocene]] [[volcanic]] and [[plutonic]] rocks, overlain by younger [[Oligocene]] and more recent [[carbonate]]s and other [[sedimentary rocks]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3790/is_200605/ai_n17177064 |title=Late Cretaceous Siliceous Sponges From El Rayo Formation, Puerto Rico |author=Andrzej Pisera, Michael Martínez, Hernan Santos |publisher=[[Journal of Paleontology]] |date=May 2006 |accessdate=May 6, 2008}}</ref> Most of the [[caverns]] and [[karst]] topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately {{Nowrap|190 million}} years old ([[Jurassic]]) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the [[oceanic crust]] and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American [[plate tectonics|plate]]s and is being deformed by the [[tectonics|tectonic]] stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause [[earthquakes]] and [[tsunami]]s. These [[seismic]] events, along with [[landslide]]s, represent some of the most dangerous [[geologic hazards]] in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The [[1918 San Fermín earthquake|most recent major earthquake]] occurred on {{Nowrap|October 11}}, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]].<ref name="1918 quake">{{cite web|url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |title=Earthquake History of Puerto Rico |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=September 11, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20070714105156/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |archivedate=14 July 2007 }}</ref> It originated off the coast of [[Aguadilla]], several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a [[tsunami]]. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]]. The [[Puerto Rico Trench]], the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about {{convert|115|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.<ref name="trench">{{cite web| author=Uri ten Brink| url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html| title=Explorations: Puerto Rico Trench 2003 – Cruise Summary and Results| publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration| accessdate=November 20, 2009}}</ref> It is {{convert|280|km|mi|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |title=NOAA Ocean Explorer: Puerto Rico Trench |publisher=Oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> At its deepest point, named the [[Milwaukee Deep]], it is almost {{convert|8400|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep.<ref name="trench"/> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Puerto Rico}} Located in the [[tropics]], Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation. About a quarter of the annual rainfall for Puerto Rico, on average, occurs during tropical cyclones, which are more frequent during La Niña events. The island has an average temperature of {{convert|82.4|°F|°C|sigfig=2}} throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of {{convert|66.9|°F|°C|sigfig=2}} and maximum of {{convert|85.4|°F|°C|sigfig=2}}. Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island. Between winter and summer, there is a temperature change of around {{convert|6|F-change|1}}. This is mainly due to the warm waters of the tropical [[Atlantic ocean]] which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal waters temperatures around the years are about 75&nbsp;°F in February to 85&nbsp;°F in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|99|F}} at [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sercc.com/cgi-bin/sercc/cliMAIN.pl?pr0410 |title=ARECIBO 3 ESE, PUERTO RICO – Climate Summary |publisher=Sercc.com |accessdate=29 January 2012}}</ref> while the lowest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|40|F}} at [[Adjuntas, Puerto Rico|Adjuntas]], [[Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Aibonito]], and [[Corozal, Puerto Rico|Corozal]].<ref name="NOAA-PR">{{cite web|url=http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |title=NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |accessdate=27 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111009161414/http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |archivedate=9 October 2011 }}</ref> The average yearly precipitation is {{convert|1687|mm|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Daly2003">Daly, Christopher, Eileen H. Helmer, and Maya Quiñonez. 2003. Mapping the Climate of Puerto Rico, Vieques and Culebra. International Journal of Climatology 23: 1359-1381.</ref> {{clear}} {{Weather box | location = [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] | single line= yes <!-- Average high temperatures --> |Jan high F= 83 |Feb high F= 84 |Mar high F= 85 |Apr high F= 86 |May high F= 88 |Jun high F= 89 |Jul high F= 89 |Aug high F=89 |Sep high F=89 |Oct high F=89 |Nov high F=86 |Dec high F=84 |year high F=87 <!-- Average low temperatures --> |Jan low F=72 |Feb low F=72 |Mar low F=73 |Apr low F=74 |May low F=76 |Jun low F=78 |Jul low F=78 |Aug low F=78 |Sep low F=78 |Oct low F=77 |Nov low F=75 |Dec low F=73 |year low F=75 <!-- Rainfall --> |Jan rain inch =3.76 |Feb rain inch =2.47 |Mar rain inch =1.95 |Apr rain inch =4.68 |May rain inch =5.90 |Jun rain inch =4.41 |Jul rain inch =5.07 |Aug rain inch =5.46 |Sep rain inch =5.77 |Oct rain inch =5.59 |Nov rain inch =6.35 |Dec rain inch =5.02 <!-- Average number of rainy days --> |Jan rain days=17 |Feb rain days=13 |Mar rain days=12 |Apr rain days=13 |May rain days=17 |Jun rain days=15 |Jul rain days=19 |Aug rain days=18 |Sep rain days=17 |Oct rain days=17 |Nov rain days=18 |Dec rain days=19 |year rain days=196 <!-- Average daily % humidity --> |Jan humidity=78.0 |Feb humidity=75.5 |Mar humidity=73.9 |Apr humidity=75.0 |May humidity=77.2 |Jun humidity=77.0 |Jul humidity=78.0 |Aug humidity=77.6 |Sep humidity=77.7 |Oct humidity=78.2 |Nov humidity=78.6 |Dec humidity=78.3 |year humidity=77.1 <!-- Average daily sunshine hours. Use either the monthly or daily sunshine (depending on the source) but not both. --> |Jand sun=8 |Febd sun= 8 |Mard sun=9 |Aprd sun=9 |Mayd sun=8 |Jund sun=9 |Juld sun=9 |Augd sun=9 |Sepd sun=9 |Octd sun=9 |Novd sun=8 |Decd sun=8 |yeard sun=8.6 | source = {{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USPR0087 |title=Average Weather for San Juan, PR |publisher=[[The Weather Channel]] |accessdate={{date|2014-03-22}} }} }} {{clear}} Puerto Rico experiences the [[Atlantic hurricane season]], similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than [[El Niño]].<ref>Edward B. Rodgers, Robert F. Adler, Harold F. Pierce. [http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1175%2F1520-0450(2001)040%3C1785%3ACOTCTT%3E2.0.CO%3B2&ct=1#I1520-0450-40-11-1785-F03 Contribution of Tropical Cyclones to the North Atlantic Climatological Rainfall as Observed from Satellites.]</ref> A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Only one Category 5 hurricane has struck the island since 1851, [[1928 Okeechobee Hurricane|the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane]] of September 1928.<ref>Aurelio Mercado and Harry Justiniano. [http://coastalhazards.uprm.edu/ Coastal Hazards of Puerto Rico.] Retrieved on January 23, 2008.</ref> ===Biodiversity=== {{main|Fauna of Puerto Rico|Flora of Puerto Rico}} Species [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 [[amphibian]]s/[[reptile]]s, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://islands.unep.ch/ISV.htm#459 |title=Island Directory |publisher=Islands.unep.ch |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the ''[[coquí]]'', a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most ''coquí'' species (13 of 17) live in the [[El Yunque National Forest]], a [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered [[Puerto Rican amazon]]. Across the island in the southwest, the {{convert|40|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=5146 |title=Puerto Rico |publisher=Scholastic.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico. ==Government and politics== {{Main|Government of Puerto Rico|Politics of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico has [[Puerto Rico senatorial districts|8 senatorial districts]], [[Puerto Rico representative districts|40 representative districts]] and [[municipalities of Puerto Rico|78 municipalities]]. It has a [[republic|republican form of government]] with [[separation of powers]] subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.oslpr.org/english/PDF/The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Article&nbsp;I, Section 2 |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20091229150849/http://www.oslpr.org:80/english/pdf/the%20constitution%20of%20the%20commonwealth%20of%20puerto%20rico.pdf |archivedate=29 December 2009 }}</ref><ref name=ussd>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/10543.htm |title=U.S. Department of State. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> Its current powers are all delegated by the [[United States Congress]] and lack full protection under the [[United States Constitution]].<ref name="U.S. Department of State">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/86756.pdf |title=U.S. Department of State. Foreign Affairs Manual: Volume 7 – Consular Affairs (7 FAM 1120) ',Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions', pp. 1–3. |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> Puerto Rico's head of state is the [[President of the United States]]. The government of Puerto Rico, based on [[Republicanism in the United States|the formal republican system]], is composed of three branches: the [[executive branch of the government of Puerto Rico|executive]], [[legislative branch of the government of Puerto Rico|legislative]], and [[judiciary of Puerto Rico|judicial branch]]. The executive branch is headed by the [[governor of Puerto Rico|governor]], currently [[Alejandro García Padilla]]. The [[legislative branch]] consists of a [[bicameral]] legislature called the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|Legislative Assembly]], made up of a [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Senate]] as its upper chamber and a [[House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|House of Representatives]] as its lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the [[President of the Senate of Puerto Rico|President of the Senate]], currently [[Eduardo Bhatia]], while the House of Representatives is headed by the [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|Speaker of the House]], currently [[Jaime Perelló]]. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years with [[Puerto Rican general election, 2012|the last election held in November 2012]]. [[File:First Supreme Court PR.JPG|thumb|290px|The First Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, appointed pursuant to the [[Foraker Act]].]] The [[judiciary of Puerto Rico|judicial branch]] is headed by the [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico]], currently [[Liana Fiol Matta]]. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the [[advice and consent]] of the Senate. Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, the [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Resident Commissioner]], currently [[Pedro Pierluisi]]. Current congressional rules have removed the Commissioner's power to vote in the [[Committee of the Whole (United States House of Representatives)|Committee of the Whole]], but the Commissioner can vote in committee.<ref name="rhg">[http://clerk.house.gov/legislative/house-rules.pdf Rules of the House of Representatives. Rule III].</ref> Puerto Rican elections are governed by the [[Federal Election Commission]] and the [[State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fec.gov/pages/report_notices/State_Notices/prprim.shtml |title=Puerto Rico Primary Election Report Notice |publisher=Fec.gov |date=February 2, 2008 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2013}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/2008pdates.pdf |title=2008 Presidential Primary Dates and Candidates Filling Datelines for Ballot Access |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2013}} While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in [[US Presidential Primary|primaries]]. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a [[U.S. state]] can vote in presidential elections. Puerto Rico hosts [[Consul (representative)|consulates]] from 41 countries, mainly from the [[Americas]] and Europe, with most located in San Juan.<ref>{{Wayback |date=20040411192635 |url=http://www.linktopr.com/consulados.html |title=Consulados. ''Link to Puerto Rico'' }}</ref> As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 [[municipalities]] at the second level. [[Mona Island]] is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enciclopediapr.org/ing/article.cfm?ref=08021702 |title=Mayagüez. Enciclopedia de Puerto Rico |publisher=Enciclopediapr.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> Municipalities are subdivided into wards or [[barrio]]s, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a [[Mayors of Puerto Rico|mayor]] and a municipal legislature elected for a four-year term. The municipality of [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] (previously called "town"), was founded first, in 1521, [[San Germán]] in 1570, [[Coamo]] in 1579, [[Arecibo]] in 1614, [[Aguada, Puerto Rico|Aguada]] in 1692 and [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was [[Florida, Puerto Rico|Florida]] in 1971.<ref name='fundacion'>{{Wayback |date=20040421093959 |url=http://www.linktopr.com/fundacion.html |title=LinktoPR.com – Fundación de los Pueblos }}</ref> ===Political culture=== Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]] (PPD), the [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|New Progressive Party]] (PNP) and the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]] (PIP). These three parties stood for three distinct future political status scenarios: the PPD seeks to maintain the island's "association" status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over the last six decades, the PNP seeks to have Puerto Rico become a [[51st state|U.S. state]], and the PIP seeks the establishment of a [[Sovereign state|sovereign]] and [[Puerto Rican independence movement|independent]] republic. In 2007, the [[Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party]] (PPR) was registered. The PPR claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. It ceased to remain a registered political party when it failed to obtain the requisite number of votes in the 2008 general election. Other non-registered parties include the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]], the [[Socialist Workers Movement (Puerto Rico)|Socialist Workers Movement]], and the [[Hostosian National Independence Movement]]. ===Law=== {{main|Constitution of Puerto Rico|Law of Puerto Rico}} The insular legal system is a blend of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and the [[common law]] systems. Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. possession whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than [[American English]]: namely, [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Because the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in [[United States federal courts|U.S. federal courts]] and to litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts. [[Title 48 of the United States Code]] outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in [[California]]. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the [[California Penal Code]]. The judicial branch is headed by the [[Chief Justice]] of the [[Puerto Rico Supreme Court]], which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]]. There is also a [[United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico|Federal District Court for Puerto Rico]]. Someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, unlike a state court, since Puerto Rico as a territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does.<ref name="ramajudicial.pr">http://www.ramajudicial.pr/ts/2015/2015tspr25.pdf</ref> Such a parallel accusation would constitute [[double jeopardy]]. ===Political status=== {{Main|Political status of Puerto Rico|Proposed political status for Puerto Rico}} The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the [[United States Congress]], and the [[United Nations]].<ref name="sdc">{{cite press release |title=Special committee on decolonization approves text calling on United States to expedite Puerto Rican self-determination process |date=June 13, 2006 |publisher=Department of Public Information, United Nations General Assembly |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm |accessdate=October 1, 2007}}</ref> Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a [[Territories of the United States|U.S. territory]], become a [[U.S. state]], or become an independent country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf |title=Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background, Options, and Issues in the 109th Congress |date=May 25, 2005 |author=Keith Bea |publisher=Congressional Research Service |accessdate=October 1, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref> ====''Estado Libre Asociado''==== In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes" or "no", on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]] was formally adopted on {{Nowrap|July 3}}, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the [[body politic]] would be known. On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word ''[[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|Commonwealth]]'', meaning a "politically organized community" or "state", which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA). In 1967 Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a [[plebiscite]] act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6% versus 46.3% for statehood), while the "none of the above" option, which was the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]]-sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3% of the votes (versus 46.5% for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above".<ref>[https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Congressional Research Service. Dated {{Nowrap|June 19}}, 2009. Page 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. Page 29.]. Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://electionspuertorico.org/1993/summary.html |title=1993 Status Plebiscite Vote Summary |publisher=Electionspuertorico.org |date=November 14, 1993 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://electionspuertorico.org/1998/summary.html |title=1998 Status Plebiscite Vote Summary |publisher=Electionspuertorico.org |date=December 13, 1998 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> ====Within the United States==== [[File:Puerto Rico Capitol.JPG|thumb|300px|The [[Capitol of Puerto Rico]], home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico.]] Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the [[plenary powers]] of the [[United States Congress]] under the [[territorial clause]] of [[Article Four of the United States Constitution|Article IV of the U.S. Constitution]].<ref>U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the colony or other Property belonging to the United States&nbsp;...").</ref> [[U.S. federal law|Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States]] apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents [[Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico|do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress]]. Like the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation", for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations", which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is.".<ref>[[Downes v. Bidwell]], 182 U.S. 244, 261 (1901), commenting on an earlier Supreme Court decision, Loughborough v. Blake, 18 U.S. (5 Wheat.) 317 (1820); Rasmussen v. United States, 197 U.S. 516, 529–530, 536 (1905)(concurring opinions of Justices Harlan and Brown), that once the Constitution has been extended to an area, its coverage is irrevocable; [[Boumediene v. Bush]] – That where the Constitution has been once formally extended by Congress to territories, neither Congress nor the territorial legislature can enact laws inconsistent therewith. The Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire, dispose of, and govern territory, not the power to decide when and where its terms apply.</ref> Puerto Ricans "were collectively made [[U.S. citizenship#Birthright citizenship|U.S. citizens]]" in 1917 as a result of the [[Jones-Shafroth Act]].<ref>''The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898''. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Pp. 166, 178. "U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)")</ref> U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democrat, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] (see above) and not a U.S. state, the [[United States Constitution]] does not fully [[enfranchise]] [[US citizen]]s residing in Puerto Rico.<ref name="U.S. Department of State"/><ref name="Constitutional Topic: Citizenship">{{Cite journal |url=http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_citi.html |title=Constitutional Topic: Citizenship |publisher=U.S. Constitution Online |accessdate=June 6, 2009 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> (''See also:'' "[[Voting rights in Puerto Rico]]"). Despite their American citizenship, only the "[[fundamental right]]s" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. armed forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. [[compulsory draft]] whenever it has been in effect. Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay many kinds of U.S. federal taxes, not including the federal personal income tax for Puerto Rico-sourced income, but only under certain circumstances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |title=Puerto Ricans pay import/export taxes |publisher=Stanford.wellsphere.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |title=Puerto Ricans pay federal commodity taxes |publisher=Stanford.wellsphere.com |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html |title=Internal Revenue Service. ',Topic 903 – Federal Employment Tax in Puerto Rico', |publisher=Irs.gov |date=December 18, 2009 |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref><ref name=reuters2009-09-24>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924 |title=Reuters. ',Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform.', 24&nbsp;September 2009 |agency=Reuters |date= September 24, 2009|accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Schaefer |first=Brett |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2009/03/dc-voting-rights-no-representation-no-taxation |title=The Heritage Foundation, 11&nbsp;March 2009. "D.C. Voting Rights: No Representation? No Taxation!", By Robert A. Book, PhD |publisher=Heritage.org |accessdate=October 16, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mp67ZoSs|archivedate=2010-01-16 |title=Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association, CEO Summit. ',Federal and Local Incentives: Where we are, Where We Want to be. Amaya Iraolagoitia, Partner, Tax Dept. |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref><ref name=jct>{{cite web|url=http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf |title=Joint Committee on Taxation. ''An Overview of the Special Tax Rules Related to Puerto Rico and an Analysis of the Tax and Economic Policy Implications of Recent Legislative Options'' |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref>{{#Tag:Ref|Members of the military must pay federal income tax<ref name=reuters2009-09-24 /><ref name=jct />}} In 2009, Puerto Rico paid {{Nowrap|$3.742 billion}} into the [[US Treasury]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/09db05co.xls |title=Table 5. Internal Revenue Gross Collections, by Type of Tax and State, Fiscal year 2009 |publisher=[http://www.irs.gov/ irs.gov] |format=XLS}}</ref> Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the [[Supplemental Security Income]] (SSI), and the island actually receives a small fraction of the [[Medicaid]] funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/24/us-healthcare-puertorico-idUSTRE58N5X320090924 ''Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform.''] Reuters. September 24, 2009. Retrieved July 19, 2012.</ref> Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prfaa.com/news/?p=252 |title=News & Media |publisher=PRFAA |date=July 6, 2009 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> While a state may try an individual for the same crime he/she was tried in federal court since a federated state's separate sovereignty protects it from double jeopardy, Puerto Rico's authority to enact a criminal code derives from the sovereignty of Congress which, as a territory, it lacks. Thus, such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.<ref name="ramajudicial.pr"/> In 1992, President [[George H. W. Bush]] issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations. Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]], [[Transportation Security Administration]], [[Social Security Administration]], and others. While Puerto Rico has its own [[judiciary of Puerto Rico|Commonwealth judicial system]] similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. A Puerto Rican, [[Sonia Sotomayor]], serves as an [[Associate Justice]] of the Supreme Court of the United States. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high-level federal positions, including serving as [[Ambassadors of the United States|United States Ambassadors]] to other nations. ====International status==== On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the [[United Nations]] approved [[UN General Assembly Resolution|Resolution 748]], removing Puerto Rico's classification as a [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories|non-self-governing territory]]. The General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self-governing status of Puerto Rico.<ref>[http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/086/13/IMG/NR008613.pdf?OpenElementGA resolution 740] (November 27, 1953), "''Cessation of transmission o the information under article 73 e of the Charter in respect of Puerto Rico''".</ref><ref>[http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/153/15/IMG/NR015315.pdf?OpenElement GA Resolution 1541] ({{Nowrap|December 15}} 1960), "''Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for in article 73 e of the Charter. (See ANNEX).''"</ref> According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its {{Nowrap|December 21}}, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.<ref name=status2007>{{cite web|url=http://www.primerahora.com/XStatic/primerahora/docs/espanol/whitehousestatusreport.pdf |title=Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status |date=December 2007 |accessdate=December 24, 2007 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20080216013058/http://www.primerahora.com/XStatic/primerahora/docs/espanol/whitehousestatusreport.pdf |archivedate=16 February 2008 }}</ref> It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause<ref name="Artice4">Art. IV, Sec. 3, clause 2, U.S. Constitution.</ref> of the U.S. Constitution.<ref name=status2007 /> In 1993 the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit]] stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.<ref name="ftp.resources.com">{{cite web |url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/992/992.F2d.1143.90-5749.html |title=United States v. Sanchez, 992 F.2D 1143 (1993) United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (Paragraphs 44 – 46) |publisher=ftp.resources.com |date=June 4, 1993 |accessdate=January 21, 2010 |postscript=<!--None-->}}{{Dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref> In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the [[United States House Committee on Natural Resources|U.S. House Committee on Resources]] stated, "Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government under Resolution 1541" (the three established forms of full self-government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated colony and does not have the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice", that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/R?cp105:FLD010:@1%28hr131%29: |title=Puerto Rico Status Field Hearing |publisher=Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, 105th Congress |date=April 19, 1997 |accessdate=October 1, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614123206/http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/R?cp105:FLD010:@1(hr131): |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs3/GAres-1541.htm|title=1541 (XV). Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under Article 73 e of the Charter |publisher=United Nations General Assembly |date=December 15, 1960}}</ref> The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the [[Insular Cases]]. In 2006,<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm June 13, 2006. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Puerto Rican Self-determination Process. Draft Resolution Urges Probe of Pro-Independence Leader's Killing, Human Rights Abuses; Calls for Clean-up, Decontamination of Vieques. (June 13, 2006)] Retrieved December 3, 2009.</ref> 2007,<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2007/gacol3160.doc.htm 14 June 2007. Special Committee on Decolonization Calls on United States to Expedite Puerto Rico's Self-Determination Process: Text Also Requests General Assembly to Consider Question; Urges Clean Up of Vieques Island, Release of Puerto Rican Political Prisoners.(June 14, 2007)] Retrieved June 21, 2012.</ref> 2009,<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gacol3193.doc.htm June 15, 2009. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Self-determination Process for Puerto Rico. Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence, Statehood, Free Association. (June 15, 2009)] Retrieved September 3, 2010.</ref> 2010,<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2010/gacol3209.doc.htm June 21, 2010. Special Committee on Decolonization Passes Text Urging General Assembly to Consider Formally Situation Concerning Puerto Rico: Draft Resolution Calls on United States to Expedite Island's Self-Determination. (June 21, 2010)] Retrieved July 11, 2010.</ref> and 2011<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3224.doc.htm June 20, 2011. Special Committee on Decolonization Calls on United States, in Consensus Text, to Speed up Process Allowing Puerto Rico to Exercise Self-Determination: Nearly 25 Petitioners Underscore Gravity of Situation on Island, Buckling Under Economic Strain; Vigorous Opposition to Death Penalty Also Expressed.(June 20, 2011)] Retrieved April 22, 2012. {{wayback|url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3224.doc.htm |date=20120114122818 |df=y }}</ref> the United Nations [[Special Committee on Decolonization]] passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence,"<ref name="UN decolonization committee eyes PR">{{cite web|author=casiano communications |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=58665&ct_id=1 |title=UN decolonization committee eyes PR |publisher=Caribbeanbusinesspr.com |date=June 21, 2011 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader [[Filiberto Ojeda Rios]]. ====Recent developments==== {{further|Proposed political status for Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012|President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status}} {{Infobox multichoice referendum | title = Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 | location = Puerto Rico | date = {{start date and years ago|2012|11|06}} | width = 300px | barwidth = 100px | voting_system = [[Majority|simple majority]] for the first question<br />[[first-past-the-post]] for the second question | part1_subject = Should Puerto Rico continue its current territorial status? | part1_choice1 = Yes | part1_choice1_color = silver | part1_percentage1 = 46.00 | part1_choice2 = No | part1_choice2_color = slategray | part1_percentage2 = 54.00 | part2_subject = Which non-territorial option do you prefer? | part2_choice1 = [[Statehood movement in Puerto Rico|Statehood]] | part2_choice1_color = blue | part2_percentage1 = 61.16 | part2_choice2 = [[Free association movement in Puerto Rico|Sovereign Free Associated State]] | part2_choice2_color = red | part2_percentage2 = 33.34 | part2_choice3 = [[Independence movement in Puerto Rico|Independence]] | part2_choice3_color = green | part2_percentage3 = 5.49 | results2_caption = There were 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots counted alongside the 1,363,854 ballots which indicated a choice for one of the non-territorial alternatives. Under Puerto Rico Law, these ballots are not considered cast votes and are therefore not reflected in the final tally.<ref name="oslpr.org">{{cite act |title=Puerto Rico Election Code for the 21st Century |number=78 |language=English |date=2011 |article=2.003(54) |url=http://www.oslpr.org/download/en/2011/A-0078-2011.pdf |accessdate={{date|2014-08-10|mdy}} }}</ref> }} On June 15, 2009, the [[Special Committee on Decolonization|United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization]] approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gacol3193.doc.htm |title=Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence, Statehood, Free Association |publisher=General Assembly of the United Nations |date=June 15, 2009 |postscript=.}}</ref> On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223–169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico's self-determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth, or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans voted to continue as a commonwealth, the Government of Puerto Rico was authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite were certified; if Puerto Ricans voted to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the [[Territorial Clause]] of the United States Constitution.<ref name="afp-referendum">{{Cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hbnA3Ucau6IF7lEjqdfo40sqVy3A |title=US lawmakers clear path for new Puerto Rico referendum |newspaper=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=April 29, 2010 |postscript=. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130130220029/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hbnA3Ucau6IF7lEjqdfo40sqVy3A |archivedate=30 January 2013 }}</ref> During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (sometimes referred to as "the [[status quo]]") political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.<ref name="afp-referendum" /><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=h111-2499|title=Text of H.R. 2499: Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010|journal=[[govtrack.us]] |date=April 29, 2010|postscript=.}}</ref> Immediately following [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]] passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], where it was given two formal readings and referred to the [[United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources|Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources]]. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R.2499, killing the bill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-2499|title=H.R. 2499: Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 - Bill Overview}}</ref> The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggested a two-plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth."<ref name="President Task Force Status Report 2011">[http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/Puerto_Rico_Task_Force_Report.pdf REPORT BY THE PRESIDENT'S TASK FORCE ON PUERTO RICO'S STATUS], March 11, 2011, [http://www.whitehouse.gov/ The White House]</ref> On June 14, 2011, President [[Barack Obama]] "promised to support "a clear decision" by the people of Puerto Rico on statehood".<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/15/us/politics/15obama.html ''In Visit to Puerto Rico, Obama Offers (and Seeks Out) Support''.] Helene Cooper. New York Times. June 14, 2011. Retrieved November 9, 2012.</ref> That same month, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence."<ref name="UN decolonization committee eyes PR"/> On November 6, 2012, a two-question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections.<ref name="oslpr1">[http://www.oslpr.org/2009-2012/leyes/pdf/ley-283-28-Dic-2011.pdf ''Ley Numero 283 del 28 de diciembre de 2011.''] Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. December 28, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.</ref><ref name="oslpr1"/><ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 ''Fortuño calls for status vote next August.''] John Marino. Caribbean Business. Released on October 4, 2011. Retrieved December 8, 2011.</ref> The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or [[Compact of Free Association|free association]].<ref>{{cite web|author=casiano communications |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 |title=Fortuño calls for status, legislative reform votes on August 12, 2012 |publisher=Caribbeanbusinesspr.com |date=October 4, 2011 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status. For the second question, 61.16% voted for statehood, 33.34% for a sovereign free associated state, and 5.49% for independence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Puerto Rico votes on whether to change relationship with US, elects governor and legislators |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/puerto-rico-votes-on-whether-to-change-relationship-with-us-elects-governor-and-legislators/2012/11/06/d87278ae-288b-11e2-aaa5-ac786110c486_story.html |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=November 6, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120114122818/http://www.hispanicmarketinfo.com:80/2011/12/23/census-2010-puerto-rico-dominicans-and-other-immigrants-a-growing-population/ |archivedate=14 January 2012 }}</ref> There were also 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots, which are not reflected in the final tally, as they are not considered cast votes under Puerto Rico law.<ref name="oslpr.org"/> On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico's Legislature passed a concurrent resolution to request to the President and the U.S. Congress action on the November 6, 2012 plebiscite results.<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/2012-concurrent-resolution.pdf ''The Senate and the House of Representative of Puerto Rico: Concurrent Resolution.''] Retrieved December 16, 2012.</ref> But on April 10, 2013, with the issue still being widely debated, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Federal government]].<ref name="ap_referendum">{{cite news |first=Danica |last=Coto |url =http://bigstory.ap.org/article/us-seeks-fund-new-puerto-rico-status-plebiscite |title =US Seeks to Fund New Puerto Rico Status Plebiscite |work =Associated Press |date =April 11, 2013 |accessdate=May 14, 2014 }}</ref> ===Foreign and intergovernmental relations=== {{main|Foreign and intergovernmental relations of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico is subject to the [[Commerce Clause|Commerce]] and [[Territorial Clause]] of the [[Constitution of the United States]] and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing most of the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, regardless, it has established several [[trade agreement]]s with other nations, particularly with [[Hispanic America]]n countries such as [[Colombia]] and [[Panamá]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/colombiaypuertoricosedanlamano-1556164.html |title=Colombia y Puerto Rico se dan la mano |date={{date|2013-07-20|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-08-11|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs/paises/2013/07/23/puerto-rico/ |title=Relaciones comerciales entre Colombia y Puerto Rico |date={{date|2013-07-23|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-08-11|mdy}} |language=Spanish |publisher=[[Universidad ICESI]] }}</ref> It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries and within the United States itself, which now include [[Spain]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Panama]], [[Colombia]], [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[Florida]], and has included in the past offices in [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Mexico]]. Such agreements require permission from the [[U.S. Department of State]] or the [[U.S. Congress]] itself; most, however, are simply allowed by existent laws or trade agreements between the United States and other nations which supersede the trade agreement pursued by Puerto Rico. At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that its [[international relations]] must be handled by the [[Department of State of Puerto Rico]], an [[executive departments of the government of Puerto Rico|executive department]]. The [[Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration]], along with the [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Office of the Resident Commissioner]], manage all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the [[federal government of the United States]], [[local government in the United States|local]] and [[state governments of the United States]], and public or private entities in the United States). Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C.-based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the [[Agency for International Development]], and others. The current [[Secretary of State of Puerto Rico|Secretary of State]] is [[David Bernier]] from the [[Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)|Popular Democratic Party]] and member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party of the United States]], while the current [[List of Directors of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration|Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration]] is [[Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral]] also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party. The [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico]], the [[delegate (United States Congress)|delegate]] elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the [[U.S. Congress]], sits in the [[United States House of Representatives]], serves on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor, also engages in foreign affairs to the same extent as other members of Congress. The current Resident Commissioner is [[Pedro Pierluisi]] from the [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|New Progressive Party]] and member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party of the United States]]. The U.S. has had Puerto Rican ambassadors to different nations, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, the current U.S. ambassador to [[El Salvador]], is Puerto Rican. ===Military=== {{main|Military of Puerto Rico}} As it is a territory of the United States of America, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] with the President of the United States as [[commander-in-chief]]. Puerto Rico has its own [[Puerto Rico National Guard]], and its own [[state defense force]], the [[Puerto Rico State Guard]], which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard. The [[commander-in-chief]] of both local forces is the [[governor of Puerto Rico]] who delegates his authority to the [[Puerto Rico Adjutant General]], currently [[Colonel]] [[Marta Carcana]]. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole. {{clear}} [[File:Federal lands in Puerto Rico and VI.JPG|900px|thumb|center|U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico throughout the 20th century.]] {{clear}} U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the [[United States Atlantic Command|U.S. Atlantic Command]] (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all US military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as [[United States Joint Forces Command]], Puerto Rico is currently the responsibility of [[United States Northern Command]]. Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all US Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all US military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the US Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at [[Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico|Ft Buchanan]], the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the [[U.S. Coast Guard]]. A branch of the [[United States Army National Guard|U.S. Army National Guard]] is stationed in Puerto Rico —known as the [[Puerto Rico Army National Guard]]— which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different [[states of the United States]], including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the [[United States Air National Guard|U.S. Air National Guard]] —known as the [[Puerto Rico Air National Guard]]— which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of the U.S. states. [[File:USS Maryland (SSBN-738) 1997.jpg|thumb|300px|{{sclass-|Ohio|submarine|0}} [[ballistic missile submarine]] USS ''Maryland'', [[Roosevelt Roads Naval Station]], 1997]] At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones,<ref name="WQS">OSD, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (DIOR); "Atlas/Data Abstract for the United States and Selected Areas - Fiscal Year 1997;" Department of Defense; 1998. Note: The count of 25 military installations included the branch component of the Roosevelt Roads Naval facility on the island of Vieques, as distinct from the Roosevelt Roads Naval station in Cieba</ref> as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former [[Roosevelt Roads Naval Station]] in [[Ceiba, Puerto Rico|Ceiba]], the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on [[Vieques]], the National Guard training facility at [[Camp Santiago]] in [[Salinas, Puerto Rico|Salinas]], [[Fort Allen, Puerto Rico|Fort Allen]] in [[Juana Diaz]], the Army's [[Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico|Fort Buchanan]] in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard at Muñiz Air Force base in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].<ref name="CD">Meléndez, Edwin; Meléndez, Edgardo; Colonial Dilemma; [[South End Press]]; Boston; 1993</ref> The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than [[U.S. Coast Guard]] and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Army's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG(Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C-130 Fleet). In recent years, the [[U.S. Congress]] has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico - such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there. Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the [[American Revolution]], when volunteers from Puerto Rico, [[Cuba]], and [[Mexico]] fought the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] in 1779 under the command of General [[Bernardo de Gálvez]] (1746–1786),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mlis.state.md.us/1997rs/billfile/sj0002.htm |title=Participation of Hispanics in the American Revolution |work=SJR2 |author=Maryland General Assembly | date=8 April 1997 |accessdate=9 August 2012}}</ref> and have continued to participate up to the present-day conflicts in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Danny Nieves |url=http://www.valerosos.com/anouncements.html |title=Special Announcements |publisher=Valerosos.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-18}}</ref> A significant number of Puerto Ricans participate as members and work for the U.S. Armed Services, largely as [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military-related community in Puerto Rico is estimated to be 100,000 individuals. This includes retired personnel.<ref name="CD"/> Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces.<ref name="OSD">Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Reserve Affairs; "Official Guard and Reserve Manpower Strengths and Statistics - Summary End Fiscal Year 1996;" 1996</ref> Puerto Rican soldiers have served in every US military conflict from [[World War I]] to the current military engagement known by the United States and its allies as the [[War on Terror|War against Terrorism]]. The [[65th Infantry Regiment]], nicknamed "''The Borinqueneers''" from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), is a [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] regiment of the [[United States Army]]. The regiments motto is ''Honor et Fidelitas'', Latin for ''Honor and Fidelity''. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]], and the [[War on Terror]] and in 2014 was awarded the [[Congressional Gold Medal]] by [[President]] [[Barack Obama]] for its heroism during the Korean Conflict. ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Municipalities of Puerto Rico}} As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first order administrative divisions as defined by the [[U.S. Government]], but there are 78 [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|municipalities]] at the secondary level which function as counties. Municipalities are further subdivided into ''[[barrio]]s'', and those into sectors. Each municipality has a [[mayor]] and a municipal legislature elected to four-year terms. {{clear}} [[File:USA Puerto Rico labeled.svg|thumb|center|900px|A map of Puerto Rico showing its municipalities.]] {{clear}} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico government-debt crisis}} [[File:Puerto-rico-gdp-by-sector.png|thumb|350px|Puerto Rico's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) by [[economic sector]].]] The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a [[high income economy]] by the [[World Bank]] and as the most competitive economy in [[Latin America]] by the [[World Economic Forum]] but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103% of GNP), a government deficit of 2.5 billion US dollars.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://data.worldbank.org/country/puerto-rico|title=World Bank Indicators 2012: Puerto Rico|accessdate=February 5, 2012|author=World Bank Indicators, World Bank}}</ref><ref name="wef-gcr-2013">{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2013-14.pdf |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=[[World Economic Forum]] |year=2013 |accessdate={{date|2013-09-07|mdy}} |first=Klaus |last=Schwab }}</ref> According to [[World Bank]], [[gross national income]] per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP,International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign entities in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GNIPC.pdf|title=Gross national income per capita 2013|accessdate=22 September 2014|author=World Bank Indicators, World Bank}}</ref> Its economy is mainly driven by [[Manufacturing in Puerto Rico|manufacturing]] (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, [[real estate in Puerto Rico|real estate]] and [[tourism in Puerto Rico|tourism]]).{{efn|pr.gov (in Spanish) "La manufactura es el sector principal de la economía de Puerto Rico."<ref name="manufacturing-by-pr.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www2.pr.gov/GobiernoEmpresas/SectoresInversion/Pages/Manufactura.aspx |title= Manufactura |language=Spanish |publisher=[[Government of Puerto Rico]] |accessdate={{date|2013-09-07|mdyh}} }}</ref>}}{{efn|pr.gov (in Spanish) "Algunas de las industrias más destacadas dentro del sector de la manufactura son: las farmacéuticas, los textiles, los petroquímicos, las computadoras, la electrónica y las compañías dedicadas a la manufactura de instrumentos médicos y científicos, entre otros."<ref name="manufacturing-by-pr.gov" />}} The [[geography of Puerto Rico]] and [[political status of Puerto Rico|its political status]] are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; [[Natural resource economics|its lack of natural resources]] used to produce [[raw material]]s {{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}, and, consequently, its dependence on [[import]]s; as well as its [[suzerainty]] to the United States which controls its [[foreign policy]] while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in [[transportation in Puerto Rico|its shipping industry]]. Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the [[Internal Revenue Code|U.S. Internal Revenue Code]] had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established [[tax exemption]]s for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a [[purchasing power parity]] per capita higher than 80% of the rest of the world.<ref>[[Alan Heston]], [[Robert Summers]] and Bettina Aten, [http://pwt.econ.upenn.edu/php_site/pwt71/pwt71_form.php Penn World Table Version 7.1], Center for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], July 2012. Accessed on August 19, 2012. Note: GDP per capita data are "PPP Converted GDP Per Capita, average GEKS-CPDW, at current prices (in I$)", labeled as variable "cgdp2".</ref> Academically, most of Puerto Rico's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self-sufficient and self-sustainable throughout history;{{efn|Torrech San Inocencio (2011; in Spanish) "Con los más de $1,500 millones anuales que recibimos en asistencia federal para alimentos podríamos desarrollar una industria alimentaria autosuficiente en Puerto Rico."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/voz-titulo-1137663.html |title=La autosuficiencia alimentaria |first=Rafael |last=Torrcech San Inocencio |date={{date|2011-12-07|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-19|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] }}</ref>}} its highly politicized public policy which tends to change [[political party strength in Puerto Rico|whenever a political party gains power]];{{efn|Millán Rodriguez (2013; in Spanish) "Los representantes del Pueblo en la Junta de Gobierno de la Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica [...] denunciaron ayer que la propuesta del Gobernador para hacer cambios en la composición del organismo institucionaliza la intervención político partidista en la corporación pública y la convierte en una agencia del Ejecutivo.."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vocero.com/denuncian-politizacion-de-junta-aee/ |title=Denuncian politización de Junta AEE |first=Yamilet |last=Millán Rodríguez |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |date={{date|2013-04-04|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-19|mdy}} |language=Spanish }}</ref>}} as well as [[government of Puerto Rico|its highly inefficient local government]]{{efn|Vera Rosa (2013; in Spanish) "Aunque Puerto Rico mueve entre el sector público y privado $15 billones en el área de salud, las deficiencias en el sistema todavía no alcanzan un nivel de eficiencia óptimo."<ref name="el-vocero-inefficient-health-2013">{{cite news |url=http://www.vocero.com/ineficiencia-arropa-a-los-recursos-economicos-de-salud/ |title=Ineficiencia arropa a los recursos económicos de salud |date={{date|2013-05-17|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-19|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |first=Ileanexis |last=Vera Rosado }}</ref>}}{{efn|Vera Rosado (2013; in Spanish) "Para mejorar la calidad de servicio, que se impacta principalmente por deficiencias administrativas y no por falta de dinero[...]"<ref name="el-vocero-inefficient-health-2013" />}} which has accrued a [[public debt of Puerto Rico|public debt]] equal to 68% of its [[gross domestic product]] throughout time.{{efn|González (2012; in Spanish) "[...] al analizarse la deuda pública de la Isla contra el Producto Interno Bruto (PIB), se ubicaría en una relación deuda/PIB de 68% aproximadamente."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/debemosmasdeloqueproducimos-1278143.html |title=Debemos más de lo que producimos |first=Jenisabel |last=González |date={{date|2012-06-13|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-19|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] }}</ref>}}{{efn|Bauzá (2013; in Spanish) "La realidad de nuestra situación económica y fiscal es resultado de años de falta de acción. Al Gobierno le faltó creatividad, innovación y rapidez en la creación de un nuevo modelo económico que sustentara nuestra economía. Tras la eliminación de la Sección 936, debimos ser proactivos, y no lo fuimos."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/garciapadillainsisteenqueheredounpaisencantos-1657317.html |title=García Padilla insiste en que heredó un país "en cantos" |first=Nydia |last=Bauzá |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date={{date|2013-12-02|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-12-02|mdy}} |language=Spanish}}</ref>}} In comparison to [[U.S. state|the different states of the United States]], Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41% of its population below the [[poverty threshold|poverty line]].{{efn|Quintero (2013; in Spanish) "Los indicadores de una economía débil son muchos, y la economía en Puerto Rico está sumamente debilitada, según lo evidencian la tasa de desempleo (13.5%), los altos niveles de pobreza (41.7%), los altos niveles de quiebra y la pérdida poblacional."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.noticel.com/noticia/148055/las-estadisticas-hablan-puerto-rico-camino-a-ser-el-detroit-del-caribe.html |title=Las estadísticas hablan: Puerto Rico camino a ser el "Detroit del Caribe" |first=Laura |last=Quintero |date={{date|2013-09-14|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2014-01-22|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[NotiCel]] }}</ref>}} When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the [[United States]] itself, [[Ireland]], and [[Japan]], with most products coming from [[East Asia]], mainly from [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]]. At a global scale, Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for [[transportation in Puerto Rico|transportation]] and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in [[global economy|the world economy]] and [[climate]]. ===Infrastructure=== {{Main|Transportation in Puerto Rico|Communications in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority|Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority}} [[File:Puerto Rico Interstates.svg|thumb|350px|[[List of highways in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico interstate highways]].]] Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, [[freeway]]s, [[limited-access road|expressway]]s, and [[highway]]s maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the [[Puerto Rico Police Department]]. The island's [[metropolitan area]] is served by a [[Autoridad Metropolitana de Autobuses|public bus transit system]] and a [[rapid transit|metro system]] called ''[[Tren Urbano]]'' (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as ''Carros Públicos'' ([[Share taxi|private mini buses]]). Puerto Rico has three [[international airport]]s, the [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport]] in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Mercedita Airport]] in Ponce, and the [[Rafael Hernández Airport]] in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.<ref name=PRPA2008-07-28>{{cite web|url=http://www.prpa.gobierno.pr/APMain.aspx |title=Aeropuertos Internacionales y Regionales (Spanish) |publisher=Puerto Rico Ports Authority |accessdate=February 6, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20091007181239/http://www.prpa.gobierno.pr:80/apmain.aspx |archivedate=7 October 2009 }}</ref> [[File:Tren Urbano in Bayamón (Puerto Rico).jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Tren Urbano]] system at Bayamón Station.]] Puerto Rico has nine [[port]]s in different cities across the main island. The [[San Juan Port]] is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively.<ref name=PRPA2008-07-28 /> The second largest port is the [[Port of the Americas]] in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to {{Nowrap|1.5 million}} twenty-foot containers ([[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEUs]]) per year.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.portoftheamericas.com/about.project/overview.htm| title=About the Project – Overview| publisher=Port of the Americas Authority| accessdate=July 28, 2008}}</ref> The '''Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority''' ('''PREPA''') —Spanish: ''Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica '' ('''AEE''')— is an [[electric power company]] and the [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico]] responsible for [[electricity generation]], [[electric power transmission|power transmission]], and [[electric power distribution|power distribution]] in Puerto Rico.<ref>http://www.presupuesto.gobierno.pr/PresupuestosAnteriores/af2008_2009/Tomo_II/suppdocs/baselegal/169/169.pdf</ref> PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a [[government monopoly]]. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the [[advice and consent]] of the [[Senate of Puerto Rico]], and is run by an Executive Director. Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the [[Federal Communications Commission|US Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17140680 "Puerto Rico profile"], ''BBC News'', 23 May 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</ref> As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the [[American Forces Network|US Armed Forces Radio and Television Service]] also broadcast on the island.<ref name=CIAWFB-PuertoRico-2013>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html "Communications: Puerto Rico"], ''World Factbook'', U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 9 December 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</ref> ===Public finances=== {{main|Puerto Rico government-debt crisis|Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico|public debt of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico has an [[operating budget]] of about $9.8 billion USD with expenses at about $10.4 billion; creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9% of the budget).<ref name="el-vocero-la-estadidad-es-uniforme">{{cite news |url=http://elvocero.com/la-estadidad-es-una-unica-uniforme-e-irreversible/ |title=La Estadidad es una, única, uniforme e irreversible |first=José |last=Castrodad |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |date=7 April 2014 |accessdate=8 April 2014}}</ref> The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for {{years ago|2000}} consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover said projected deficits rather than make proper adjustments. This practice eroded Puerto Rico's treasury as the government had already been issuing bonds [[Puerto Rico government budget balance|to balance its actual budget]] for four decades since 1973.{{efn|Walsh (2013) "In each of the last six years, Puerto Rico sold hundreds of millions of dollars of new bonds just to meet payments on its older, outstanding bonds — a red flag. It also sold $2.5 billion worth of bonds to raise cash for its troubled pension system — a risky practice — and it sold still more long-term bonds to cover its yearly budget deficits."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/10/07/worsening-debt-crisis-threatens-puerto-rico/ |title=Worsening Debt Crisis Threatens Puerto Rico |first=Mary |last=Walsh |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date={{date|2013-10-07|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-10-08|mdy}} }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/comopuertoricollegoatenercreditochatarra-1704621.html |title=¿Cómo Puerto Rico llegó a tener crédito chatarra? |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date={{date|2014-02-04|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2014-03-02}} |language=Spanish }}</ref> [[File:Budget-of-the-government-of-puerto-rico-2012-percentage.png|thumb|400px|The 2012 Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico.]] Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued [[Public debt of Puerto Rico|a public debt]] of $71B or about 70% of Puerto Rico's gross domestic product. This sparked [[Puerto Rico government-debt crisis|an ongoing government-debt crisis]] after Puerto Rico's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status") by three credit rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6% —or about $1.5 billion— of Puerto Rico's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service.{{efn|PRGDB "Financial Information and Operating Data Report to October 18, 2013" p. 142<ref name="gdb-report-2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.gdb-pur.com/spa/documents/commonwealthreport.pdf |title=Financial Information and Operating Data Report to October 18, 2013 |publisher=[[Puerto Rico Government Development Bank]] |date={{date|2013-10-18|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2014-03-04|mdy}} }}</ref>}} Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the following years. For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget" which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the [[Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico]], and the "consolidated budget" which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico's government-owned corporations]], by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the [[federal government of the United States]], and by other funds. Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29B and $9.0B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government-owned corporations compose more than 31% of the consolidated budget. The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7% of the consolidated budget; a ratio that increased annually due to the government's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government-owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt as not a single one is self-sufficient, all of them carrying extremely inefficient operations. For example, in FY2011 the government-owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3B with the [[Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority]] (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409M, the [[Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority]] (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272M, while the [[Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority]] (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112M.<ref>[http://grupocne.org/2013/01/31/san-juan-2023-o-la-decadencia-de-un-pais/ San Juan 2023 o la decadencia de un País : CNE – Centro Para Una Nueva Economía – Center for a New Economy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> All these losses were defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40% of Puerto Rico's entire public debt today.<ref>http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/presupuesto2011-2012/Resumen%20del%20Presupuesto/Servicio%20de%20la%20Deuda.pdf</ref> Holistically, from FY2000–FY2010 Puerto Rico's debt grew at a [[compound annual growth rate]] (CAGR) of 9% while GDP remained stagnant.<ref>http://gdbpr.com/spa/investors_resources/documents/2011-07-12-DeudaPublicaDic2010-GS.pdf</ref> In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the [[Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget]] (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before July 1, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session", the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be unpractical to submit a request so far ahead. Once submitted the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a [[joint resolution]] and referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor's approval, or approve it without the governor's consent by two thirds of the bodies of each chamber.<ref>http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/PresupuestoAprobado2013-2014/Informacin%20General/Proceso%20Presupuestario.pdf</ref> Once approved the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, all while the [[Puerto Rico Government Development Bank]] (the government's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government-owned corporations. ===Cost of living=== [[File:Map-of-jones-act-carrier-routes-for-puerto-rico.png|thumb|350px|A map of [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|Jones Act]] carrier routes for Puerto Rico.]] The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade.{{efn|MRGI (2008) "Many female migrants leave their families behind due to the risk of illegal travel and the high cost of living in Puerto Rico."<ref name="refworld.org"/>}}<ref>[http://www.militaryinstallations.dod.mil/pls/psgprod/f?p=132:CONTENT:618940367579001::NO::P4_INST_ID,P4_INST_TYPE:4150,INSTALLATION "Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico."] ''Military Installations''. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2014-06-17.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/29/puerto-ricos-cost-of-livi_n_4013350.html |title=Puerto Rico's Cost Of Living Skyrockets |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date= 29 September 2013|accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html?_r=0 | work=The New York Times | first=Lizette | last=Alvarez | title=Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus | date=8 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/sigueenaumentoelcostodevidaenpuertorico-1585599.html |title=Home - El Nuevo Día |publisher=Elnuevodia.com |date=2013-08-31 |accessdate=2014-04-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20140208121032/http://www.elnuevodia.com:80/sigueenaumentoelcostodevidaenpuertorico-1585599.html |archivedate=8 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.primerahora.com/noticias/gobierno-politica/nota/midaconcluyealtocostodevidaeslapreocupacionmayordelboricua-399279/ |title=MIDA concluye alto costo de vida es la preocupación mayor del boricua |publisher=Primerahora.com |date=2013-02-13 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Dougherty |first=Conor |url=http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB118705864479596908 |title=Puerto Rico's Economic Slump Weighs Hard on Consumers - WSJ.com |publisher=Online.wsj.com |date=2007-08-14 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Coto |first=Danica |url=http://nbclatino.com/2013/09/29/life-in-puerto-rico-becomes-costlier-amid-crisis/ |title=Life in Puerto Rico becomes costlier amid crisis |publisher=Nbclatino.com |date=2013-09-29 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> San Juan's in particular is higher than [[Atlanta]], [[Dallas]], and [[Seattle]] but lower than [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], and [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercer.com/press-releases/1420615 |title=Worldwide Cost of Living Survey 2011 |publisher=Mercer.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20140410174442/http://www.mercer.com/press-releases/1420615 |archivedate=10 April 2014 }}</ref> One factor is housing prices which are comparable to [[Miami]] and [[Los Angeles]], although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.{{efn|Rivera. "Housing prices in Puerto Rico are comparable to Miami or Los Angeles, but property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the US."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/moving.shtml |title=Moving to Puerto Rico |first=Magaly |last=Rivera |publisher=Welcome to Puerto Rico! |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} }}</ref>}} Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24¢ to 30¢ range per kilowatt/hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States." While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories. The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from $100,000 USD to $214,000 USD, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.{{efn|FRBNY (2011) "...home values vary considerably across municipios: for the metro area overall, the median value of owner-occupied homes was estimated at $126,000 (based on data for 2007-09), but these medians ranged from $214,000 in Guaynabo to around $100,000 in some of the outlying municipios. The median value in the San Juan municipio was estimated at $170,000."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorkfed.org/regional/profile_puertorico.html |title=Puerto Rico |publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] |date=August 2011 |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} }}</ref>}} [[File:Milla-de-oro-min-2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Hato Rey]] Milla de Oro.]] [[File:Flying into San Juan-Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|300px|Flying into the capital San Juan.]] One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920]], also known as the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|Jones Act]], which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as [[cabotage]].<ref name="erg-trade">{{cite web |url=http://graduados.uprrp.edu/planificacion/facultad/elias-gutierrez/ERGTRADE.pdf |title=Impact of the Coastwise Trade Laws on the Transportation System of the United States of America |first=Elías |last=Gutierrez |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} }}</ref> Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], [[Western Europe]], and [[Africa]] cannot stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico-bound goods, load mainland-bound Puerto Rico-manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors [[break bulk cargo|break bulk]] and send Puerto Rico-bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.<ref name="erg-trade" /> However, a 2013 GAO Study reported that, "Shippers doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often—although not always—lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. However, data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred."<ref>http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/653046.pdf</ref> The [[government of Puerto Rico|local government of Puerto Rico]] has requested several times to the [[U.S. Congress]] to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success.{{efn|Santiago (2021) "Local detractors of the Jones Act [...] for many years have unsuccessfully tried to have Puerto Rico excluded from the law's provisions[...]"<ref>{{cite news |title=Jones Act requirement comes under new light |first=Jaime |last=Santiago |newspaper=[[Caribbean Business]] |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/prnt_ed/news02.php?nw_id=7877&ct_id=0 |date={{date|2012-11-29|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} }}</ref>}} The most recent measure has been taken by the [[17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] through [http://www.oslpr.org/files/docs/{A8F2DF0C-A03D-40C7-A198-ED9C945F81C4}.doc R. Conc. del S. 21].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oslpr.org/files/docs/{A8F2DF0C-A03D-40C7-A198-ED9C945F81C4}.doc |title=R. Conc. del S. 21 |format=[[Microsoft Word]] |publisher=[[Puerto Rico Office of Legislative Services]] |date={{date|2013-05-06|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} |language=Spanish }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.noticel.com/noticia/141423/senado-aprueba-proyecto-para-pedir-trato-preferencial-en-leyes-de-cabotaje.html |title=Senado aprueba proyecto para pedir trato preferencial en leyes de cabotaje |newspaper=[[NotiCel]] |date={{date|2013-06-05|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} |language=Spanish }}</ref> These measures have always received support from all the [[Political party strength in Puerto Rico|major local political parties]]. In 2013 the [[Government Accountability Office]] published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs" and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs."{{efn|name=joc-gao-report-repeal-quote|JOC (2013) "Repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs"<ref name="joc-gao-report"/>}}{{efn|name=joc-gao-report-lower-costs-quote|JOC (2013) "The GAO report said its interviews with shippers indicated they [...] believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs."<ref name="joc-gao-report" />}} The report, however, concluded that the effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the [[United States Merchant Marine|U.S. shipping industry]] and the military preparedness of the United States.<ref name="joc-gao-report">{{cite news |url=http://www.joc.com/regulation-policy/transportation-regulations/united-states/gao’s-jones-act-report-inconclusive_20130320.html |title=GAO's Jones Act Report Is Inconclusive |newspaper=[[The Journal of Commerce]] |date={{date|2013-03-20|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}} }}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Puerto Rico|Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico}} {{clear}} [[File:Population Density, PR, 2000 (sample).jpg|thumb|750px|center|Population density, Census 2000]] {{clear}} The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian settlement]], [[Spanish Empire|European colonization]], [[slavery]], economic migration, and Puerto Rico's status as unincorporated territory of the United States. ===Population and racial makeup=== {{main|Puerto Rican people}} {{Historical populations |1765 |44,883 |1775 |70,250 |1800 |155,426 |1815 |220,892 |1832 |350,051 |1846 |447,914 |1860 |583,308 |1877 |731,648 |1887 |798,565 |1899 |953,243 |1910 |1,118,012 |1920 |1,299,809 |1930 |1,543,913 |1940 |1,869,255 |1950 |2,210,703 |1960 |2,349,544 |1970 |2,712,033 |1980 |3,196,520 |1990 |3,522,037 |2000 |3,808,610 |2010 |3,725,789 |2014 |3,548,397 |align-fn=center |footnote=1765–2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://welcome.topuertorico.org/reference/pophistory.shtml|title=Population History, 1765-2010|publisher=Welcome to Puerto Rico!|accessdate=September 7, 2014}}</ref><br />2014 Estimate<ref name=PopEstUS/>}} Continuous European immigration helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800, to almost a million by the close of the 19th century. A census conducted by royal decree on {{Nowrap|September 30}}, 1858 gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were Free [[colored]]; 300,430 identified as [[White people|Whites]]; and 41,736 were [[slaves]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Middeldyk|first=R.A|title=The History of Puerto Rico|url=http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico.html|accessdate=May 29, 2008|chapter=Part 4|chapterurl=http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico4.html|isbn=0-405-06241-9}}</ref> During the 19th century hundreds of [[Corsica]]n, [[France|French]], [[Lebanon|Lebanese]], [[Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico|Chinese]], and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from [[Catalonia]], [[Asturias]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Andalusia]], and the [[Canary Islands]]) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico|Irish]], [[Scotland|Scots]], [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|Germans]], [[Italian people|Italians]] and thousands of others who were granted land by Spain during the ''Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815'' ("[[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]]"), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church. {{bar box |title=Racial and Ethnic Composition in Puerto Rico (2010 Census)<ref name="2010profile"/> |title bar=#fff |left1=Ethnicity |float=left |bars= {{bar percent|[[White Puerto Rican|White]]|Blue|75.8}} {{bar percent|[[Black history in Puerto Rico|Black or African American]]|Black|12.4}} {{bar percent|[[Asian people|Asian]]|yellow|0.2}} {{bar percent|[[Multiracial American|Two or more races]]|green|3.3}} {{bar percent|[[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]]|red|0.5}} {{bar percent|[[Pacific Islander American|Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander]]|orange|0.1}} {{bar percent|Other races|#9999FF|7.8}} |caption=Note: Hispanic or Latino (of any race) makes up 99.0 percent of the population. }} Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The [[2000 United States Census]] included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as White and Hispanic; few identified as Black or some other race. The population of Puerto Rico was 3,548,397 on July 1, 2014, a -4.76% decrease since the [[2010 United States Census]].<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2014/tables/NST-EST2014-01.csv|format=CSV|title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014|date=December 28, 2014|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 28, 2014}}</ref> From 2000 to 2010, the population decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico. It went from the 3,808,610 residents registered in the 2000 Census to 3,725,789 in the 2010 Census.<ref name="Wall">[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/wall-street-eyes-pr-population-loss-79553.html "Wall Street eyes PR population loss"], ''Caribbean Business'', December 14, 2012, accessed December 14, 2012</ref> A declining and aging population presents additional problems for the society. The Census Bureau has noted that "76,218 people residing in the U.S. last year lived in Puerto Rico one year earlier."<ref name="Wall"/> ====Population genetics==== A recent [[population genetics]] study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that between 52.6% and 84% of the population possess some degree of Amerindian [[mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) in their maternal ancestry, usually in a combination with other ancestries. In addition, these DNA studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.<ref name="native">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1353/hub.2001.0056 | last1 = Martínez-Cruzado | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Toro-Labrador | first2 = G. | last3 = Ho-Fung | first3 = V. | last4 = Estévez-Montero | first4 = M. A. | last5 = Lobaina-Manzanet | first5 = A. | last6 = Padovani-Claudio | first6 = D. A. | last7 = Sánchez-Cruz | first7 = H. | last8 = Ortiz-Bermúdez | first8 = P. | last9 = Sánchez-Crespo | first9 = A. | title = Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals substantial Native American ancestry in Puerto Rico | journal = Human biology | volume = 73 | issue = 4 | pages = 491–511 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11512677 }}</ref><ref name="Madrigal">{{cite book|last=Lorena Madrigal|first=Madrigal|title=Human biology of Afro-Caribbean populations|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2006 |page=121|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ddnkIaZRHxEC&pg=PA121|isbn=978-0-521-81931-2|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bonilla | year = 2004 | title = Ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in Puerto Rican women from New York City | url = | journal = Hum Gen | volume = 115 | issue = | pages = 57–58 | doi=10.1007/s00439-004-1125-7|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Martinez-Cruzado | year = 2005 | title = Reconstructing the population history of Puerto Rico by means of mtDNA phylogeographic analysis | url = | journal = Am J Phys Anthropol | volume = 128| issue = 1| pages = 131–55| pmid = 15693025 | doi=10.1002/ajpa.20108|display-authors=etal}}</ref> One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans found them to be roughly around 61% [[West Eurasian]] (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27% [[Sub-Saharan African]] and 11% [[Native American]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/|journal=The Genographic Project|title=Your Regional Ancestry: Reference Populations}}</ref> Another genetic study from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (ie. Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66%, 18%, and 16%, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tang|first1=Hua|last2=Choudhry|first2=Shweta|last3=Mei|first3=Rui|last4=Morgan|first4=Martin|last5=Rodríguez-Clintron|first5=William|last6=González Burchard|first6=Esteban|last7=Risch|first7=Neil|title=Recent Genetic Selection in the Ancestral Admixture of Puerto Ricans|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|date=August 1, 2007|volume=81 (3)|pages=626–633|doi=10.1086/520769}}</ref> Other study estimates 63.7% European, 21.2% (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2% Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Via|first1=Mark|last2=Gignoux|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Roth|first3=Lindsey|last4=Fejerman|first4=Laura|last5=Galander|first5=Joshua|last6=Choudhry|first6=Shweta|last7=Toro-Labrador|first7=Gladys|last8=Viera-Vera|first8=Jorge|last9=Oleksyk|first9=Taras K.|last10=Beckman|first10=Kenneth|last11=Ziv|first11=Elad|last12=Risch|first12=Neil|last13=González Burchard|first13=Esteban|last14=Nartínez-Cruzado|first14=Juan Carlos|title=History Shaped the Geographic Distribution of Genomic Admixture on the Island of Puerto Rico|journal= |date= |volume= |pages= |doi= |url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0016513}} </ref> According to data provided by the [[DNA Tribes]] company, as of 2013 the [[genetic admixture]] of Puerto Ricans was, on average, 72.2% West Eurasian (49% European, 18.3% Saharan-Arabian, 4.9% West Asian), 12.7% Native American, 12.5% Sub-Saharan African, and 1.4% Northeast African.<ref>{{cite journal|title=DNA Tribes SNP Admixture Results by Population|journal=DNA Tribes|date=February 11, 2013|url=http://www.dnatribes.com/dnatribes-snp-admixture-2013-02-11.pdf}}</ref> ===Immigration and emigration=== {| style="float: right;" border="3" class="wikitable" |- | colspan="7" style="text-align: center;" | Racial groups |- ! Year !! Population !! White !! Mixed (mainly Mulatto) !! Black !! Asian !! Other |- | 2000 | 3 808 610 | 80,5% (3 064 862) | 11,0% (418 426) | 8,0% (302 933) | 0,2% (7 960) | 0,4% (14 429) |- | 2010 | 3 725 789 | 75,8% (`2 824 148) | 11,1% (`413 563) | 12,4% (`461 998) | 0,2% (`7 452) | 0,6% (`22 355) |} Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents. The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from the [[Dominican Republic immigration to Puerto Rico|Dominican Republic]] and [[Haitian diaspora|Haiti]].<ref name="refworld.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749cc7c.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Puerto Rico : Dominicans |publisher=[[Minority Rights Group International]] |year=2008 |accessdate={{date|2013-09-06|mdy}}}}</ref><ref>[http://latinousa.org/2014/03/28/border-puerto-ricos-seas/ The Other Border: Puerto Rico's Seas - Latino USA - Latino USA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://dailycaller.com/2014/07/26/haitian-illegal-immigration-through-puerto-rico-is-skyrocketing-too/ Illegal Immigration Through Puerto Rico Is Skyrocketing Too | The Daily Caller<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.hispanicmarketinfo.com/2011/12/23/census-2010-puerto-rico-dominicans-and-other-immigrants-a-growing-population/] {{wayback|url=http://www.hispanicmarketinfo.com/2011/12/23/census-2010-puerto-rico-dominicans-and-other-immigrants-a-growing-population/ |date=20120114122818 |df=y }}</ref><ref>http://www.havenscenter.org/files/Dominican%20Migration%20to%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/06/haitian-immigrants-puerto-rico-_n_3225298.html Haiti Immigrants Using Puerto Rico As Gateway To U.S. In New Migrant Route<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Other sources sending in significant numbers of recent immigrants include [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], [[Panama]], [[Jamaica]], [[Venezuela]], [[Spain]], and [[Nigeria]].<ref>[http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table American FactFinder - Results<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/dominican-people-smugglers-trafficked-cubans-to-puerto-rico Dominican People Smugglers Trafficked Cubans to Puerto Rico<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Also, there are many non-Puerto Rican US citizens settling in Puerto Rico, from the mainland United States and the [[US Virgin Islands]], as well as [[Nuyorican]]s (stateside Puerto Ricans) coming back to Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite news|title=Puerto Rico's population swap: The middle class for millionaires|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32344131|accessdate=June 3, 2015|work=BBC|date=May 5, 2015}}</ref> Most recent immigrants settle areas in and around San Juan. [[Emigration]] is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after [[World War&nbsp;II]], poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to the [[Northeastern United States|Northeastern states]], and [[Florida]].<ref>[http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_S0201&prodType=table American FactFinder - Results<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "[[circular migration]]", with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1% in 2012 and an additional 1% (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html?src=me New York Times: "Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus" By LIZETTE ALVAREZ February 8, 2014]</ref> ===Population distribution=== The most populous city is the capital, [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], with approximately 395,326 people. Other major cities include [[Bayamón, Puerto Rico|Bayamón]], [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], and [[Caguas, Puerto Rico|Caguas]]. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered [[San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo metropolitan area|San Juan's metropolitan area]], while the other two are located in the south ([[Ponce metropolitan area|Ponce]]) and west ([[Mayagüez metropolitan area|Mayagüez]]) of the island. {{clear}} {{Largest cities | name = Largest cities of Puerto Rico | country = Puerto Rico | stat_ref = 2010 Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://electionspuertorico.org/referencia/censo2010/|title=Población de Puerto Rico por Municipios 2010 y 2000|work=Elections Puerto Rico|accessdate=October 14, 2012}}</ref> | list_by_pop = List of cities in Puerto Rico | div_name = Metropolitan Statistical Area | div_link = Metropolitan Statistical Area<!-- the template will automatically create a link for "div_name of country" (e.g. Provinces of Chile), if this doesn't work you can use this field --> | city_1 = San Juan, Puerto Rico{{!}}San Juan | div_1 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_1 = 395,326 | img_1 = San_Juan_CBD.jpg | city_2 = Bayamón | div_2 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_2 = 208,116 | img_2 = Bayamon_Cityscape.jpg | city_3 = Carolina, Puerto Rico{{!}}Carolina | div_3 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_3 = 176,762 | img_3 = Islaverdeskyline.jpg | city_4 = Ponce, Puerto Rico{{!}}Ponce | div_4 = Ponce metropolitan area{{!}}Ponce | pop_4 = 166,327 | img_4 = Ponce001.jpg | city_5 = Caguas | div_5 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_5 = 142,893 | city_6 = Guaynabo | div_6 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_6 = 97,924 | city_7 = Arecibo | div_7 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_7 = 96,440 | city_8 = Toa Baja | div_8 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_8 = 89,609 | city_9 = Mayagüez | div_9 = Mayagüez metropolitan area{{!}}Mayagüez | pop_9 = 89,080 | city_10 = Trujillo Alto | div_10 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_10 = 74,842 }} {{clear}} ===Languages=== The [[official language]]s<ref>"Official Language", ''Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language'', Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico<ref>Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), p. 588-589. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Espanol: Idioma del proceso judicial", 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma", 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).</ref> were Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English-only language law.<ref>[http://muniz-arguelles.com/resources/The+status+of+languages+in+Puerto+Rico.pdf ''The Status of Languages in Puerto Rico.''] Muniz-Arguelles, Luis. University of Puerto Rico. 1986. Page 466. Retrieved December 4, 2012.</ref> All official business of the [[U.S. District Court]] for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is spoken by a small minority – less than 10% of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by over 95% of the population.<ref name="factfinder.census.gov">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-context=adp&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=307&-_lang=en&-_caller=geoselect&-format= |title=U.S. Census Annual Population Estimates 2007 |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |date= |accessdate=2014-04-18 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130516023605/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-context=adp&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=307&-_lang=en&-_caller=geoselect&-format= |archivedate=16 May 2013 }}</ref> Public school instruction in Puerto Rico is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There are pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/08/puerto-rico-governor-fortuno-bilingual_n_1501225.html ''Puerto Rico Governor Luis Fortuño Proposes Plan For Island's Public Schools To Teach In English Instead Of Spanish.''] Danica Coto. Huffington Latino Voices. 05/08/12 (May 8, 2012). Retrieved December 4, 2012.</ref> English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are [[American Sign Language]] and its local variant, [[Puerto Rican Sign Language]]. The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in the present-day Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional [[Taíno]] words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West [[African languages]] were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans. According to a study by the University of Puerto Rico, nine of every ten Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico do not speak English at an advanced level.<ref>{{cite news|author=Prensa Asociada |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/latino/espanol/2009/02/25/2009-02-25_se_discrimina_al_usar_el_ingls_en_alguno-2.html |title=',¿Se discrimina al usar el inglés en algunos tribunales de Puerto Rico?', New York Daily News. Feb 24, 2009. (In Spanish) |work=Daily News |date=February 24, 2009 |accessdate=August 14, 2010 | location=New York}}</ref> More recently, according to the ''2005–2009 Population and Housing Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico'', among people at least five years old living in Puerto Rico in 2005–2009, 95 percent spoke a language other than English at home. Of those speaking a language other than English at home, 100 percent spoke Spanish and less than 0.5 percent spoke some other language; 85 percent reported that they did not speak English "very well."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/NPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_NPPR01&-ds_name=&-redoLog=false |title=2005–2009 Population and Housing Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico |accessdate=May 19, 2011 |date=2005–2009 |work=U.S. Census Narrative Profile |publisher=U.S. Census |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111008150642/http://factfinder.census.gov:80/servlet/NPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_NPPR01&-ds_name=&-redoLog=false |archivedate=8 October 2011 }}</ref> Spanish became the official language of the island in 2015. ===Religion=== {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Puerto Rico (2014) <ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/# Religion in Latin America | Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |label1 = [[Catholics]] |value1 = 56 |color1 = Purple |label2 = [[Protestants]] |value2 = 33 |color2 = Blue |label3 = Unaffiliated |value3 = 8 |color3 = Gray |label4 = Other |value4 = 2 |color4 = Lime }} The [[Roman Catholicism in Puerto Rico|Roman Catholic Church]] was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first [[dioceses]] in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by [[Pope Julius&nbsp;II]] in 1511.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Porto Rico}}</ref> One Pope, [[John Paul&nbsp;II]], visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|municipalities]] in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center or "''plaza''". African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the [[Yoruba religion|Yoruba]] beliefs of [[Santería]] and/or [[Ifá]], and the [[Kongo people|Kongo]]-derived [[Palo Mayombe]]. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity. [[Protestantism]], which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has slightly reemerged under United States rule, making modern Puerto Rico more interconfessional although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Holy Trinity Church in Ponce, was established by the [[Anglican]] diocese of Antigua in 1872.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://episcopalpr.org/sobre_nosotros/sobre_nosotros.html |title=Sobre Nosotros |publisher=Episcopalpr.org |accessdate=February 6, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100317153425/http://www.episcopalpr.org:80/sobre_nosotros/sobre_nosotros.html |archivedate=17 March 2010 }}</ref> [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|German]] settlers in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] founded the Iglesia Santísima Trinidad, an [[Anglican Church]], the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire [[Spanish Empire]] in [[the Americas]].<ref>Luis Fortuño Janeiro. ''Album Histórico de Ponce (1692-1963).'' Page 165. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Imprenta Fortuño. 1963.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.preb.com/articulos/aleman2.htm |title=La presencia Germanica en Puerto Rico |publisher=Preb.com |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> Growth has occurred among Pentecostals. Estimates of the Protestant population vary greatly. Pollster Pablo Ramos reported in 1998 that the population was 38% Catholic, 28% Pentecostals, 4% Baptist, and 18% members of independent churches; Protestants collectively numbered almost two million of an island population of 3.6 million. "The conclusion is that Puerto Rico is no longer predominantly Catholic." (''The San Juan Star,'' April 12, 1998: "Study reflects growing numbers of churchgoers"). Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants: <blockquote>Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are [[Pentecostal]]. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960-1985 for another twenty-five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco..." in ''Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America,'' Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p.&nbsp;164).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english.turkcebilgi.com/Protestants+in+Puerto+Rico |title=Protestants in Puerto Rico | publisher=english.turkcebilgi.com |accessdate=April 21, 2013}}</ref></blockquote> An [[Eastern Orthodox]] community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. The congregation represents Greeks, Russians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Americans, Moldavians, and Puerto Ricans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://parish.orthodoxtheologicalinstitute.org/Dormition_of_the_Theotokos/Welcome.html |title=Welcome |publisher=Parish.orthodoxtheologicalinstitute.org |date= |accessdate=November 25, 2012}}</ref> In 1940, [[Juanita García Peraza]] founded the [[Mita Congregation]], the first religion of Puerto Rican origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webpub.allegheny.edu/group/LAS/LatinAmIssues/Articles/Vol13/LAI_vol_13_section_I.html |title=Latin American issues Vol. 3 |publisher=Webpub.allegheny.edu |accessdate=February 6, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20101202221418/http://webpub.allegheny.edu/group/LAS/LatinAmIssues/Articles/Vol13/LAI_vol_13_section_I.html |archivedate=2 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Taíno people|Taíno religious practices]] have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island's first [[synagogue]] in the former residence of William Korber, a wealthy Puerto Rican of Jewish [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|German]] descent. It was designed and built by the [[Czech people|Czech]] architect [[Antonin Nechodoma]].<ref name="EG">''Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo''; by [[Delma S. Arrigoitia]]; Publisher: Ediciones Puerto; ISBN 978-0-942347-52-4</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prairieschooltraveler.com/html/world/pr/Korber.html |title=Korber House |publisher=Prairieschooltraveler.com |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> The synagogue, called ''Sha'are Zedeck,'' hired its first rabbi in 1954.<ref name="JVL"/> Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3,000, and is the only Caribbean island in which the [[Conservative Jews|Conservative]], [[Reform Jews|Reform]] and [[Orthodox Jews|Orthodox Jewish]] movements all are represented.<ref name="JVL">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Puerto_Rico.html |title=The Virtual Jewish History Tour Puerto Rico |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref><ref name="LN">{{cite web|url=http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/view_article.cgi?articleID=1237 |title=Luxner News |publisher=Luxner.com |date=August 3, 2004 |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iiie.net/index.php?q=node/65 |title=Number of Muslims and Percentage in Puero Rico |publisher=Institute of Islamic Information and Education |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Wayback |date=20070927194154 |url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=29 |title=Percent Puerto Rican population that are Muslims }}{{Dead link|date=April 2014}} Retrieved {{Nowrap|June 8}}, 2009.</ref> Eight [[mosques]] are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in [[Río Piedras]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pupr.edu/msa/mosques.html |title=Muslim mosques in Pto. Rico |publisher=Pupr.edu |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111002214355/http://www.pupr.edu:80/msa/mosques.html |archivedate=2 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198706/muslims.in.the.caribbean.htm |title=Muslims concentrated in Rio Piedras |publisher=Saudiaramcoworld.com |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> In 2011, the 26,546 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] represented about 0.72% of the population, with 329 congregations.<ref>''2012 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses'', p. 44</ref> The [[Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico|Padmasambhava Buddhist Center]], whose followers practice [[Tibetan Buddhism]], has a branch in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/l_tibet.htm |title=Budda Net |publisher=Buddhanet.net |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> <gallery> San Juan Cathedral.JPG|Roman Catholic Cathedral of '''San Juan Bautista'''. SANTISIMATRINIDAD.gif|Iglesia Santísima Trinidad of Ponce IMG 3392 - Centro Islamico de Ponce, PR.jpg|Islamic Center at Ponce Shaare Zedeck.jpg|Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan </gallery> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Puerto Rico}} The first school in Puerto Rico was the ''Escuela de Gramática'' (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop [[Alonso Manso]] in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.<ref>Nicolas Kanellos, "Hispanic Firsts", Visible Ink Press (ISBN 0-7876-0519-0), p. 40.</ref> Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels—Primary (elementary school grades 1–6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7–12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html |title=CIA FactBook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=February 6, 2011}}</ref> According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher. Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory and enforced by the state between the ages of 5 and 18. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels, students may attend either [[Public school (government funded)|public]] or [[Private School|private]] schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.de.gobierno.pr/NR/rdonlyres/D3388419-2932-4654-9C59-FBC4585A9CF7/0/PRStateReportCard20022003.pdf |title=Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico |publisher=Departamento de Educación De Puerto Rico |accessdate=May 5, 2008|format=PDF |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080528060210/http://www.de.gobierno.pr/NR/rdonlyres/D3388419-2932-4654-9C59-FBC4585A9CF7/0/PRStateReportCard20022003.pdf |archivedate = May 28, 2008}}</ref> and 569 private schools in the island. The largest and oldest university system is the public [[University of Puerto Rico]] (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the [[Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez]] which operates the [[University of Turabo|Universidad del Turabo]], [[Metropolitan University (Puerto Rico)|Metropolitan University]] and [[Universidad del Este]], the multi-campus [[Inter American University of Puerto Rico|Inter American University]], the [[Catholic University of Puerto Rico|Pontifical Catholic University]], and the [[University of the Sacred Heart (Puerto Rico)|Universidad del Sagrado Corazón]]. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA-approved Law Schools. ===Health=== As of 2015 medical care in Puerto Rico had been heavily impacted by immigration of doctors to the mainland and underfunding of the Medicare and Medicaid programs which serve 60% of the island's population. Affordable medical insurance under the [[Affordable Care Act]] is not available in Puerto Rico as, since Puerto Ricans pay no income tax, no subsidies are available.<ref name=NYT8215>{{cite news|author1=Lizette Alvarez and Abby Goodnough|title=Puerto Ricans Brace for Crisis in Health Care|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/03/us/health-providers-brace-for-more-cuts-to-medicare-in-puerto-rico.html|accessdate=August 3, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=August 2, 2015|quote=...more than 60 percent of residents receive Medicare or Medicaid...}}</ref> The city of [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] has a system of [[triage]], hospital, and preventive care health services. The municipal government sponsors regular health fairs in different areas of the city focusing on health care for the elderly and the disabled. There are twenty hospitals in San Juan, half of which are operated by the government. The largest hospital is the ''Centro Médico de Río Piedras'' (the Río Piedras Medical Center). Founded in 1956, it is operated by the Medical Services Administration of the Department of Health of Puerto Rico, and is actually a network of eight hospitals: :* San Juan Municipal Hospital: This hospital is operated by the San Juan municipal government. :* Industrial Hospital: This is the hospital for Puerto Rico government employees, whether municipal or Commonwealth government employees. Normally, injured police officers and firefighters are cared for here. :* San Juan Pediatric Hospital - Also operated by the San Juan municipal government. :* Pediatric Hospital: Operated by the government of the Commonwealth, this is the main trauma hospital for pediatric cases. :* Centro Medico Emergency Room: This is the main hospital for trauma cases for Puerto Rico and the Caribbean. :* ''Centro Cardiovascular del Caribe'' (Caribbean Cardiovascular Center): This is the main hospital for open heart surgery in the Caribbean. It features a hotel for the patients' families. :* Psychiatric Hospital: The main psychiatric hospital in Puerto Rico. Operated by the government of Puerto Rico. :* Psychiatric Correctional Hospital: It is both a hospital and correctional facility. It is operated jointly by the Puerto Rico Department of Corrections and the Medical Services Administration. The city of San Juan operates nine other hospitals. Of these, eight are Diagnostic and Treatment Centers located in communities throughout San Juan. These nine hospitals are: :* [[La Perla, San Juan, Puerto Rico|La Perla]] :* [[Puerta de Tierra, Puerto Rico|Puerta de Tierra]] :* Llorens Torres :* Puerto Nuevo :* San José :* Río Piedras :* Sabana Llana :* Hoare :* Santurce Parada 19 There are also ten private hospitals in San Juan. These are: :* ''Hospital Metropilitano'' :* ''Hospital Auxilio Mutuo'' :* ''Hospital Auxilio Mutuo Expreso'' :* Hospital de Veteranos: The main Veterans hospital in the Caribbean. Operated by the U.S. Veteran Healthcare System. :* Ashford Presbyterian Hospital :* Hospital Pavia Hato Rey :* Hospital Pavia Santurce :* San Jorge Children's Hospital: The most well known children's hospital in the San Juan Metropolitan Area. :* Hospital San Gerardo: Located at the Cupey neighborhood, is a small hospital but is also specialized in psychiatry and elderly. :* Hospital del Maestro (Teachers Hospital): Located in Hato Rey, this hospital is operated by the Puerto Rico Teachers Association. The city of [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] is served by several clinics and hospitals. There are four comprehensive care hospitals: [[Hospital Dr. Pila]], Hospital San Cristobal, [[Hospital San Lucas]],<ref>[http://www.ssepr.com/ Hospital San Lucas] Retrieved July 28, 2009.</ref> and [[Hospital de Damas]]. In addition, [[Hospital Oncológico Andrés Grillasca]] specializes in the treatment of cancer,<ref>[http://senadopr.us/Proyectos%20del%20Senado/rcs0402-10.pdf ''Resolucion Conjunta.''] Hon. Seilhamer Rodríguez. 16th Assembly - 3rd Session. [[Senate of Puerto Rico]]. Joint Resolution Number 402. 3 March 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2011.</ref> and Hospital Siquiátrico specializes in mental disorders.<ref>[http://www.periodicolaperla.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3296:con-160-pacientes-pero-cabida-para-125-denuncian-crisis-en-hospital-psiquiatrico-de-ponce&catid=81:locales&Itemid=198 ''Denuncian crisis en hospital siquiátrico.''] Reinaldo Millán. La Perla del Sur. Ponce, Puerto Rico. 9 November 2011. Year 30. No. 1458. Page 14. Retrieved 15 November 2011.</ref> There is also a [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs]] Outpatient Clinic that provides health services to U.S. veterans.<ref>[http://www.caribbean.va.gov/visitors/ponce.asp VA Clinic] Retrieved July 28, 2009. {{wayback|url=http://www.caribbean.va.gov/visitors/ponce.asp |date=20140107134022 |df=y }}</ref> The U.S. Veterans Administration will build a new hospital in the city to satisfy regional needs.<ref>[http://www.periodicolaperla.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4359:sera-en-ponce-con-luz-verde-federal-el-nuevo-hospital-de-veteranos&catid=81:locales&Itemid=198 ''Ponce tendrá su Hospital de Veteranos.''] Jason Rodríguez Grafal. La Perla del Sur. Ponce, Puerto Rico. 10 October 2012. Year 30. Issue 1506. Page 11. (Title in printed version: "Sera en Ponce: Con luz verde federal el nuevo Hospital de Veteranos.") Retrieved 18 October 2012.</ref> Hospital de Damas is listed in the [[U.S. News & World Report]] as one of the best hospitals under the U.S. flag.<ref>[http://health.usnews.com/health/best-hospitals/hospital-de-damas-6040250 U.S. News and World Report.] Hospital de Damas: among the best. Retrieved July 29, 2009.</ref> Ponce has the highest concentration of medical infrastructure per inhabitant of any municipality in Puerto Rico. On the island of [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]], there is a small hospital in the island called ''Hospital de Culebra''. It also offers [[pharmacy]] services to residents and visitors. For emergencies, patients are transported by plane to [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]] on the main island.<ref>[http://www.letsgo.com/154-puerto_rico-travel-guides-culebra-d Culebra Overview] on ''Let's Go'' {{wayback|url=http://www.letsgo.com/154-puerto_rico-travel-guides-culebra-d |date=20120618091710 |df=y }}</ref> The town of [[Caguas]] has three hospitals: Hospital Hima San Pablo, Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital, and the San Juan Bautista Medical Center. The town of [[Cayey]] is served by the ''Hospital Menonita de Cayey'', and the ''Hospital Municipal de Cayey.'' ''Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico'' (Puerto Rico Health Reform) - locally referred to as ''La Reforma'' (The Reform) - is a government-run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and [[impoverished]], by means of contracting private [[health insurance]] companies, rather than employing government-owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.<ref name="Form_10K">[http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1171662/000095014406002885/g00487e10vk.htm Triple-S Management Corporation Annual Report (Form 10-K)] for the fiscal year ended on December 31, 2005, pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, accessed on November 4, 2006.</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Puerto Rico}} [[File:RickyMartin.jpg|thumb|upright|230px|Puerto Rican singer [[Ricky Martin]].]] Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including [[Taíno people|Taíno]] (Amerindians), European (mainly Spanish), African, and, more recently, North American. From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On {{Nowrap|March 12}}, 1903, the [[University of Puerto Rico]] was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial", a smaller organism that was founded in Fajardo three years before. Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico.<ref>Giovannetti, Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols", in ''Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas'', ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Cándida F. Jáquez, 81–98.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertoricanmusictv.com/ |title=Puerto Rican Music TV |publisher=Puerto Rican Music TV |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the ''reinita mora'' or [[Puerto Rican spindalis]] (a type of bird), the [[Thespesia grandiflora|''flor de maga'']] (a type of flower), and the ''ceiba'' or [[Ceiba pentandra|kapok]] (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the [[common coquí|coquí]], a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the ''[[jíbaro]]'' (the "countryman"), and the carite. ===Architecture=== {{main|Architecture of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Puerto Rico 01.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Old San Juan]].]] The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. [[Spanish colonial architecture]], [[Islamic architecture|Moorish]], [[art deco]], [[Post-modern architecture|post-modern]], and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions. Old San Juan is one of the two ''barrios'', in addition to [[Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico|Santurce]], that made up the [[municipality]] of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of [[Río Piedras]] was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree-shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including [[San José Church]] and the [[Cathedral of San Juan Bautista]], which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer [[Juan Ponce de León]]. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865. The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable [[fort]]s, such as the emblematic [[Fort San Felipe del Morro]], [[Fort San Cristóbal]], and [[El Palacio de Santa Catalina]], also known as [[La Fortaleza]], acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. [[La Fortaleza]] continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the [[Governor of Puerto Rico]]. Many of the historic fortifications are part of [[San Juan National Historic Site]]. During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small [[Manhattan]]." However, strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the ''Hotel El Convento'' in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly [[Havana]], [[Lima]] and [[Cartagena de Indias]]. Ponce Creole is an [[architectural style]] created in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico]], in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of the French, the Spaniards, and the Caribbean to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico's [[Caribbean Sea]] coast.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjXG2vg5YFsC&pg=PA225 |title=Puerto Rico. By Randall Peffer. Page 225 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-18}}</ref> It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from [[Classical revival]] and [[Spanish Revival]] to [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]].<ref>[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1056puerto_rico.html National Geographic] {{wayback|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1056puerto_rico.html |date=20121011175606 |df=y }}</ref> ===Arts=== {{main|Puerto Rican art}} Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of [[folk art]], called ''santos'' evolved from the Catholic Church's use of [[sculpture]]s to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to [[Christianity]]. ''Santos'' depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple [[effigies]], they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. ''Santos'' vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household [[altar]]s, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection. Also popular, ''caretas'' are masks worn during [[carnival]]s. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed [[Christians]] into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins Puerto Rican ''caretas'' always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of [[papier-mâché]], coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for ''caretas'' but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns. ===Literature=== {{main|Puerto Rican literature}} [[File:Retrato de EMdeHostos por Francisco Oller.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugenio María de Hostos]].]] Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of [[Oral literature|oral story telling]] to its present-day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island, were allowed to write. [[Diego de Torres Vargas]] was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: 1) he was a priest, 2) he came from a prosperous Spanish family, 3) his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote ''Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico'' ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico"). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.<ref name="DT">{{cite web|url=http://newdeal.feri.org/pr/pr03.htm |title=Puerto Rico in the Great Depression |publisher=Newdeal.feri.org |date= |accessdate=2014-04-18}}</ref> The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. ''Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico'' was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.<ref name="DT"/> Some of Puerto Rico's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of [[Rafael Cordero (educator)|Rafael Cordero]]. Among these was Dr. [[Manuel A. Alonso]], the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published ''El Gíbaro'', a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. [[Eugenio María de Hostos]] wrote ''La peregrinación de Bayoán'' in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change. In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition of the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes. [[Alejandro Tapia y Rivera]] also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of [[historiography]] with the publication of ''The Historical Library of Puerto Rico''. [[Cayetano Coll y Toste]] was a Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work ''The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary'' is valuable in understanding the way the [[Taínos]] lived. Dr. [[Manuel Zeno Gandía]] in 1894 wrote ''La Charca'' and told about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Dr. [[Antonio S. Pedreira]], described in his work ''Insularismo'' the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion. With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the [[Nuyorican Movement]]. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, screenwriters, essayists and other literary fields. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include [[Ed Vega]], [[Luis Rafael Sánchez]], [[Piri Thomas]] , [[Giannina Braschi]], and [[Miguel Piñero]]. [[Esmeralda Santiago]] has written an autobiographical trilogy about growing up in modern Puerto Rico as well as an historical novel, ''Conquistadora'', about life on a sugar plantation during the mid-19th century. ===Media=== {{main|Media in Puerto Rico}} The [[Mass media|media]] in Puerto Rico includes local [[radio stations]], [[television stations]] and [[newspapers]], the majority of which are conducted in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. There are also three stations of the [[American Forces Network|US Armed Forces Radio and Television Service]]. Newspapers with daily distribution are [[El Nuevo Dia]], [[El Vocero]] and [[Primera Hora (Puerto Rico)|Primera Hora]] and the [[Puerto Rico Daily Sun]]. Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include [[Claridad]] and [[La Estrella Norte]], among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include [[Super Siete]], [[Telemundo Puerto Rico (TV channel)|Telemundo]], [[Univision Puerto Rico]], [[WAPA-TV]], and [[WKAQ-TV]]. ===Music=== {{main|Music of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Bomba-1.ogv|thumb|A dancer performs typical ''[[bomba (Puerto Rico)|bomba]]'' choreography.]] The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S.A. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like [[Bomba (Puerto Rico)|bomba]] y [[plena]], [[aguinaldo]] and [[danza]], to recent hybrids like [[reggaeton]]. In the realm of [[classical music]], the island hosts two main orchestras, the [[Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico]] and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The [[Casals Festival]] takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world. With respect to [[opera]], the legendary Puerto Rican tenor [[Antonio Paoli]] was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for [[Pope Pius X]] and the [[Czar of Russia Nicholas II]]. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera - when he participated in a performance of ''[[Pagliacci]]'' by [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] in Milan, Italy.{{clear}} Over the past fifty years, Puerto Rican artists such as Jorge Emmanuelli, [[Yomo Toro]], [[Ramito]], [[Jose Feliciano]], [[Bobby Capo]], [[Tito Puente]], [[Eddie Palmieri]], [[Ray Barreto]], [[Dave Valentin]], [[Omar Rodríguez-López]], [[Hector Lavoe]] and [[Marc Anthony]] have thrilled audiences around the world. ===Cuisine=== {{main|Puerto Rican cuisine}} [[File:Cuchifritos.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Cuchifritos]]'' (''Carnitas'') in New York.]] Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native [[Taíno]]s. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the [[U.S.#Food|United States]] in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the [[archipelago]]. Basic ingredients include [[grain]]s and [[legume]]s, [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s, starchy tropical [[tuber]]s, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include ''[[mofongo]]'', ''[[arroz con gandules]]'', ''[[pasteles]]'', and [[pig roast]]. Beverages include ''[[mauby|maví]]'' and ''[[piña colada]]''. Desserts include ''arroz con dulce'' (sweet [[rice pudding]]), ''[[Piragua (food)|piragua]]s'', ''[[brazo gitano]]s'', ''[[tembleque]]'', ''[[Polvorón|polvorones]]'', and ''[[dulce de leche]]''. Locals call their cuisine '''''cocina criolla'''''. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the 19th century. By 1848 the first restaurant, [[La Mallorquina]], opened in [[Old San Juan]]. ''El Cocinero Puertorriqueño'', the island's first cookbook was published in 1849.<ref>Ortiz, Yvonne. A Taste of Puerto Rico: Traditional and New Dishes from the Puerto Rican Community. Penguin group, 1997. P. 3</ref> [[File:Aranitas tostones.jpg|thumb|300px|Plantain "arañitas" and "tostones rellenos".]] From the diet of the [[Taíno]] people come many tropical roots and tubers like ''[[taro|yautía]]'' (taro) and especially ''Yuca'' (cassava), from which thin cracker-like ''[[casabe]]'' bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, ''[[culantro|recao/culantro]]'' (spiny leaf), ''[[annato|achiote]]'' (annatto), ''[[Capsicum|peppers]]'', ''[[ají caballero]]'' (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, [[guava]]s, [[pineapple]]s, ''[[cocoplum|jicacos]]'' (cocoplum), ''[[mamoncillo|quenepas]]'' (mamoncillo), ''[[arrowroot|lerenes]]'' (Guinea arrowroot), ''[[calabaza]]s'' (tropical pumpkins), and ''[[soursop|guanabanas]]'' (soursops) are all Taíno foods. The Taínos also grew varieties of [[bean]]s and some ''[[maize|maíz]]'' (corn/maize), but ''maíz'' was not as dominant in their cooking as it was for the peoples living on the mainland of [[Mesoamerica]]. This is due to the frequent hurricanes that Puerto Rico experiences, which destroy crops of ''maíz'', leaving more safeguarded plants like ''conucos'' (hills of ''yuca'' grown together). Spanish / European influence is also seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. Wheat, [[chickpea]]s (garbanzos), [[caper]]s, [[olive]]s, [[olive oil]], [[black pepper]], onions, garlic, ''cilantrillo'' ([[cilantro]]), [[oregano]], [[basil]], [[sugarcane]], [[citrus]] fruit, [[eggplant]], [[ham]], [[lard]], [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], beef, pork, and cheese all came to Borikén (Puerto Rico's native Taino name) from Spain. The tradition of cooking complex stews and rice dishes in pots such as rice and beans are also thought to be originally European (much like Italians, Spaniards, and the British). Early [[Dutch people|Dutch]], French, Italian, and Chinese immigrants influenced not only the culture but Puerto Rican cooking as well. This great variety of traditions came together to form La Cocina Criolla. Coconuts, coffee (brought by the Arabs and Corsos to Yauco from [[Kaffa Province, Ethiopia|Kafa]], Ethiopia), [[okra]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[sesame seeds]], ''gandules'' ([[pigeon pea]]s in English) sweet bananas, plantains, other root vegetables and Guinea hen, all come to Puerto Rico from [[Africa]]. {{main|Puerto Rico on stamps}} [[File:San Juan 1971 U.S. stamp.1.jpg|thumb|upright|San Juan 450th<br />1971 issue]] Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring '[[La Fortaleza]]', the Spanish Governor's Palace.<ref>[http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&img=&mode=1&pg=1&tid=2033211 3-cent Puerto Rico Issue] Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed March 4, 2014.</ref> The first free election for governor of the US colony of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. 'Inauguration' on the 3-cent stamp refers to the election of [[Luis Munoz Marin]], the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico.<ref name="Puerto Rico Election Issue">Rod, Steven J. [http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&img=&mode=1&pg=1&tid=2028823 Puerto Rico Election Issue] Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed March 4, 2014.</ref> San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8-cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro]].<ref>[http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2038993 San Juan Issue] Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed March 17, 2014.</ref> In the "Flags of our nation series" 2008-2012, of the fifty-five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the [[Flags of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Flag]] illustrated by a bird issued 2011.<ref>"Flags of our nation series 2008-2012, Arago: people, postage & the post", National Postal Museum. Viewed March 7, 2014.</ref> Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include [[Roberto Clemente]] in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000.,<ref>"Roberto Clemente (1934-1972)" p.178, "Legends of Baseball" p.254, Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, ISBN 0-89487-475-6</ref> [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] in the Great Americans series,<ref>"Great Americans Issue" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, ISBN 0-89487-475-6, p.183</ref> on February 18, 1990.,<ref name="Puerto Rico Election Issue"/> [[Julia de Burgos]] in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010.,<ref>"Literary Arts" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, ISBN 0-89487-475-6, p.308</ref> and [[José Ferrer]] in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.<ref>"Distinguished Americans" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, ISBN 0-89487-475-6, p.317</ref> ===Sports=== {{Main|Sports in Puerto Rico}} [[File:Orangestarsultra.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Puerto Rico Islanders]] fans at a soccer game.]] [[Baseball]] was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The [[Puerto Rico Baseball League]] serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No [[Major League Baseball]] franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the [[Montreal Expos]] for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the [[Washington Nationals]]. The [[Puerto Rico national baseball team]] has participated in the [[World Cup of Baseball]] winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the [[Caribbean Series]] (winning fourteen times) and the [[World Baseball Classic]]. On {{Nowrap|March 2006}}, San Juan's [[Hiram Bithorn Stadium]] hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed [[World Baseball Classic]]. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include [[Hall of Fame]]rs [[Roberto Clemente]], [[Orlando Cepeda]] and [[Roberto Alomar]], enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/clemente-roberto |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Clemente |publisher=Baseballhall.org |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/cepeda-orlando |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Orlando Cepeda |publisher=Baseballhall.org |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/alomar-roberto |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Alomar |publisher=Baseballhall.org|accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> [[Boxing]], [[basketball]], and [[volleyball]] are considered popular sports as well. [[Wilfredo Gómez]] and [[McWilliams Arroyo]] have won their respective divisions at the [[World Amateur Boxing Championships]]. Other medalists include [[José Pedraza (boxer)|José Pedraza]], who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, [[Nelson Dieppa]] and [[McJoe Arroyo]]. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most [[List of Puerto Rican boxing world champions|boxing world champions]] and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include [[Miguel Cotto]], [[Félix Trinidad]], [[Wilfred Benítez]] and Gómez among others. The [[Yasuri Jamileth]] joined the [[International Basketball Federation]] in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three [[FIBA Americas Championship]]s and the 1994 [[Goodwill Games]]. {{Nowrap|August 8}}, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the [[United States men's national basketball team|United States]] in an Olympic tournament since the integration of [[National Basketball Association]] players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92–73 as part of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] organized in [[Athens]], Greece.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics_2004/basketball/3567344.stm |title=Olympics 2004 &#124; Basketball &#124; Shock defeat for USA |publisher=BBC News |date=August 15, 2004 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> [[Baloncesto Superior Nacional]] acts as the top-level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930. The [[Puerto Rico Islanders]] Football Club, founded in 2003, plays in the [[North American Soccer League|NASL]], which constitutes the second tier of football in North America. [[Puerto Rico national football team|Puerto Rico]] is also a member of [[FIFA]] and [[CONCACAF]]. In 2008, the archipelago's first unified league, the [[Puerto Rico Soccer League]], was established. Other sports include [[professional wrestling]], [[road running]] and basketball. The [[World Wrestling Council]] and [[International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico)|International Wrestling Association]] are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The [[World's Best 10K]], held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.primerahora.com/boricuasluciosenunarueda-boricuazo-especial-nota-243205.html | title=Boricuas lucíos en una rueda| author=Jesús Omar Rivera| publisher=Primera Hora| language=Spanish| date=October 29, 2008| accessdate=October 16, 2010}}</ref> Organized [[Streetball]] has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the [[Arecibo Captains|Capitanes de Arecibo]] and [[AND1]]'s [[AND1 Mixtape Tour|Mixtape Tour Team]]. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boricuasballers.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2542:and1-and-pr-streetball-put-on-a-show |title=AND1 & PR Streetball Put On a Show! |author=Raul Sosa |publisher=BoricuaBallers.com |date=July 27, 2012 |accessdate=July 31, 2012}}</ref> Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including [[Orlando Melendez|Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez]], who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the [[Harlem Globetrotters]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/hispanicheritage2008/news/story?id=3641638| title=Melendez adds a new country to Globetrotters' resume| author=Joshua Hammann| publisher=[[ESPN]]| date=October 14, 2008| accessdate=November 7, 2008}}</ref> [[Orlando Antigua]], whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900E3DD1239F93BA15751C1A963958260 |title=A Non-Black Player Joins Globetrotters |location=Antigua &Amp; Barbuda |work=New York Times |date=December 28, 1995 |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the [[Summer Olympics|Summer]] and [[Winter Olympics]], the [[Pan American Games]], the [[Caribbean World Series]], and the [[Central American and Caribbean Games]]. Puerto Rican athletes have won seven medals (two silver, five bronze) in Olympic competition, the first one in 1948 by boxer [[Juan Evangelista Venegas]]. The [[Central American and Caribbean Games]] were held in [[1993 Central American and Caribbean Games|1993]] in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] and in [[2010 Central American and Caribbean Games|2010]] in [[Mayagüez]]. ==See also== {{Wikipedia books|Puerto Rico}} {{portal|Puerto Rico|United States|New Spain|Caribbean|North America|History|Geography}} * [[Puerto Rican citizenship]] * [[Outline of Puerto Rico]] * [[Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico]] **[[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico]] **[[French immigration to Puerto Rico]] **[[Crypto-Judaism]] **[[German immigration to Puerto Rico]] **[[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico]] **[[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]] * [[Index of Puerto Rico-related articles]] * [[History of women in Puerto Rico]] * [[Military history of Puerto Rico]] * [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Puerto Rico]] * [[51st state|51-star flag]] ==Notes== {{notelist|33em}} ==References== {{reflist|33em}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Puerto Rico|n=Category:Puerto Rico}} <!--===========================({{No SPAM Links}})============================= DO not ADD SPAM LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. 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Declaration on Puerto Rico * [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2007/gacol3160.doc.htm U.N. 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