Examine individual changes

'{{Infobox sea | name = Laptev Sea | image = Laptev Sea map.png | caption = | image_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = | coords = {{Coord|76|16|7|N|125|38|23|E|type:waterbody_scale:10000000|display=inline,title}} | type = [[Sea]] | inflow = | outflow = | catchment = | basin_countries = [[Russia]] | length_km = | width_km = | area_km2 = 700000 | depth_m = 578 | max-depth_m = 3385 | volume_km3 = 403000 | frozen = | reference = <ref name=bse>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article068747.html Laptev Sea], [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] (in Russian)</ref><ref name=brit>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/330412/Laptev-Sea Laptev Sea], Encyclopædia Britannica on-line</ref><ref name=rev>A. D. Dobrovolskyi and B. S. Zalogin [http://tapemark.narod.ru/more/14.html Seas of USSR. Laptev Sea], Moscow University (1982) (in Russian)</ref> }} The '''Laptev Sea''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|мо́ре Ла́птевых}}, ''more Laptevykh'') is a [[marginal sea]] of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. It is located between the northern coast of [[Siberia]], the [[Taimyr Peninsula]], [[Severnaya Zemlya]] and the [[New Siberian Islands]]. Its northern boundary passes from the [[Arctic Cape]] to a point with co-ordinates of [[79th parallel north|79°N]] and [[139th meridian east|139°E]], and ends at the [[Anisiy Cape]]. The [[Kara Sea]] lies to the west, the [[East Siberian Sea]] to the east. The sea is named after the [[Russian explorers]] [[Dmitry Laptev]] and [[Khariton Laptev]]; formerly, it had been known under various names, the last being '''Nordenskjold Sea''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|мо́ре Норденшельда}}), after explorer [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]]. The sea has a severe climate with temperatures below 0&nbsp;°C (32&nbsp;°F) over more than 9 months per year, low water [[salinity]], scarcity of flora, fauna and human population, and low depths (mostly less than 50 meters). It is frozen most of the time, though generally clear in August and September. The sea shores were inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous tribes of [[Yukaghirs]] and then [[Evens]] and [[Evenks]], which were engaged in fishing, hunting and [[reindeer husbandry]]. They were then settled by [[Yakuts]] and later by Russians. Russian explorations of the area started in the 17th century. They came from the south via several large rivers which empty into the sea, such as the prominent [[Lena River]], the [[Khatanga River|Khatanga]], the [[Anabar River|Anabar]], the [[Olenyok River|Olenyok]], the [[Omoloy River|Omoloy]] and the [[Yana River|Yana]]. The sea contains several dozen islands, many of which contain well-preserved [[mammoth]] remains. Major human activities in the area are mining and navigation on the [[Northern Sea Route]]; fishing and hunting are practised but have no commercial significance. The largest [[Urban-type settlement|settlement]] and port is [[Tiksi]]. ==Extent== [[File:BrnBld LaptevTopo.pdf|300px|thumb|'''Laptev Sea's limits''' as defined by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]]. This definition and [[bathymetry]] with 1 [[Minute of arc|arc-minute]] resolution leads to an area of 502000 [[km]]² which compares to 672000 [[km]]² from [http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=laptev+sea+area WolframAlpha].]] The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the limits of the Laptev Sea as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|accessdate=6 February 2010}}</ref> <blockquote> '''On the West.''' The eastern limit of [[Kara Sea]] <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Komsomolets Island]] from [[Arctic Cape|Cape Molotov]] to South Eastern Cape; thence to Cape Vorochilov, [[October Revolution Island|Oktiabrskaya Revolutziya Island]] to Cape Anuchin. Then to Cape Unslicht on [[Bolshevik Island]]. Bolshevik Island to [[Cape Yevgenov]]. Thence to Cape Pronchisthehev on the main land (see Russian chart No. 1484 of the year 1935)]. '''On the North.''' A line joining Cape Molotov to the Northern extremity of [[Kotelny/Faddeyevsky Island|Kotelni Island]] ({{coord|76|10|N|138|50|E|region:RU_dim:300000|name=Northern extremity of Kotelni Island}}). '''On the East.''' From the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island – through Kotelni Island to Cape Madvejyi. Then through Malyi Island <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Little Lyakhovsky Island]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, to Cape Vaguin on [[Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island|Great Liakhov Island]]. Thence to Cape Sviatoy Noss on the main land. </blockquote> Using current geographic names and [[Phonetic transcription|transcription]] this definition corresponds to the area shown in the map. # The sea's border starts at [[Arctic Cape]] (formerly Cape Molotov) on [[Komsomolets Island]] at {{coord|81|13|N|95|15|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Arctic Cape|display=inline}} and connects to the southeastern [[Cape (geography)|cape]] of the island. # The next segment crosses [[Krasnoyarmyy Strait]] and leads to Cape Vorochilov on [[October Revolution Island]] and afterwards through that island to Cape Anuchin at {{coord|79|39|37|N|100|21|22|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Cape Anuchin}}. # Next, the border crosses [[Shokalsky Strait]] to Cape Unslicht at {{coord|79|25|04|N|102|31|00|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Cape Unslicht}} on [[Bolshevik Island]]. It goes further through the island to Cape Yevgenov at {{coord|78|17|N|104|50|E|dim:300000_region:RU |name=Cape Evgenov}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapt4748.narod.ru/map2/indext481315.html |title=Topographic maps T-48-XIII, XIV, XV – 1:200 000 |language=Russian |work=Топографические карты|accessdate=2012-09-17}}</ref> # From there, the border goes through [[Vilkitsky Strait]] to Cape [[Pronchishchev]] at {{coord|77|32|57|N|105|54|4|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Cape Pronchishchev}} on the [[Tamyr peninsula]]. # The southern boundary is the shore of the Asian mainland. Prominent features are the [[Khatanga Gulf]] ([[estuary]] of the [[Khatanga River|Khatanga river]]) and the [[river delta|delta]] of the [[Lena River]]. # In the east, the polygon crosses the [[Dmitry Laptev Strait]]. It connects Svyatoy Nos at {{coord|72.7|N|141.2|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Svyatoy Nos}} with Cape Vaguin at {{coord|73|26|0|N|139|50|0|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Cape Vaguin}} in the very east of [[Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island]]. # Next, the Laptev Sea border crosses [[Eterikan strait]] to [[Little Lyakhovsky Island]] (aka Malyi Island) at {{Coord|74.0833|N|140.5833|E|dim:300000_region:RU|name=Little Lyakhovsky Island}} up to Cape Madvejyi. # Finally, there is a segment through [[Kotelny]] Island to its northernmost cape {{Coord|76|10|N|138|50|E|dim:300000_region:RU|display=inline}}. # The last link reaches from there back to Arctic Cape. ==Geography== [[File:Анабарский залив.jpg|thumb|left|The shore of the [[Anabar Bay]].]] The [[Lena River]], with its large [[River delta|delta]], is the biggest river flowing into the Laptev Sea, and is the second largest river in the Russian Arctic after [[Yenisei]].<ref name=p>[http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r1a/assessment_giwa_r1a.pdf Ecological assessment of pollution in the Russian Arctic region], Global International Waters Assessment Final Report</ref> Other important rivers include the [[Khatanga River|Khatanga]], the [[Anabar River|Anabar]], the [[Olenyok River|Olenyok or Olenek]], the [[Omoloy River|Omoloy]] and the [[Yana River|Yana]]. The sea shores are winding and form gulfs and bays of various sizes. The coastal landscape is also diverse, with small mountains near the sea in places.<ref name=rev/> The main gulfs of the Laptev Sea coast are the [[Khatanga Gulf]], the [[Olenyok Gulf]], the [[Buor-Khaya Gulf]] and the [[Yana Bay]].<ref name=bse/> There are several dozens of islands with the total area of {{convert|3784|km2|abbr=on}}, mostly in the western part of the sea and in the river deltas. Storms and currents due to the ice thawing significantly erode the islands, so the Semenovsky and Vasilievsky islands (74°12"N, 133°E) which were discovered in 1815 have already disappeared.<ref name=bse/> The most significant groups of islands are [[Severnaya Zemlya]], [[Komsomolskaya Pravda Islands|Komsomolskaya Pravda]], Vilkitsky and [[Faddey Islands|Faddey]], and the largest individual islands are [[Bolshoy Begichev Island|Bolshoy Begichev]] (1764&nbsp;km²), [[Belkovsky Island|Belkovsky]] (500&nbsp;km²), [[Maly Taymyr Island|Maly Taymyr]] (250&nbsp;km²), [[Stolbovoy Island|Stolbovoy]] (170&nbsp;km²), [[Starokadomsky Island|Starokadomsky]] (110&nbsp;km²), and [[Peschanyy Island (Laptev Sea)|Peschanyy]] (17&nbsp;km²).<ref name=rev/> (see [[:Category:Islands of the Laptev Sea|Islands of the Laptev Sea]]) More than half of the sea (53%) rests on a [[continental shelf]] with the average depths below {{convert|50|m|sp=us}}, and the areas south from 76°N are shallower than 25 m.<ref name=b1>Arnoldus Schytte Blix (2005) [http://books.google.com/books?id=kR_ZdmIaLbMC&pg=PA27-IA23 Arctic animals and their adaptations to life on the edge], ISBN 82-519-2050-7 pp. 57–58</ref> In the northern part, the sea bottom sharply drops to the ocean floor with the depth of the order of {{convert|1|km|sp=us}} (22% of the sea area). There it is covered with [[silt]], which is mixed with ice in the shallow areas.<ref name=bse/><ref name=brit/><ref name=rev/> ==Climate== The climate of the Laptev Sea is Arctic continental and, owing to the remoteness from both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, is one of the most severe among the Arctic seas. [[Polar night]] and [[midnight sun]] last about 3 months per year on the south and 5 months on the north. Air temperatures stay below 0 °С 11 months a year on the north and 9 months on the south. The average temperature in January (coldest month) varies across the sea between {{convert|-31|C}} and {{convert|-34|C}} and the minimum is {{convert|-50|C}}. In July, the temperature rises to 0 °С (maximum 4 °С) in the north and to 5 °С (maximum 10 °С) in the south, however, it may reach 22–24 °С on the coast in August. The maximum of {{convert|32.7|C}} was recorded in [[Tiksi]].<ref name=rev/> Strong winds, blizzards and snow storms are common in winter. Snow falls even in summer and is alternating with fogs.<ref name=bse/><ref name=brit/> The winds blow from south and south-west in winter with the average speed of 8&nbsp;m/s which subsides toward the spring. In summer, they change direction to the northerly, and their speed is 3–4&nbsp;m/s. Relatively weak winds result in low convection in the surface waters, which occurs only to the depth of 5–10 meters.<ref name=rev/> ==Ice== [[File:Siberia.A2001184.0235.250m.jpg|thumb|The frozen Laptev Sea. Thinning of the ice reveals blue and green water color. New Siberian Islands are near the middle and the Great Siberian Polynya is in the left part of the image.]] The Laptev Sea is a major source of [[Polar ice packs|arctic sea ice]]. With an average outflow of 483,000&nbsp;km² per year over the period 1979–1995, it contributes more sea ice than the [[Barents Sea]], [[Kara Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]] and [[Chukchi Sea]] combined. Over this period, the annual outflow fluctuated between 251,000&nbsp;km² in 1984–85 and 732,000&nbsp;km² in 1988–89. The sea exports substantial amounts of sea ice in all months but July, August and September.<ref name=j1>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2000JC900029|author =V. Alexandrov|title=Sea ice circulation in the Laptev Sea and ice export to the Arctic Ocean: Results from satellite remote sensing and numerical modeling|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|year=2000|volume=105|issue=C5|pages=17143–17159|url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/~eicken/he_publ/AMKEKM00.pdf|accessdate=13 October 2010|bibcode=2000JGR...10517143A|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Ice formation starts in September on the north and October on the south. It results in a large continuous sheet of ice, with the thickness up to {{convert|2|m|sp=us}} in the south-eastern part of the sea as well as near the coast.<ref name=j1/> The coastal sheet ends at the water depth of 20–25 m which occurs at several hundred kilometers from the shore, thus this coastal ice covers some 30% of the sea area. Ice is drifting north to this coastal band,<ref name=rev/> and several [[polynya]]s are formed by the warm south winds around there. They have various names, such as the Great Siberian Polynya, and can stretch over many hundreds kilometers.<ref name=rev/> The ice sheet starts melting in late May-early June, creating fragmented ice agglomerates on the north-west and south-east and often revealing remains of the mammoths. The ice formation varies from year to year, with the sea either clear or completely covered with ice.<ref name=bse/> ==Hydrology== The sea is characterized by the low water temperatures, which ranges from {{convert|-1.8|C}} in the north to {{convert|-0.8|C}} in the south-eastern parts. The medium water layer is warmer, up to 1.5 °С because it is fed by the warm Atlantic waters. It takes them 2.5–3 years to reach the Laptev Sea from their formation near [[Spitsbergen]].<ref name=rev/> The deeper layer is colder at about −0.8 °С. In summer, the surface layer in the ice-free zones warms up by the sun up to 8–10 °С in the bays and 2–3 °С in the open sea, and remains close to 0 °С under ice. The water [[salinity]] is significantly affected by the thawing of ice and river runoff. The latter amounts to about 730&nbsp;km³ and would form a 135&nbsp;cm freshwater layer over the entire sea; it is the second largest in the world after the [[Kara Sea]]. The salinity values vary in winter from 20–25‰ (parts per thousand) in the south-east to 34‰ in the northern parts of the sea; it decreases in summer to 5–10‰ and 30–32‰ respectively.<ref name=bse/><ref name=brit/> Most of the river runoff (about 70% or 515&nbsp;km³/year) is contributed by the Lena River. Other major contributions are from Khatanga (more than 100&nbsp;km³), Olenyok (35&nbsp;km³), Yana (>30&nbsp;km³) and Anabar (20&nbsp;km³), with other rivers contributing about 20&nbsp;km³. Owing to the ice melting season, about 90% of the annual runoff occurs between June and September with 35–40% in August alone, whereas January contributes only 5%.<ref name=rev/> Sea currents form a cyclone consisting of the southward stream near Severnaya Zemlya which reaches the continental coast and flows along it from west to east. It is then amplified by the Lena River flow and diverts to the north and north-west toward the Arctic Ocean. A small part of the cyclone leaks through the [[Sannikov Strait]] to the East Siberian Sea. The cyclone has a speed of 2&nbsp;cm/s which decreases toward the center. The center of the cyclone drifts with time that slightly alters the flow character.<ref name=rev/> The tides are mostly semi-diurnal (rise twice a day), with the average amplitude of {{convert|0.5|m|sp=us}}. In the [[Khatanga Gulf]] it may reach 2 m because of the funnel-like shape of the gulf.<ref name=bse/> This tidal wave is then noticeable up to the unusually long distance of 500&nbsp;km up to the [[Khatanga River]] – the tidal wave is damped at much shorter distance in other rivers of the Laptev Sea.<ref name=rev/> The seasonal variations of the sea level are relatively small – the sea level rises up to {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} in summer near the river deltas and lowers in winter. Wind-induced changes are observed all through the year, but are more frequent in autumn when the winds are strong and steady. In general, the sea level rises with northern and lowers with southern winds, but depending on the area, the maximum amplitude is observed for a specific wind direction (e.g. western and north-western in the south-eastern part of the sea). They average amplitudes are 1–2 m and may exceed {{convert|2.5|m|sp=us}} near Tiksi.<ref name=bse/><ref name=rev/> Owing to the weak winds and shallow waters, the sea is relatively calm with the waves typically within {{convert|1|m|sp=us}}. In July–August waves up to 4–5 m are observed near the sea center, and they may reach {{convert|6|m|sp=us}} in autumn.<ref name=rev/> ==History and exploration== [[File:Yukaghir map XVII-XX.png|thumb|The distribution of Yukaghirs in the 17th century (hatched). [[Chuvans]] are marked in pink.]] [[File:Even women.jpg|thumb|Even women in national costumes, early 1900s.]] The coast of the Laptev Sea was inhabited for ages by the native peoples of northern Siberia such as [[Yukaghirs]] and Chuvans (sub-tribe of Yukaghirs).<ref>[http://www.narodru.ru/peoples1296.html Чуванцы]. Narodru.ru. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref> Those tribes were engaged in fishing, hunting and [[reindeer husbandry]], as reindeer sleds were essential for transportation and hunting. They were joined and absorbed by [[Evens]] and [[Evenks]] around the 2nd century and later, between 9th and 15th centuries, by much more numerous [[Yakuts]]. All those tribes moved north from the [[Baikal Lake]] area avoiding confrontations with Mongols. Whereas they all practiced [[shamanism]], they spoke different languages.<ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article127724.html Yukaghirs], Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian)</ref><ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article125127.html Evenks], Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian)</ref><ref>Bella Bychkova Jordan, Terry G. Jordan-Bychkov [http://books.google.com/books?id=lBkYoLBpX14C&pg=PA38 Siberian Village: Land and Life in the Sakha Republic], U of Minnesota Press, 2001 ISBN 0-8166-3569-2 p. 38</ref><ref>[http://www.nsu.ru/ip/evens.php Evens], Novosibirsk University (in Russian)</ref> Russians started exploring the Laptev Sea coast and the nearby islands some time in the 17th century, going through the rivers emptying into the sea. Many early explorations were likely unreported, as indicated by finding of graves on some islands by their official discoverers. In 1629, [[Siberian Cossacks]] went through the [[Lena River]] and reached its delta. They left a note that the river flows into a sea. In 1633, another group reached the delta of Olenyok.<ref name=hist>[http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/encyclopedia/index.php?title=%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5 Лаптевых море] (in Russian)</ref> By 1712, [[Yakov Permyakov]] and [[Merkury Vagin]] explored the eastern part of the Laptev Sea and discovered [[Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island]].<ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article082307.html Новосибирские острова], Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian)</ref> However, they were killed on the way back from their expedition by mutineering team members. In 1770, the merchant [[Ivan Lyakhov]] revisited the islands and then asked a government permission to commercially develop their ivory resources. [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] granted the permission and named the islands after Lyakhov. While exploring the area in the 1770s, Lyakhov described several other islands, including Kotelny, which he named so after a large kettle ({{lang-ru|link=no|котёл}} – kotel) left there by previous visitors. He also established first permanent settlements on those islands.<ref name=belov>M. I. Below [http://www.polarpost.ru/Library/Belov-Po_sledam/text-po_sledam_expediciy-10.html По следам полярных экспедиций. Часть II. На архипелагах и островах]</ref><ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article072201.html Lyakhov Ivan], Great Soviet Encyclopedia</ref> In 1735, Russian explorer of Siberia [[Vasili Pronchishchev]] sailed from [[Yakutsk]] down the [[Lena River]] on his sloop ''Yakutsk''. He explored the eastern coast of the Lena delta, and stopped for wintering at the mouth of the [[Olenyok River]]. Unfortunately many members of his crew fell ill and died, mainly owing to [[scurvy]]. Despite these difficulties, in 1736, he reached the eastern shore of the [[Taymyr Peninsula]] and went north surveying its coastline. Pronchishchev and his wife succumbed to scurvy and died on the way back.<ref>Григорій Спасскій [http://books.google.com/books?id=5jpFAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA66-IA1 Сибирскій вѣстник, Объемы 17–18], Въ Тип. Департамента народного просвѣщенія, 1822</ref><ref>V. V. Bogdanov (2001) [http://vivovoco.rsl.ru/VV/JOURNAL/NATURE/01_01/POLAR.HTM Первая Русская полярница], Priroda, Vol. 1</ref> [[Maria Pronchishcheva Bay]] in the Laptev Sea is named after the wife of Pronchishchev. During the 1739–1742 [[Great Northern Expedition]], Russian Arctic explorer and Vice Admiral [[Dmitry Laptev]] described the sea coastline from the mouth of the Lena River, along the Buor-Khaya and Yana gulfs, to the strait that bears his name, [[Dmitry Laptev Strait]]. As part of the same expedition, Dmitry's cousin [[Khariton Laptev]]'s led a party that surveyed the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula starting from the mouth of the Khatanga River.<ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article068742.html Dmitri Laptev], [http://bse.sci-lib.com/article068744.html Khariton Laptev], Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian)</ref><ref>[http://vluki.library.ru/region/famous_people/laptev.php Cousins Laptev] (in Russian)</ref> [[File:Russian schooner Zarya, 1910.jpg|thumb|''Zarya'' in 1902 during her second wintering]] Detailed mapping of the coast of the Laptev Sea and New Siberian Islands was performed by [[Pyotr Anjou]], who in 1821–1823 traveled some {{convert|14000|km|abbr=on}} over the region on sledges and small boats, searching for the [[Sannikov Land]] and demonstrating that large-scale coastal observations can be performed without ships. [[Anzhu Islands]] (the northern part of New Siberian Islands) were named after him.<ref>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article059173.html Анжу Пётр Фёдорович], Great Soviet Encyclopedia</ref><ref>[http://funeral-spb.narod.ru/necropols/smolenskoel/tombs/anzhu/anzhu.html Анжу Пётр Фёдорович]. Funeral-spb.narod.ru. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref> In 1875, [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] was the first to travel across the whole sea on a steamship ''Vega''.<ref name=hist/> In 1892–1894, and again in 1900–1902, [[Baron Eduard Von Toll]] explored the Laptev Sea in the course of two separate expeditions. On the ship ''[[Zarya (polar ship)|Zarya]]'', Toll carried out geological and geographical surveys in the area on behalf of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences. In his last expedition Toll disappeared off the New Siberian Islands under mysterious circumstances.<ref name=belov/><ref>[[William Barr (Arctic historian)|William Barr]], (1980) "[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic34-3-201.pdf Baron Eduard von Toll’s Last Expedition: The Russian Polar Expedition, 1900–1903]", ''Arctic'', '''34''' (3), p.&nbsp;201–224</ref> Toll noted<ref name=vonToll1895>Eduard Von Toll (1895) ''Wissenschaftliche Resultate der Von der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften sur Erforschung des Janalandes und der Neusibirischen Inseln in den Jahren 1885 und 1886 Ausgesandten expedition.'' [''Scientific Results of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of the Investigation of Janaland and the New Siberian Islands from the Expeditions Launched in 1885 and 1886''] Abtheilung III: Die fossilen Eislager und ihre Beziehungen su den Mammuthleichen. Memoires de L'Academie imperials des Sciences de St. Petersbouro, VII Serie, Tome XLII, No. 13, Commissionnaires de I'Academie Imperiale des sciences, St. Petersbourg, Russia.</ref> sizable and economically significant accumulations of perfectly preserved [[fossil]] [[ivory]] in recent beaches, drainage areas, [[river terrace]]s and river beds within the New Siberian Islands. The later scientific studies demonstrated that the ivory accumulated over a period of some 200,000 years.<ref name=Andreev2004>Andreev, A.A., G. Grosse, L. Schirrmeister, S.A. Kuzmina, E. Y. Novenko, A.A. Bobrov, P.E. Tarasov, B.P. Ilyashuk, T.V. Kuznetsova, M. Krbetschek, H. Meyer, and V.V. Kunitsky, 2004, {{Wayback |date=20081003022740 |url=http://epic.awi.de/Publications/And2003h.pdf |title=''Late Saalian and Eemian palaeoenvironmental history of the Bol’shoy Lyakhovsky Island (Laptev Sea region, Arctic Siberia)'' }}, 3.41 MB PDF file, Boreas. vol. 33, pp. 319–348.</ref><ref name=Makeyevvothers2003>Makeyev, V.M., D.P. Ponomareva, V.V. Pitulko, G.M. Chernova and D.V. Solovyeva, 2003, [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1552329 ''Vegetation and Climate of the New Siberian Islands for the past 15,000 Years'']. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 56–66.</ref><ref name=Ivanovavothers1999>Ivanova, A. M., V. Ushakov, G. A. Cherkashov, and A. N. Smirnov, 1999, ''Placer Minerals of the Russian Arctic Shelf.'' Polarforschung. vol. 69, pp. 163–167.</ref> ===Naming=== The Laptev Sea changed its name several times. It was apparently{{Why?|date=November 2010}} known as the Tatar Sea ({{lang-ru|link=no|Татарское мо́ре}}) in the 16th century, as the Lena Sea ({{lang-ru|link=no|Ленское мо́ре}}) in the 17th century, as the Siberian Sea ({{lang-ru|link=no|Сибирское мо́ре}}) in the 18th century and as the Icy Sea ({{lang-ru|link=no|Ледовитое мо́ре}}) in the 19th century. It acquired its name as Nordenskjold Sea ({{lang-ru|link=no|мо́ре Норденшельда}}) in 1893.<ref>[http://www.memorial.krsk.ru/Work/Konkurs/6/Selutina/Selutina.htm "History of Norilsk and Taimyr"], a website from Krasnoyarsk region (Russian)</ref> On 27 June 1935, the sea finally received its current name after the cousins [[Dmitry Laptev]] and [[Khariton Laptev]] who first mapped its shores in 1735–1740.<ref name=brit/><ref>[http://www.diclib.com/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85/show/ru/geo_rus/5442 Лаптевых], Словарь географических названий (Dictionary of geographical names)</ref> ==Flora and fauna== {{See also|List of species on Severnaya Zemlya}} [[File:Snowy Owl - Schnee-Eule.jpg|thumb|[[Snowy owl]]]] [[File:Plectrophenax nivalis1.jpg|thumb|[[Snow bunting]]]] Both flora and fauna are scarce owing to the harsh climate. Vegetation of the sea is mostly represented by [[diatom]]s, with more than 100 species. In comparison, the number of [[green algae]], [[blue-green algae]] and [[flagellate]] species is about 10 each. The [[phytoplankton]] is characteristic of brackish waters<ref name=b1/> and has a total concentration of about 0.2&nbsp;mg/L. There are about 30 species of [[zooplankton]] with the concentration reaching 0.467&nbsp;mg/L.<ref name=p/> The coastal flora mainly consists of mosses and lichens and a few flowering plants including [[Papaver radicatum|Arctic poppy]] (''Papaver radicatum''), ''[[Saxifraga]]'', ''[[Draba]]'' and small populations of polar (''[[Salix polaris]]'') and creeping (''[[Salicaceae]]'') willows.<ref name=flora>[http://forpost-x.com.ua/arabeski/severnaya-zemlya-chast-ii/ Северная Земля. Часть II] (Severnaya Zemlyua, part 2, in Russian)</ref> Rare [[vascular plants]] include species of ''[[Cerastium]]'' and ''[[Saxifraga]]''. Non-vascular plants include the [[moss]] genera ''[[Detrichum]]'', ''[[Dicranum]]'', ''[[Pogonatum]]'', ''[[Sanionia]]'', ''[[Bryum]]'', ''[[Orthothecium]]'' and ''[[Tortura]]'', as well as the [[lichen]] genera ''[[Cetraria]]'', ''[[Thamnolia]]'', ''[[Cornicularia]]'', ''[[Lecidea]]'', ''[[Ochrolechia]]'' and ''[[Parmelia (lichen)|Parmelia]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://polaris.nipr.ac.jp/~penguin/polarbiosci/issues/pdf/1997-Bolter.pdf |journal=Proc. NIPR Symp. Polar Biol. |volume=10 |pages=169–178 |year=1997 |title=Preliminary results of botanical and microbiological investigations on Severnaya Zemlya 1995 |author=Manfred Bolter and Hiroshi Kanda}}</ref> Permanent mammal species include [[ringed seal]] (''Phoca hispida''), [[bearded seal]] (''Erignathus barbatus''), [[harp seal]] (''Pagophilus groenlandicus''), [[walrus]] (''Odobenus rosmarus''), [[collared lemming]] (''Dicrostonyx torquatus''), [[Arctic fox]] (''Alopex lagopus''),<ref name=unep>S. Heileman and I. Belkin [http://www.lme.noaa.gov/LMEWeb/LME_Report/lme_57.pdf Laptev Sea: LME #56], in Sherman, K. and Hempel, G. (Editors) 2008. The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report</ref> [[reindeer]] (''Rangifer tarandus'') [[wolf]] (''Canis lupus''), [[ermine]] (''Mustela erminea''), [[Arctic hare]] (''Lepus timidus'') and [[polar bear]] (''Ursus maritimus''), whereas [[beluga whale]]s (''Delphinapterus leucas'') visit the region seasonally.<ref>[http://2mn.org/ru/mammals/laptev.htm Список видов морских млекопитающих, встречающихся в море Лаптевых]. 2mn.org. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref> The walrus of the Laptev Sea is sometimes distinguished as a separate subspecies ''Odobenus rosmarus laptevi'', though this attribution is questioned.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Charlotte Lindqvist|title=The Laptev Sea walrusOdobenus rosmarus laptevi: an enigma revisited|journal=Zoologica Scripta|volume=38|page=113|year=2009|doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2008.00364.x|issue=2|display-authors=etal}}</ref> There are several dozens species of birds. Some belong to permanent (tundra) species, such as [[snow bunting]] (''Plectrophenax nivalis''), [[purple sandpiper]] (''Calidris maritima''), [[snowy owl]] (''Bubo scandiacus'') and [[brent goose]] and other make large colonies on the islands and sea shores. The latter include [[little auk]] (''Alle alle''), [[black-legged kittiwake]] (''Rissa tridactyla''), [[black guillemot]] (''Cepphus grylle''), [[ivory gull]] (''Pagophila eburnea''), ''[[uria]]'', ''[[charadriiformes]]'' and [[glaucous gull]] (''Larus hyperboreus''). Amont other bird species are [[skua]], [[sterna]], [[northern fulmar]], (''Fulmarus glacialis''), [[ivory gull]] (''Pagophila eburnea''), [[glaucous gull]] (''Larus hyperboreus''), [[Ross's gull]] (''Rhodostethia rosea''), [[long-tailed duck]] (''Clangula hyemalis''), [[eider]], [[loon]] and [[willow grouse]] (''Lagopus lagopus'').<ref name=flora/><ref name="ucalgary1">[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic48-3-222.pdf Bird Observations in Severnaya Zemlya, Siberia]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-10-19.</ref> There are 39 fish species, mostly typical of braskish environment;<ref name=b1/> the major ones are [[grayling (genus)|grayling]] and ''[[Coregonus]]'' (whitefishes), such as [[muksun]] (''Coregonus muksun''), [[broad whitefish]] (''Coregonus nasus'') and [[omul]] (''Coregonus autumnalis''). Also common are [[sardine]], [[Arctic cisco]], [[Bering cisco]], polar [[European smelt|smelt]], [[saffron cod]], [[polar cod]], [[flounder]] and [[Arctic char]] and [[Stenodus leucichthys|inconnu]].<ref name=bse/> In 1985, the Ust-Lena Nature Reserve was established in the delta (from {{lang-ru|link=no|устье}} – ''ust'', meaning ''delta'') of the Lena River with an area of 14,300&nbsp;km². In 1886, New Siberian Islands were included into the reserve. The reserve hosts numerous plants (402 species), fishes (32 species), birds (109 species) and mammals (33 species).<ref>[http://oopt.info/ulensk/ Усть-Ленский государственный природный заповедник] (official we site)</ref> ==Human activities== The coast of the sea is shared by the [[Sakha Republic]] ([[Anabarsky District|Anabarsky]], [[Bulunsky District]] and [[Ust-Yansky District|Ust-Yansky]] districts) on the east and [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]] ([[Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District]]) of Russia on the west. The coastal settlements are few and small, with the typical population of a few hundred or less. The only exception is [[Tiksi]] (population 5,873), which is the administrative center of the Bulunsky District. ===Fishery and navigation=== [[File:Tiksi.jpg|thumb|left|Tiksi in 2007]] Fishery and hunting have relatively small volume and are mostly concentrated in the river deltas.<ref name=bse/><ref name=rev/> Data are available for the Khatanga Bay and deltas of the Lena and Yana rivers from 1981 to 1991 which translate into about 3,000 tonnes of fish annually. Extrapolated, they give the following annual estimates (in thousand tonnes) by species: [[sardine]] (1.2), [[Arctic cisco]] (2.0), [[Bering cisco]] (2.7), [[broad whitefish]] (2.6), [[Muksun]] (2.4) and others (3.6).<ref name=unep/> Hunting sea mammals is only practiced by native people. In particular, walrus hunting is only allowed by scientific expeditions and local tribes for subsistence.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=OIvn4Zo0PU0C&pg=PA57 Mammals in the Seas: Pinniped species summaries and report on sirenians. Volume 2], Food & Agriculture Org., 1979, ISBN 92-5-100512-5 p. 57</ref> Despite freezing, navigation is a major human activity on the Laptev Sea with the major port in [[Tiksi]]. During [[USSR|Soviet times]], the Laptev Sea coastal areas experienced a limited boom owing to the first icebreaker convoys plying the [[Northern Sea Route]] and the creation of the [[Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route]]. The route was difficult even for icebreakers – so ''[[Lenin (icebreaker)|Lenin]]'' (pictured) and her convoy of five ships were trapped in ice in the Laptev Sea around September 1937. They spent an enforced winter there and were rescued by another icebreaker ''[[Krasin (1916 icebreaker)|Krasin]]'' in August 1938.<ref name=barr>{{cite journal |author=William Barr |authorlink=William Barr (Arctic historian) |date=March 1980 |title=The Drift of Lenin's Convoy in the Laptev Sea, 1937–1938 |journal=Arctic |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic33-1-3.pdf |accessdate=26 July 2008 |doi=10.14430/arctic2543}}</ref> The major transported goods were timber, fur and construction materials.<ref name=bse/> Tiksi had an active airport, and [[Nordvik (Laptev Sea)|Nordvik]] harbor further west was "a growing town,"<ref name=barr/> though it was closed in the mid-1940s.<ref name=n1>[http://memorial.krsk.ru/Public/90/1990_2.htm Нордвикские записки] (notes of the Nordvik expedition), [http://www.memorial.krsk.ru/public/90/1990_6.htm Кровь, пот и соль «Нордвикстроя»]</ref><ref name=n2>[http://dead-cities.ru/city/Nordvik посёлок Нордвик], dead-cities.ru (in Russian)</ref> [[File:Ib-lenin1b.PNG|thumb|Icebreaker ''[[Lenin (icebreaker)|Lenin]]'']] <!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Krasin ice.PNG|thumb|Icebreaker ''[[Krasin (1916 icebreaker)|Krasin]]'' in the Arctic]] --> After the break-up of the Soviet Union commercial navigation in the Siberian Arctic went into decline in the 1990s. More or less regular shipping is to be found only from [[Murmansk]] to [[Dudinka]] in the west and between [[Vladivostok]] and [[Pevek]] in the east. Ports between Dudinka and Pevek see next to no shipping at all. [[Logashkino]] was abandoned in 1998 and is now a [[ghost town]].<ref name="ATS">Resolution No. 443 of 29 September 1998 ''On Exclusion of Inhabited Localities from the Records of Administrative and Territorial Division of the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic''</ref> ===Mining=== In the 1930, deposits of coal, oil and salt were discovered around the [[Nordvik Bay]]. In order to explore them in the extreme Arctic conditions, a [[Gulag]] penal [[labor camp]] was established in Nordvik. Drilling revealed only small, shallow oil pockets in connection with salt structures with little commercial significance. However the salt was extracted on a large scale by means of [[forced labor]]ers in a penal colony. From the 1930s onwards Nordvik became an important source of salt supply for the northern fisheries. Although the original prospects for oil at Nordvik did not materialize, experience was gained in the exploration for hydrocarbons within the continuous permafrost zones. This experience proved invaluable in the later exploration and exploitation of the massive oil and gas fields of Western [[Siberia]]. The penal colony was closed and its traces erased in the mid-1940s right before Americans arrived in Nordvik as allies of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=n1/><ref name=n2/> In the Anabar District of Sakha, in the village of Mayat there is one of the northernmost diamond mines.<ref>[http://alanab.ykt.ru/content/blogcategory/45/73/ Diamonds of Anabar] (in Russian) [http://alanab.ykt.ru/ map]</ref> There are also tin and gold mines in the Ust-Yansky District.<ref>[http://www.xumuk.ru/catalog/52/56-4-6757.html ГОРНАЯ КОМПАНИЯ ЮЖНАЯ], [http://www.xumuk.ru/catalog/52/56-4-0.html Справочник химических компаний]</ref> ===Research=== The meteorological station of Tiksi has been renovated in 2006 (for example, it has internet connection and security cameras with a wireless interface) and has become part of the Atmospheric Observatory program of the US [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] agency. The program aims at long-term, systematic and thorough measurements of clouds, radiation, aerosols, surface energy fluxes and chemistry in the Arctic. It is based on [[:File:NOAA Arctic Atmospheric Observing Network.jpg|four Arctic stations]] at one of the world's [[Northernmost cities and towns|northernmost settlements]], namely [[Eureka, Nunavut|Eureka]] and [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]] in Canada (in particular, Alert is the northernmost permanently inhabited place on Earth, only {{convert|817|km|abbr=on}} from the North Pole<ref name="alert1">{{cite news|url= http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/445998211.html?dids=445998211:445998211&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+31%2C+2000&author=Reynolds%2C+Lindor&pub=Daily+Mercury&desc=Life+is+cold+and+hard+and+desolate+at+Alert%2C+Nunavut&pqatl=google|title= Life is cold and hard and desolate at Alert, Nunavut|author= Reynolds, Lindor|work=[[Guelph Mercury]]|date= 31 August 2000|accessdate=16 March 2010}} ("Twice a year, the military resupply Alert, the world's northernmost settlement.")</ref>), Tiksi in Russia, and [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] in Alaska.<ref>[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/arctic/search/ A Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH) Arctic Atmospheric Observatories], NOAA</ref> ==Pollution== The water pollution is relative low and mostly originates from the numerous plants and mines standing on the Lena, Yana and Anabar rivers. Their waste is contaminated with phenols (0.002–0.007&nbsp;mg/L), copper (0.001–0.012&nbsp;mg/L) and zinc (0.01–0.03&nbsp;mg/L) and is continuously washed down the rivers into the sea. Another regular polluter is the coastal [[Urban-type settlement]] of Tiksi. Occasional petrol spills occurred due to navigation and petrol mining.<ref name=p/> Another major contaminant is associated with floating and sunken wood in the sea, due to decades of rafting activities. As a result, the phenol concentration in the Laptev Sea is the highest over the Arctic waters.<ref name=unep/> <gallery mode="packed"> Laptev sea sunset.JPG|Laptev Sea. Sunset. Laptev sea ice hummocks.JPG|Laptev Sea. Ice hummocks. Laptev sea.JPG|Hivus-10 hovercraft on Laptev Sea </gallery> {{Clear}} ==See also== * [[Sea#List of seas|List of seas]] ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Laptev Sea}} {{Laptev Sea Islands}} {{List of seas}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Laptev Sea| ]] [[Category:Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean]] [[Category:Seas of Russia]] [[Category:Landforms of the Laptev Sea| ]] WWW.Britannica.com/laptevery sea'