Examine individual changes

''''Anti-imperialism''' in [[political science]] and [[international relations]] is a term used in a variety of contexts, usually by [[nationalist]] movements, who want to secede from a larger polity (usually in the form of an [[empire]], but also in a multi-ethnic [[sovereign state]]) or as a specific theory opposed to [[capitalism]] in [[Marxist–Leninist]] discourse, derived from [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s work ''[[Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]]''. A less common usage is by [[isolationists]] who oppose an interventionist foreign policy. People who categorise themselves as anti-imperialists, often state that they are opposed to [[colonialism]], colonial empire, [[hegemony]], [[imperialism]] and territorial expansion of a country beyond its established borders.<ref>''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960'' (2010), by Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt.</ref> The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War and at the onset of the [[Cold War]] as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some "anti-imperialist" groups who opposed the United States, supported the power of the [[Soviet Union]], such as in [[Guevarism]], while in [[Maoism]], this was criticised as "[[social imperialism]]." In the Arab and Muslim world, the term is often used in the context of [[Anti-Zionist]] nationalist and religious movements. ==Theory== [[File:Benjamin Disraeli by Cornelius Jabez Hughes, 1878.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Benjamin Disraeli, Prime Minister of Britain from 1874 to 1880, expanded the British Empire.]] In thes introduced to the English language by opponents of the aggressively imperial policies of British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] (1874–80).<ref>Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840-1960'' (2010)</ref> It was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as [[Joseph Chamberlain]]. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest, and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. [[John A. Hobson]] and [[Lenin]] added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of "imperialism." Such writers have expanded the time period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th century, but a global system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to Christopher Columbus and, in some facts, to the Crusades. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically, Western power.<ref>Mark F. Proudman, "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". ''Journal of the Historical Society'', September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433</ref><ref>D. K. Fieldhouse, "Imperialism": An Historiographical Revision", ''South African Journal Of Economic History'', March 1992, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 45-72</ref> The relationships among [[capitalism]], [[aristocracy]], and [[imperialism]] have been discussed and analysed by theoreticians, historians, political scientists such as [[John A. Hobson]] and [[Thorstein Veblen]], [[Joseph Schumpeter]] and [[Norman Angell]].<ref>G.K. Peatling, “Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered”, ''History'', July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp. 381–98</ref> Those intellectuals produced much of their works about imperialism before the First World War (1914–18), yet their combined work informed the study of the impact of imperialism upon Europe, and contributed to the political and ideologic reflections on the rise of the [[military–industrial complex]] in the US from the 1950s onwards. J. A. Hobson said that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism.<ref>P. J. Cain, "Capitalism, Aristocracy and Empire: Some 'Classical' Theories of Imperialism Revisited", ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'', March 2007, Vol. 35 Issue 1, pp 25-47</ref><ref>G.K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered", ''History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp 381-398</ref> == Political movement == As a self-conscious political movement, anti-imperialism originated in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in opposition to the growing European [[colonialism|colonial empires]] and the US control of the Philippines after 1898.<ref>Harrington, 1935</ref> However, it reached its highest level of popular support in the colonies themselves, where it formed the basis for a wide variety of [[national liberation movements]] during the mid-20th century and later. These movements, and their anti-imperialist ideas, were instrumental in the [[decolonization]] process of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw most European colonies in Asia and Africa achieving their independence.<ref>Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840-1960'' (2010)</ref> == Anti-Imperialist League == An early use of the term "anti-imperialist" occurred after the United States entered the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898.<ref>Robert L. Beisner, ''Twelve against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900'' (1968)</ref> Most activists supported the war itself but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines.<ref>Julius Pratt, ''Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands'' (1936) pp 266–78</ref> The [[American Anti-Imperialist League|Anti-Imperialist League]] was founded on June 15, 1898 in Boston, in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, which happened anyway. The anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated [[Republicanism in the United States|the credo of republicanism]], especially the need for "consent of the governed." Appalled by American imperialism, the Anti-Imperialist League, which included famous citizens such as [[Andrew Carnegie]] and [[William James]], formed a platform which stated <!-- this quote can be cut down/ expanded based on the whims of any reader looking --> <!-- at the document cited --> {{Quotation| We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is "criminal aggression" and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government...<br /> <br /> We cordially invite the cooperation of all men and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1899antiimp.asp |title=Platform of the American Antilmperialist League, 1899|publisher=Fordham University|accessdate=2 February 2013}}</ref>}} Fred Harrington states, "the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address".<ref>Harrington, 1935, pp 211–12</ref><ref>Richard E. Welch, Jr., ''Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902'' (1978)</ref><ref>E. Berkeley Tompkins, ''Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920''. (1970)</ref> == Marxism, Leninism, and anti-imperialism == [[File:Che Guevara June 2, 1959.jpg|thumb|right|200px|To the Latin-American revolutionary Ché Guevara, imperialism was a geopolitical system of control and repression, which must be understood as such in order to be defeated.]] About the nature of imperialism, and how to oppose and defeat it, the revolutionary Ché Guevara said: {{Quotation|We must bear in mind that imperialism is a world system, the last stage of capitalism—and it must be defeated in a world confrontation. The strategic end of this struggle should be the destruction of imperialism. Our share, the responsibility of the exploited and underdeveloped of the world, is to eliminate the foundations of imperialism: our oppressed nations, from where they extract capitals, raw materials, technicians, and cheap labor, and to which they export new capitals—instruments of domination—arms and all kinds of articles; thus submerging us in an absolute dependence.|[[Che Guevara]], Message to the Tricontinental, 1967 <ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm Che Guevara: Message to the Tricontinental] Spring of 1967.</ref>}} [[File:Lenin 1920.jpg|thumb|right|200px|To the Russian revolutionary Lenin, imperialism was the highest, but degenerate, stage of capitalism.]] In the mid-19th century, in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' (1867–94), [[Karl Marx]] mentioned imperialism to be part of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]]. Much more important was [[Lenin]], who defined imperialism as "the highest stage of capitalism", the economic stage in which [[monopoly]] finance capital becomes the dominant application of capital.<ref>"Imperialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998), by Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham. p. 244.</ref> As such, said financial and economic circumstances impelled national governments and private business corporations to world-wide competition for control of natural resources and human labour by means of [[colonialism]].<ref>"Colonialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.</ref> The [[Leninism|Leninist]] views of imperialism, and related theories, such as [[dependency theory]], address the ''economic'' [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]] and [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] of a country, rather than the military and the political dominance of a people, their country, and its natural resources. Hence, the primary purpose of imperialism is economic exploitation, rather than mere control of either a country or of a region. The Marxist and the Leninist denotation thus differs from the usual political-science denotation of imperialism as the direct control (intervention, occupation, and rule) characteristic of colonial and [[neocolonialism|neo-colonial]] empires, as used in the realm of [[international relations]].<ref>"Imperialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.</ref><ref>"Colonialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.</ref> In ''[[Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]]'' (1917), Lenin outlined the five features of capitalist development that lead to imperialism: # Concentration of production and capital leading to the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels. # Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has been replaced by [[finance capitalism|finance capital]], with the industrial capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided by monopolistic financial institutions; "Again and again, the final word in the development of banking is monopoly." # The export of the aforementioned finance capital is emphasized over the export of goods; # The economic division of the world by between multinational cartels; # The political division of the world into colonies by the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/|accessdate=2011-02-13|title=Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism}}</ref> Generally, the relationship among Marxists and radical, left-wing organisations who are [[anti-war]], often involves persuading such political activists to progress from [[pacifism]] to anti-imperialism—that is, to progress from the opposition of war, in general, to the condemnation of the capitalist economic system, in particular.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20020711081333/http://www.cpgb.org.uk/worker/403/pacifism_disarms.html</ref> In the 20th century, the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] represented themselves as the foremost enemy of imperialism, and thus politically and materially supported [[Third World]] revolutionary organisations who fought for national independence. The USSR sent military advisors to [[Ethiopia]], [[Angola]], [[Egypt]], and [[Afghanistan]]. Nonetheless, the USSR behaved as an imperialist power when it asserted [[sphere of influence|sphere-of-influence]] dominance upon [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] (1979–89) and dominated the countries of Eastern Europe, the [[Baltic states]], and the Caucasus, as accorded in the [[Yalta Agreement]] (4–11 February 1945) during the Second World War (1939–45). Such imperialist behaviour ideologically discredited the USSR for not abiding the principles of Marxism; alternatively, [[anarchism|anarchists]] presented such Soviet imperialism as evidence that the philosophy of Marxism would not resolve and eliminate imperialism. Notably, [[Mao Zedong]] developed the theory that the USSR was a "[[Social-imperialism|social-imperialist]]" nation, a socialist people with tendencies to imperialism, an important aspect of Maoist analysis of the history of the USSR.<ref>''Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States'' (1997), by Michael M. Sheng. p.00.</ref> Contemporarily, the term ''Anti-imperialism'' is most commonly applied by Marxists, and political organisations of like ideologic bent, who propose anti-capitalism, present a [[Class struggle|class analysis]] of society, etc.<ref>''Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey'' (1990), by Anthony Brewer. p. 293.</ref> == Right-wing anti-imperialism == Right-wing [[nationalist]]s and religious fundamentalist movements that have emerged in reaction to alleged imperialism might also fall within this category; for example, [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Khomeinism]] historically derived much of its popularity from its appeal to widespread anger at American intervention or influence in [[Iran]] and the Middle East. The Indian [[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind]] launched a 10-day Nationwide campaign titled Anti-Imperialism Campaign in December 2009.<ref>http://www.zeenews.com/news586298.html</ref> == Criticism == Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt assert that traditional anti-imperialism is no longer relevant. In the book ''Empire'',<ref>Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, ''Empire'', Harvard University Press (2001) ISBN 0-674-00671-2</ref> Negri and Hardt argue that imperialism is no longer the practice or domain of any one nation or state. Rather, they claim, the "Empire" is a conglomeration of all states, nations, corporations, media, popular and intellectual culture and so forth, and thus, traditional anti-imperialist methods and strategies can no longer be applied against them. == See also == {{Portal|Politics}} *[[Empire-building]] *[[Colonialism]] *[[National liberation wars]] *[[National self-determination]] *[[Historiography of the British Empire]] *[[Anti-Americanism]] *[[League against Imperialism]] *[[Antimilitarism]] ==References== {{Reflist|3}} ===Bibliography=== {{refbegin|2}} * Griffiths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and Steven C. Roach 2008. ''International Relations: The Key Concepts''. Second Edition. New York: Routledge. * Heywood, C. 2004. ''Political Theory: An Introduction'' New York: Palgrave MacMillan * Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898-1900", ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp.&nbsp;211–230 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1898467 in JSTOR] * Proudman, Mark F.. "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". ''Journal of the Historical Society'', September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433 == Further reading == * Ali, Tariq et al. ''Anti-Imperialism: A Guide for the Movement'' ISBN 1-898876-96-7 * Boittin, Jennifer Anne. ''Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris'' (2010) * Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire." ''History Today'', (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp 44–47, online at [[EBSCO]] * Brendon, Piers. ''The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781-1997'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0307388417 excerpt and text search] * Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. ''British Imperialism, 1688-2000'' (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis [http://www.amazon.com/dp/058220965X excerpt and text search] * Castro, Daniel, Walter D.Mignolo, and Irene Silverblatt. ''Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0822339307 excerpt and text search], Spanish colonies * Cullinane, Michael Patrick. ''Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 1898-1909.'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. * Ferguson, Niall. ''Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power'' (2002), [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0465023290 excerpt and text search] * Hamilton, Richard. ''President McKinley, War, and Empire'' (2006). * Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. ''Empire'' (2001), influential statement from the left * Herman, Arthur. ''Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age'' (2009) [excerpt and text search] * Hobson, J.A. ''Imperialism: A Study'' (1905) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1143086198 except and text search 2010 edition] * James, Lawrence. ''The Rise and Fall of the British Empire'' (1997). * Karsh, Efraim. ''Islamic Imperialism: A History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300122632 excerpt and text search] * Olson, James S. et al., eds. ''Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23315236?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20European%20Imperialism online edition] * Owen, Nicholas. ''The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885-1947'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233012 excerpt and text search] * Polsgrove, Carol. ''Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause'' (2009) * Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel Kerr. ''Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire, State Interests and Hegemonic Power'' (2010) * Tompkins, E. Berkeley, ed. ''Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890—1920.'' (1970) excerpts from primary and secondary sources * Wang, Jianwei. "The Chinese interpretation of the concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s.," ''Journal of Modern Chinese History'' (2012) 6#2 pp 164–181. {{refend|2}} ==External links== * ''The Anti-Imperialists'', [http://www.antiimperialist.com A Web based guide to American Anti-Imperialism] *[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=Anti-Colonialism%20in%20the%20Cold%20War CWIHP at the Wilson Center for Scholars: Primary Document Collection on Anti-Imperialism in the Cold War] *[http://depts.washington.edu/antiwar/ Pacific Northwest Antiwar and Radical History Project], multimedia collection of photographs, video, oral histories and essays. * [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism by V.I. Lenin] Full text at marxists.org *[http://www.themilitant.com/2009/7314/731449.html How Imperialist 'Aid' Blocks Development in Africa] by [[Thomas Sankara]], ''The Militant'', April 13, 2009 *[http://www.cc-ds.org/discussion/CONFRONTING_US_IMPERIALISM.pdf Daniel Jakopovich, ''In the Belly of the Beast: Challenging US Imperialism and the Politics of the Offensive''] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/MS.html The M and S Collection] at the [[Library of Congress]] contains materials on anti-imperialism. {{anti-war}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-Imperialism}} [[Category:Anti-imperialism| ]] [[Category:Anti-globalization]] [[Category:History of social movements]] [[sv:Imperialism#Antiimperialism]]'