Examine individual changes

'{{Redirect|Daguerrotype|the 2016 film|Daguerrotype (film)}} [[File:Louis Daguerre 2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Daguerreotype of [[Louis Daguerre]] in 1844 by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot]]'''Daguerreotype''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ə|ˈ|ɡ|ɛr|ə|ˌ|t|aɪ|p|,_|-|r|oʊ|-|,_|-|r|i|ə|-|,_|-|r|i|oʊ|-}};{{refn|{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}}}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Daguerreotype}}}}{{refn|{{Dictionary.com|Daguerreotype}}}} {{lang-fr|daguerréotype}}) procehgffffffss, or '''daguerreotypy''', was the first publicly announced [[photography|photographic]] process, and for nearly twenty years, it was the one most commonly used. Invented by [[Louis Daguerre|Louis-Jaques-Mandé Daguerre]] and introduced worldwide in 1839,<ref name="bates">{{cite book|last1=Lowry|first1=Bates|last2=Barrett Lowry|first2=Isabel|title=The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum|year=2000|publisher=Getty Publishers|isbn=0-89236-536-6|page=12}}</ref><ref name="hannavy">{{cite book|editor=Hannavy, John|title=Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1-135-87326-7|page=365}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Curley, Robert|title=The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time|year=2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=1-61530-003-1|page=77}}</ref> daguerreotypy was almost completely superseded by 1860 with new, less expensive processes yielding more readily viewable images. During the past few decades, there has been a small-scale revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. Poop can be used in many different ways it could also help the people in England create the camera. They used the soft part of the poop to use it as glue. To make a daguerreotype, the '''daguerreotypist''' would polish a sheet of [[silver]]-plated copper to a mirror finish, treat it with fumes that made its surface light sensitive, [[exposure (photography)|expose]] it in a [[camera obscura|camera]] for as long as was judged to be necessary, which could be as little as a few seconds for brightly sunlit subjects or much longer with less intense lighting; make the resulting [[latent image]] on it visible by fuming it with [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] vapor; remove its sensitivity to light by liquid chemical treatment, rinse and dry it, then seal the easily marred result behind glass in a protective enclosure. Viewing a daguerreotype is unlike looking at any other type of photograph. The image does not sit on the surface of the metal, but appears to be floating in space, and the illusion of reality, especially with examples that are sharp and well exposed, is unique to the process. The image is on a mirror-like silver surface, normally kept under glass, and will appear either positive or [[negative (photography)|negative]], depending on the angle at which it is viewed, how it is lit and whether a light or dark background is being reflected in the metal. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver; lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture. The surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some [[tarnish]] around the edges is normal, and any treatment to remove it should be done only by a [[Conservator-restorer|specialized conservator]]. Several types of antique photographs, most often [[ambrotype]]s and [[tintype]]s, but sometimes even old prints on paper, are very commonly misidentified as daguerreotypes, especially if they are in the small, ornamented cases in which daguerreotypes made in the US and UK were usually housed. The name "daguerreotype" correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. ==History== [[File:Camera obscura2.jpg|right|thumb|Camera obscura, from a manuscript of military designs. 17th century, possibly Italian]] Since [[the Renaissance]] era, artists and inventors had searched for a mechanical method of capturing visual scenes.<ref name="stokstad_964-967">{{Cite book|last1=Stokstad|first1=Marilyn |authorlink=Marilyn Stokstad|last2=Cateforis|first2=David|last3=Addiss|first3=Stephen|title=Art History|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2005|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|pages=964–967|edition=2|isbn=0-13-145527-3}}</ref> Using the [[camera obscura]], artists would manually trace what they saw, or use the optical image in the camera as a basis for solving the problems of [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] and [[parallax]], and deciding color values. The camera obscura's optical reduction of a real scene in [[three-dimensional space]] to a flat rendition in [[Two-dimensional space|two dimensions]] influenced [[Western art history|western art]], so that at one point, it was thought that images based on optical geometry (perspective) belonged to a more advanced civilization. Later, with the advent of [[Modernism]], the absence of perspective in [[History of Eastern art|oriental art]] from [[China]], [[Japan]] and in [[Persia]]n miniatures was revalued. In the early seventeenth century, the Italian physician and chemist [[Angelo Sala]] wrote that powdered silver nitrate was blackened by the sun, but did not find any practical application of the phenomenon. The discovery and commercial availability of the halides: [[iodine]], [[bromine]] and [[chlorine]] a few years earlier (iodine was discovered in 1811, bromine in 1825, and chlorine by Scheele in 1774) meant that silver photographic processes that rely on the reduction of silver chloride, silver iodide and silver chloride to metallic silver became feasible. The daguerreotype is one of these processes, but was not the first, as [[Niépce]] had experimented with paper silver chloride negatives while Wedgwood's experiments were with silver nitrate as were Schultze's stencils of letters. Previous discoveries of photosensitive methods and substances—including [[silver nitrate]] by [[Albertus Magnus]] in the 13th century,<ref>{{Cite book |last = Szabadváry |first = Ferenc |title = History of analytical chemistry |publisher = Taylor & Francis |year = 1992 |location = |page = 17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53APqy0KDaQC |isbn = 2-88124-569-2}}</ref> a silver and chalk mixture by [[Johann Heinrich Schulze]] in 1724,<ref name="Watt2003">{{cite book|last=Watt|first=Susan|title=Silver|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYPyWkuRJqYC&pg=PA21|accessdate=28 July 2013|year=2003|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-1464-3|pages=21–|quote=...&nbsp;But the first person to use this property to produce a photographic image (stencils of letters without the use of a camera) was German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze. In 1727, Schulze made a paste of silver nitrate and chalk, placed the mixture in a glass bottle and wrapped the bottle in&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref name="harmant">{{cite journal|last=Harmant|first=Pierre G.|date=May 1960|title=Anno Lucis 1839 (1/3)|journal=Camera|pages=24–31|url=http://collodion.claude-marillier.net/PGH/anno_lucisEN1.html}}</ref> and [[Nicéphore Niépce|Joseph Niépce]]'s [[bitumen]]-based [[heliography]] in 1822 contributed to development of the daguerreotype.<ref name="stokstad_964-967" /><ref name="utexas">{{cite web |title=The First Photograph - Heliography |url=http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html|quote=In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate&nbsp;... The sunlight passing through&nbsp;... This first permanent example&nbsp;... was destroyed&nbsp;... some years later. |accessdate=29 September 2009}}</ref> The first reliably documented attempt to capture the image formed in a [[camera obscura]] was made by [[Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)|Thomas Wedgwood]] as early as the 1790s, but according to an 1802 account of his work by Sir [[Humphry Davy]]: <blockquote>"The images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Wedgwood in his researches on the subject, and for this purpose he first used the nitrate of silver, which was mentioned to him by a friend, as a substance very sensible to the influence of light; but all his numerous experiments as to their primary end proved unsuccessful."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/contents/fra/_source_humphry_davy_and_thomas_wedgwood_01/|title=An Account of a method of copying Paintings upon glass, and of making Profiles, by the agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, Esq. With Observations by H. Davy. (1802)|publisher=luminous-lint.com}}</ref></blockquote> ===Development in France=== In 1829 [[France|French]] artist and [[chemist]] [[Louis Daguerre|Louis Jacques-Mandé Daguerre]], when obtaining a camera obscura for his work on theatrical scene painting from the optician Chevalier, was put into contact with [[Nicéphore Niépce]], who had already managed to make a record of an image from a camera obscura using the process Niépce invented, [[heliography]]. Daguerre met with Niépce and entered into correspondence with him. Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine (the [[Pyréolophore]]) together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to divulge any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved, they used a numerical code for security.<ref>[http://marvinclay.blogspot.se/2012/12/complements-sur-niepce.html Daguerre and Niépce's numerical code]</ref> 15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin; 34 - a camera obscura; 74 - sulphuric acid.<ref>[http://www.photo-museum.org/niepce-nicephore-daguerre-physautotype/ Physautotype]</ref> [[File:Niepce table.jpg|thumb|19th century printed reproduction of a [[still life]] believed to be a circa 1832 Niépce physautotype (glass original accidentally destroyed circa 1900)<ref>{{cite web|author= Jean-Louis Marignier | url= http://pagesperso.lcp.u-psud.fr/marignier/#La_Table_servie | publisher= Université Paris-Sud | title= Identification of the image called "La Table Servie" as a physautotype made by Niepce in 1832–1833 | accessdate = 20 May 2016}}</ref>]] Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography. Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was eventually named the [[physautotype]]. Niépce's early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, and centered around capturing the image in a camera (then called a camera obscura) to result in an engraving that could be printed somehow by lithography.<ref>[http://www.photo-museum.org/niepce-invention-photography/ Niépce and the Invention of Photography]</ref> The asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépce's experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt and improve what turned out to be the daguerreotype process. After Niépce's death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. Isidore signed the document admitting that the old process had been improved to the limits that were possible and that a new process that would bear Daguerre's name alone was sixty to eighty times as rapid as the old asphalt (bitumen) one his father had invented. It would bear Daguerre's name alone. This was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, secrecy would be lifted after a hundred shares had been sold. Or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Daguerre wrote to Isidore Niepce on 2 January 1839 about his discussion with Arago: <blockquote>''He sees difficulty with this proceeding by subscription; it is almost certain — just as I myself have been convinced ever since looking on my first specimens — that subscription would not serve. Everyone says it is superb: but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it [the process] and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it [the secret] would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, and that he himself would pursue this in the chambre. I have already seen several deputies who are of the same opinion and would give support ; this way it seems to me to have the most chance of success; thus, my dear friend, I think it is the best option, and everything makes me think we will not regret it. For a start M. Arago will speak next Monday at the Académie des Sciences&nbsp;...''[http://www.midley.co.uk/Pension/Pension.htm A State Pension for L. J. M. Daguerre for the secret of his daguerreotype technique R. Derek WOOD]</blockquote> Isidore did not contribute anything to the invention of the Daguerreotype and he was not let in on the details of the invention.<ref>[http://www.photo-museum.org/isidore-niepce-daguerre/ Isidore Niépce and Daguerre]</ref> Nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre. Miles Berry, a patent agent acting on Daguerre's and Isidore Niépce's behalf in England, wrote a six-page memorial to the Board of the Treasury in an attempt to repeat the French arrangement in Great Britain, 'for the purpose of throwing it open in England for the benefit of the public.' ''Inform party that Parliament has placed no funds'' ''at the disposal of the Treasury'' ''from which a purchase of this description could be made'' (''indecipherable signature'') The Treasury wrote to Miles Berry on 3 April to inform him of their decision: ''(To) Miles Berry Esq 66 Chancery Lane'' ''Sir,'' ''Having laid before the Lords &c your application on behalf of Messrs Daguerre & Niepce, that Government would purchase their Patent Right to the Invention known as the "Daguerreotype" I have it in command to acquaint you that Parliament has placed no Funds at the disposal of their Lordships from which a purchase of this description could be made'' ''3rd April 1840 (signed) A. Gordon (''entry in margin'') ''Application Refused'' <ref>[http://www.midley.co.uk/daguerreotype/dpatent_addenda.htm Three unpublished Addenda by R. Derek Wood to his article on 'The Daguerreotype Patent, The British Government, and The Royal Society']</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TyVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57 Court of Queen's Bench before Lord Chief Justice Denman. June 25, 1842. BERRY v. CLAUDET]</ref> Without bills being passed by Parliament, as had been arranged in France, Arago having presented a bill in the House of Deputies and Gay-Lussac in the Chamber of Peers, there was no possibility of repeating the French arrangement in England which is why the daguerreotype was given free to the world by the French government with the exception of England and Wales for which Richard Beard controlled the patent rights. Daguerre patented his process in England, and Richard Beard patented his improvements to the process in Scotland.<ref>[http://www.johnhannavy.co.uk/photographic-history/past-projects/ Scottish patent taken out by Richard Beard]</ref> ,<ref>[http://www.cdags.org/cdags_resources/engdagpatent.pdf text of daguerrotype patent]</ref><ref>[http://www.midley.co.uk/daguerreotype/dpatent_gov_rs.htm Daguerreotype patent]</ref><ref>[http://www.midley.co.uk/daguerreotype/dpatent_addenda.htm Midley addenda R Derek Wood]</ref><ref>[http://www.johnhannavy.co.uk/photographic-history/past-projects/ John Hannavy - Scottish Daguerreotype patent]</ref>. During this time the astronomer and member of the House of Deputies [[François Arago]] had sought a solution whereby the invention would be given free to the world by the passing of Acts in the French Parliament. Richard Beard, controlled most of the licences in England and Wales with the exception of [[Antoine Claudet]] who had purchased a licence directly from Daguerre. In the US Alexander Wolcott<ref>[http://declaration.net/article/alexander-s-wolcott-john-johnson Alexander Wolcott]</ref> invented the mirror daguerreotype camera, according to John Johnson's account in one single day after reading the description of the daguerreotype process published in English translation.<ref>[http://168-143-89-185-compute-ag1-ash01.opsourcecloud.net/reader_167_47.htm AN ACCOUNT OF WOLCOTT AND JOHNSON'S EARLY EXPERIMENTS, IN THE DAGUERREOTYPE. BY JOHN JOHNSON.&#91;From Humphrey's Journal, vol. ii 1851&#93;]</ref> Johnson's father travelled to England with some specimen portraits to patent the camera and met with Richard Beard who bought the patent for the camera, and a year later bought the patent for the daguerreotype outright. Johnson assisted Beard in setting up a portrait studio on the roof of the Regent Street Polytechnic and managed Beard's daguerreotype studio in Derby and then Manchester for some time before returning to the US.<ref>[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~brett/photos/jjohnson.html John Johnson, photographer by David Simkin]</ref> Wolcott's Mirror Camera was in use for about two years before it was replaced by Petzval's Portrait lens that gave larger and sharper images. [[Antoine Claudet]]<ref>[http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp06792/antoine-claudet Antoine Claudet ''National Portrait Gallery'']</ref> had purchased a licence from Daguerre directly to produce daguerreotypes, he was originally a representative of a French glass works with a shop in High Holborn <ref>[http://historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium2/pm.cgi?action=app_display&app=datasheet&app_id=1623& Antoine Claudet]</ref> At one stage, Beard sued Claudet with the aim of claiming that he had a monopoly of daguerreotypy in England, but lost.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TyVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA58 Miles Berry vs Claudet]</ref> Niépce's aim originally had been to find a method to reproduce prints and drawings for [[lithography]]. He had started out experimenting with light sensitive materials and had made a contact print from a drawing and then went on to successfully make the first photomechanical record of an image in a camera obscura—the world's first photograph. Niépce's method was to coat a pewter plate with bitumen of Judea (asphalt) and the action of the light differentially hardened the bitumen. The plate was washed with a mixture of oil of lavender and turpentine leaving a relief image. Later, Daguerre's and Niépce's improvement to the heliograph process, the physautotype, reduced the exposure to eight hours.<ref>[http://www.photo-museum.org/niepce-nicephore-daguerre-physautotype/ Niépce, Daguerre, Photomuseum physautotype]</ref> Early experiments required hours of exposure in the camera to produce visible results. Modern photo-historians consider the stories of Daguerre discovering mercury development by accident because of a bowl of mercury left in a cupboard, or, alternatively, a broken thermometer, to be spurious.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hopkins|first=Geo. M.|date=22 January 1887|title=Reminiscences of Daguerreotype|journal=Scientific American|volume=56|issue=4|pages=47, 52|quote=Transcriber's note: This anecdote of Daguerre's discovery of mercury development is generally considered spurious by modern photo-historians. --Gary W. Ewer, 1995|url=http://daguerre.org/resource/process/remin.html}}</ref><ref>[http://www.fotomuseum.be/content/dam/fomu/pdf's/Daguerreotype%20Journal_n%204_Autumn%20isuue%202015.pdf Daguerre's research of the latent image]</ref> Another story of a fortunate accident, which modern photohistorians are now doubtful about, and was related by Louis Figuier, of a silver spoon lying on an iodized silver plate which left its design on the plate by light perfectly.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eder|first1=Josef Maria |last2=Epstean|first2=Edward|title=History of Photography|edition=4|year=1978|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-23586-6|page=223}}</ref> Noticing this, Daguerre supposedly wrote to Niépce on 21 May 1831 suggesting the use of iodized silver plates as a means of obtaining light images in the camera. Daguerre did not give a clear account of his method of discovery, and allowed these legends to become current after the secrecy had been lifted. Letters from Niépce to Daguerre dated 24 June and 8 November 1831, show that Niépce was unsuccessful in obtaining satisfactory results following Daguerre's suggestion, although he had produced a negative on an iodized silver plate in the camera. Niépce's letters to Daguerre dated 29 January and 3 March 1832 show that the use of iodized silver plates was due to Daguerre and not Niépce.<ref name="eder">{{harv|Eder|1978|p=224}}</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Dumas]], who was president of the National Society for the Encouragement of Science<ref>[[:fr:Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale]]</ref> and a chemist, put his laboratory at Daguerre's disposal. According to Austrian chemist [[Josef Maria Eder]], Daguerre was not versed in chemistry and it was Dumas who suggested Daguerre use sodium hyposulfite, discovered by Herschel in 1819, as a fixer to dissolve the unexposed silver salts.<ref name="harmant"/><ref name="eder"/> ==First mention in print (1835) and public announcement (1839)== A paragraph tacked onto the end of a review of one of Daguerre's [[Diorama#The Daguerre Dioramas|Diorama]] spectacles in the ''Journal des artistes'' on 27 September 1835,<ref>Lowry, Bates & Lowry, Isabel Barrett ''The Silver Canvas''</ref> a [[Louis Daguerre#Diorama theatres|Diorama]] painting of a landslide that occurred in "La Vallée de [[Goldau]]", made passing mention of rumour that was going around the Paris studios of Daguerre's attempts to make a visual record on metal plates of the fleeting image produced by the camera obscura: <blockquote>"It is said that Daguerre has found the means to collect, on a plate prepared by him, the image produced by the camera obscura, in such a way that a portrait, a landscape, or any view, projected upon this plate by the ordinary camera obscura, leaves an imprint in light and shade there, and thus presents the most perfect of all drawings&nbsp;... a preparation put over this image preserves it for an indefinite time&nbsp;... the physical sciences have perhaps never presented a marvel comparable to this one."<ref>[http://etudesphotographiques.revues.org/717 ''Hubert, ou l'honneur de Daguerre'' Paul-Louis Roubert p. 41–49] quotes the (anonymous) review in ''Journal des artistes'' (Wikipedia editors' translation)</ref></blockquote> [[File:Daguerre Manual, 1839 - title pages.jpg|thumb|right|Title pages of Daguerre's 1839 manual, published soon after Arago's lecture to meet the intense public demand for more information about the process.]] A further clue to fixing the date of invention of the process is that when the Paris correspondent of the London periodical ''The Athenaeum'' reported the public announcement of the daguerreotype in 1839, he mentioned that the daguerreotypes now being produced were considerably better than the ones he had seen "four years earlier". [[François Arago]] briefly mentioned the heliograph, the physautotype and the daguerreotype process at a joint meeting of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Académie des Beaux-Arts]] held at the ''Institut de Françe'' on Monday, 19 August 1839.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRuME1wAa3EC&pg=PA4 ''French Daguerreotypes'' Janet E. Buerger]</ref><ref>[http://www.photo-museum.org/isidore-niepce-daguerre/ maison nicephore niépce]</ref> Daguerre was present, but complained of a sore throat. Later that year [[William Fox Talbot]] announced his silver chloride "sensitive paper" process.<ref>Note: Talbot's early "sensitive paper" or "photogenic drawing" process, which required very long camera exposures, should not be confused with the much more practical [[Calotype]] or Talbotype process, invented in 1840 and introduced in 1841.</ref> Together, these announcements cause commentators to choose the 1839 as the year photography was born, or made public. The phrase ''the birth of photography'' has been used by different authors to mean different things: - either the publicizing of the process (in 1839) as a metaphor to indicate that previous to that the daguerreotype process had been kept secret; or, the date the first photograph was taken by or with a camera (using the asphalt process or heliography thought to have been 1822, but Eder's research indicates that the date was more probably 1826 or later.<ref>Eder ''History of Photography'' pp. 200–205</ref><ref name="NMAH">{{cite web |url=http://historywired.si.edu/object.cfm?ID=458 |title=A Daguerreotype of Daguerre |publisher=National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution |accessdate=2008-07-17}}</ref> and Fox Talbot's first photographs had been made "in the brilliant summer of 1835"<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tlbt/hd_tlbt.htm ''Fox Talbot'' Metropolitain Museum]</ref> Daguerre and Niépce had together signed an agreement in which remuneration for the invention would be paid for by subscription. However, the campaign they launched to finance the invention failed. François Arago, whose views on the system of patenting inventions can be gathered from speeches he made later in the House of Deputies (he apparently thought the English patent system had advantages over the French one) did not think the idea of raising money by subscription to be a good one, and supported Daguerre by arranging for motions to be passed in both Houses of the French parliament. Daguerre did not patent and profit from his invention in the usual way. Instead, it was arranged that the [[French government]] would acquire the rights in exchange for a lifetime [[pensions]] to Daguerre and to Niépce's son and heir, Isidore. The government would then present the daguerreotype process "free to the world" as a gift, which it did on 19 August 1839. However, five days previously to this, Miles Berry, a [[patent agent]] acting on Daguerre's behalf filed for [[patent]] No. 8194 of 1839: "A New or Improved Method of Obtaining the Spontaneous Reproduction of all the Images Received in the Focus of the Camera Obscura." The patent applied to "England, Wales, and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in all her Majesty's Colonies and Plantations abroad."<ref>{{cite book|last=Heathcote|first=Pauline F.|editor=Coope, Rosalys |editor2=Corbett, Jane|title=Bromley House, 1752–1991: Four Essays Celebrating the 175th Anniversary of the Nottingham Subscription Library|year=1991|publisher=Nottingham Subscription Library|isbn=0-9517499-0-0|page=102}}</ref><ref name="edinphoto">{{cite web|url=http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/1_early/1_early_photography_-_processes_-_daguerreotype.htm|title=Early Photographic Processes: Daguerreotype, 1839–1850s|publisher=edinphoto.org.uk}}</ref> This was the usual wording of English patent specifications before 1852. It was only after the 1852 Act, which unified the patent systems of England, Ireland and Scotland, that a single patent protection was automatically extended to the whole of the British Isles, including the Channel Isles and the Isle of Man. Richard Beard bought the patent rights from Miles Berry, and also obtained a Scottish patent, which he apparently did not enforce. The United Kingdom and the "Colonies and Plantations abroad" therefore became the only places where a license was legally required to make and sell daguerreotypes.<ref name="edinphoto"/><ref>[http://www.theislandwiki.org/index.php/The_beginnings_of_photography_in_Jersey Johnathan Carter 2002 Bulletin of ''Société Jersaise'']</ref> Much of Daguerre's early work was destroyed when his home and studio caught fire on 8 March 1839, while the painter Samuel Morse was visiting from the US.<ref>[http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/texts/N8390029_DIORAMA-FIRE_ALDINE_1839-04.pdf Destruction of the French Diorama]</ref> <ref>[http://www.historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium2/pm.cgi?action=app_display&app=datasheet&app_id=250 Historic Camera ''Samuel Morse'']</ref><ref>Sarah Kate Gillespie ''The Early American Daguerreotype: Cross-Currents in Art and Technology'' p 23</ref> Malcolm Daniel points out that "fewer than twenty-five securely attributed photographs by Daguerre survive—a mere handful of still lifes, Parisian views, and portraits from the dawn of photography."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/dagu/hd_dagu.htm|title="Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–|last=Daniel|first=Malcolm|date=October 2004|publisher=metmuseum.org}}</ref> ==''Camera obscura''== {{Main article|Camera_obscura|l1=Camera obscura}} [[File:Camerae-obscurae.jpg|thumb|1840–1841 [[Camera obscura|camerae obscurae]] and plates for daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by [[Charles Chevalier]] ([[Musée des Arts et Métiers]])]] [[File:Daguerreotype Daguerre Atelier 1837.jpg|thumb|Still life with plaster casts, made by Daguerre in 1837, the earliest reliably dated daguerreotype<ref>This well-known image, now badly effaced by an attempt to clean it, is in the collection of the [[Société française de photographie]]. That institution's [http://www.sfp.asso.fr/collection/images/pdf/FRSFP_IR_tirages_DAGUERRE_0092.pdf inventory of works by or about Daguerre] (item 1) gives it the title ''Intérieur d'un cabinet de curiosité'' (Interior of a cabinet of curiosities), describes it as a whole-plate daguerreotype in a contemporary frame, states that it was acquired in 1897, came from the collection of de Cailleux (presumably, the late [[Alphonse de Cailleux]], deputy director and then general director of the Louvre from 1836 to 1848), is annotated "Daguerre 1837" below, and on the back, in Daguerre's handwriting, bears the dedication "Epreuve ayant servi à constater la découverte du Daguerréotype, offerte à Monsieur de Cailleux par son [très] dévoué serviteur" [signed "Daguerre"] (Proof having served to verify the discovery of Daguerreotype, offered to Monsieur de Cailleux by his very devoted servant Daguerre). There is apparently no other documentary basis which might support statements found in many sources that it is the "first" or "first successful" or "first completely processed" daguerreotype, or that it was presented to de Cailleux at the Louvre in 1837 rather than at an unknown location and date after the 1839 unveiling of the process. According to the [https://books.google.com/books?id=_iBFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false 1884 catalogue of one French museum], a framed set of three plates presented by Daguerre to [[François Arago]] bore an identically worded dedication. They were among the plates put on display to a French government body in July 1839 when it was deciding on the award of a pension to Daguerre in exchange for the still-secret details of his process.</ref>]] [[File:Boulevard du Temple by Daguerre.jpg|thumb|The earliest reliably dated photograph of people, taken by [[Louis J.M. Daguerre|Daguerre]] one spring morning in 1838 from the window of the Diorama, where he lived and worked. It bears the caption ''huit heure du matin'' (8 a.m.). Though it shows the busy [[Boulevard du Temple]], the long exposure time (about ten or twelve minutes) meant that moving traffic cannot be seen; however, the bootblack and his customer at lower left remained still long enough to be distinctly visible. The building signage at the upper left shows that the image is laterally (left-right) reversed, as were most daguerreotypes. Daguerre presented this daguerreotype together with two others: a still-life and a view from the same window labelled ''midi'' (noon) to King Ludwig I of Bavaria (''The Munich Triptych'') in order to publicise his invention. All three daguerreotypes were destroyed by cleaning in 1974 but they are preserved in reproduction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sylviaballhause.de/assets/Textdateien/Daguerre-folder-safe.pdf?PHPSESSID=j1glkdmv6iv6a04gcv486m6ip4|title=The Munich Daguerre-Triptych|last=Ballhause|first=Sylvia|publisher=sylviaballhause.de}}</ref>]] The ''[[camera obscura]]'' (Latin for "dark chamber") in its simplest form is a naturally occurring phenomenon.<ref name="rideal">{{cite web|url=http://www.npg.org.uk/learning/digital/portraiture/transition-connections.php|title=The Developing Portrait: Painting Towards Photography|last=Rideal|first=Liz|work=npg.org.uk}}</ref> When a hole in the wall of a dark room faces a brightly lit scene—or a small opening in the side of a cave on the edge of a sunlit valley does the same—an image of the scene outside will be projected upside-down onto any surface opposite to the hole, more or less distinct depending on the size of the hole and the distance to the surface. Early ''camerae obscurae'' were entire rooms tightly shuttered except for a small hole.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://brightbytes.com/cosite/what.html|title=What is a camera obscura?|last1=Wilgus|first1=Jack|last2=Wilgus|first2=Beverly|date=August 2004|publisher=brightbytes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/vermeer_camera_01.shtml|title=Vermeer and the Camera Obscura|last=Steadman|first=Philip|date=17 February 2012|publisher=bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvzpu0Q9RTU Making a camera obscura in your room. ''National Geographic'']</ref> In the 16th century, [[Daniele Barbaro]] suggested replacing the small hole with a larger hole and an old man's spectacle lens (a [[Lens (optics)#Types of simple lenses|biconvex lens]] for correcting long-sightedness), which produced a much brighter and sharper image.<ref name="rideal"/> By the late 1700s, small, easily portable box-form units equipped with a simple lens, an internal mirror, and a [[ground glass]] screen had become popular among affluent amateurs for making sketches of landscapes and architecture. The camera was pointed at the scene and steadied, a sheet of thin paper was placed on top of the ground glass, then a pencil or pen could be used to trace over the image projected from within. The beautiful but fugitive little light-paintings on the screen inspired several people to seek some way of capturing them more completely and effectively—and automatically—by means of chemistry. Daguerre, a skilled professional artist, was familiar with the ''camera obscura'' as an aid for establishing correct proportion and [[perspective (visual)|perspective]], sometimes very useful when planning out the celebrated theatrical scene backdrops he painted and the even larger ultra-realistic panoramas he exhibited in his popular [[Diorama]]. ==Plate manufacture== The daguerreotype image is formed on a highly polished [[silver]] surface. Usually the silver is a thin layer on a copper substrate, but other metals such as brass can be used for the substrate and daguerreotypes can also be made on solid silver sheets. A surface of very pure silver is preferable, but sterling (92.5% pure) or US coin (90% pure) or even lower grades of silver are functional. In 19th century practice, the usual stock material, [[Sheffield plate]], was produced by a process sometimes called plating by fusion. A sheet of sterling silver was heat-fused onto the top of a thick copper ingot. When the ingot was repeatedly rolled under pressure to produce thin sheets, the relative thicknesses of the two layers of metal remained constant. The alternative was to [[electroplating|electroplate]] a layer of pure silver onto a bare copper sheet. The two technologies were sometimes combined, the Sheffield plate being given a finishing coat of pure silver by electroplating. In order that the corners of the plate would not tear the buffing material when the plate was polished, in the US the corners were clipped, while in France they were bent back.<ref>{{cite book|last=Buerger|first=Janet E. |title=French Daguerreotypes|year=1989|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-07985-6|page=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2015}} A number of devices were patented to do this, some of them also bending the edges of the plate as well as acting as plate holders to avoid touching the surface of the plate during processing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daguerre.org/resource/exhibit/brochure.htm|title=The Making of a Daguerreotype|last=Isenburg|first=Matthew R.|year=2001|publisher=daguerre.org}}</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/patents/US10508 Reuben, Knecht. Improved Daguerreotype-plate Holder US 10508 A. Reuben Knecht, assignee. Patent 10,508. 7 February 1854. Print.]</ref> ==The process== [[File:Daguerreotype process.jpg|thumb|Graphic representation of the steps involved in making a daguerreotype]] ===Polishing=== To optimize the image quality of the end product, the silver side of the plate had to be polished to as nearly perfect a mirror finish as possible. The silver had to be completely free of tarnish or other contamination when it was sensitized, so the daguerreotypist had to perform at least the final portion of the polishing and cleaning operation not too long before use. In the 19th century, the polishing was done with a buff covered with hide or velvet, first using [[rotten stone]], then [[jeweler's rouge]], then [[lampblack]]. Originally, the work was entirely manual, but buffing machinery was soon devised to assist. Finally, the surface was swabbed with [[nitric acid]] to burn off any residual organic matter. ===Sensitization=== In darkness or by the light of a [[safelight]], the silver surface was exposed to [[halogen]] fumes. Originally, only [[iodine]] fumes (from iodine crystals at room temperature) were used, producing a surface coating of [[silver iodide]], but it was soon found that a subsequent exposure to [[bromine]] fumes greatly increased the sensitivity of the [[silver halide]] coating. Exposure to [[chlorine]] fumes, or a combination of bromine and chlorine fumes, could also be used. A final re-fuming with iodine was typical. ===Exposure=== The plate was then carried to the camera in a light-tight plate holder. Withdrawing a protective [[dark slide]] or opening a pair of doors in the holder exposed the sensitized surface within the dark camera and removing a cap from the camera lens began the exposure, creating an invisible [[latent image]] on the plate. Depending on the sensitization chemistry used, the brightness of the lighting, and the light-concentrating power of the lens, the required exposure time ranged from a few seconds to many minutes.<ref>{{cite journal|date=11 September 1841|title=Photographic Miniature. To the Editor of ''The Spectator''|journal=The Spectator|location=London|issue=689|pages=877–878|quote=In a letter to the editor of ''The Spectator'', Claudet explained that he gave his exposures as in June 10 to 20 seconds; in July, 20 to 40 seconds and in September, 60 to 90 seconds.|url=http://www.daguerre.org/resource/texts/spectat-claudet.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Burgess|first=N.G.|date=June 1855|title=Amusing Incidents In the Life of a Daguerrean Artist|journal=The Photographic and Fine Art Journal|volume=8|issue=6|page=190|quote=On a cloudy day, the exposure was given as three or four minutes|url=http://www.daguerre.org/resource/texts/burgess2.html}}</ref> After the exposure was judged to be complete, the lens was capped and the holder was again made light-tight and removed from the camera. ===Development=== The latent image was [[photographic processing|developed]] to visibility by several minutes of exposure to the fumes given off by heated [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] in a purpose-made developing box. The toxicity of mercury was well known in the 19th century, but precautionary measures were rarely taken.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Kenneth E.|title=The Cutting Edge of Yesterday|journal=The Daguerreian Annual 1990|publisher=The Daguerreian Society|page=35|url=http://www.cdags.org/wp-content/uploads/cuttingedge.pdf}}</ref> Today, however, the hazards of contact with mercury and other chemicals traditionally used in the daguerreotype process are taken more seriously, as is the risk of release of those chemicals into the environment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnx.org/contents/fb2244d4-3210-4b3e-baa1-5957b557ed95@5/The_Myth,_Reality,_and_History|title=The Myth, Reality, and History of Mercury Toxicity|last=Barron|first=Andrew R.|publisher=cnx.org}}</ref><ref>{{EMedicine|article|1175560|Mercury Toxicity}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Berg |first1=JM|last2=Tymoczko|first2=JL|last3=Stryer|first3=L.|title=Biochemistry|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22340/|edition=5|year=2002|publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company|location=New York|chapter=17.3|quote=The proverbial phrase "mad as a hatter" refers to the strange behavior of poisoned hat makers who used mercury nitrate to soften and shape animal furs. This form of mercury is absorbed through the skin. Similar problems afflicted the early photographers, who used vaporized mercury to create daguerreotypes.}}</ref> In the [[Edmond Becquerel|Becquerel]] variation of the process, published in 1840 but very seldom used in the 19th century, the plate, sensitized by fuming with iodine alone,<!-- the process was also used as a latensification step before mercurial development by some practitioners (Southworth & Hawes?) who surely did not limit themselves to iodine sensitization, so the modern claim of incompatibility with other sensitizers may be erroneous --> was developed by overall exposure to sunlight passing through yellow or red glass. The silver iodide in its unexposed condition was insensitive to the red end of the [[visible spectrum]] of light and was unaffected, but the latent image created in the camera by the blue, violet and ultraviolet rays color-sensitized each point on the plate proportionally, so that this color-filtered "sunbath" intensified it to full visibility, as if the plate had been exposed in the camera for hours or days to produce a visible image without development. ===Fixing=== After development, the light sensitivity of the plate was arrested by removing the remaining silver halide with a mild solution of [[sodium thiosulfate]]; Daguerre's initial method was to use a hot saturated solution of common salt. Gilding, also called gold toning, was an addition to Daguerre's process introduced by [[Hippolyte Fizeau]] in 1840. It soon became part of the standard procedure. To give the steely gray image a slightly warmer tone and physically reinforce the powder-like silver particles of which it was composed, a [[gold chloride]] solution was pooled onto the surface and the plate was briefly heated over a flame, then drained, rinsed and dried. Without this treatment the image was as delicate as the "dust" on a butterfly's wing. ==Casing and other display options== Even when strengthened by gilding, the image surface was still very easily marred and the silver was subject to tarnishing from exposure to the air, so the finished plate was bound up with a protective cover glass and sealed with strips of paper soaked in [[gum arabic]]. In the US and UK, a gilt brass mat was normally used to separate the image surface from the glass. In continental Europe, a thin cardboard mat or ''[[Passe-Partout (framing)|passepartout]]'' usually served that purpose. There were two main methods of finishing daguerreotypes for protection and display: In the US and Britain, the tradition of preserving miniature paintings in a wooden case covered with leather or paper stamped with a relief pattern continued through to the daguerreotype. Some daguerreotypists were portrait artists who also offered miniature portraits. Black-lacquered cases ornamented with inset [[Nacre|mother of pearl]] were sometimes used. The more substantial Union case was made from a mixture of colored sawdust and shellac (the main component of wood varnish) formed in a heated mold to produce a decorative sculptural relief. The word "Union" referred to the sawdust and varnish mixture—the manufacture of Union cases began in 1856.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://daguerre.org/resource/anthony/anthony3.html|title=A Tour of E. Anthony's Daguerreian Manufactory|year=1996|publisher=daguerre.org}}</ref> In all types of cases, the inside of the cover was lined with velvet or plush or satin to provide a dark surface to reflect into the plate for viewing and to protect the cover glass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phototree.com/id_dag.htm|title=The Mirror with a Memory|publisher=phototree.com}}</ref> Some cases, however, held two daguerreotypes opposite each other. The cased images could be set out on a table or displayed on a [[Fireplace mantel|mantelpiece]]. Most cases were small and lightweight enough to easily carry in a pocket, although that was not normally done. The other approach, common in France and the rest of continental Europe, was to hang the daguerreotype on the wall in a frame, either simple or elaborate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.provant.be/en/binaries/Daguerreo%20Folder%20ENG_tcm10-92208.pdf |publisher=Antwerp Photography Museum |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907130246/http://www.provant.be/en/binaries/Daguerreo%20Folder%20ENG_tcm10-92208.pdf |archivedate=2012-09-07 |title=Daguerreotype}}</ref><ref name="princeton">{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/exhibits/dags/photo/|title=The Daguerreotype|publisher=princeton.edu}}</ref> Conservators were able to determine that a daguerreotype of [[Walt Whitman]] was made in New Orleans with the main clue being the type of frame, which was made for wall hanging in the French and continental style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whitmanarchive.org/multimedia/image001.html|title=Pictures & Sound: Gallery of Images|publisher=whitmanarchive.org}}</ref> Supporting evidence of the New Orleans origin was a scrap of paper from ''Le Mesager'', a New Orleans bilingual newspaper of the time, which had been used to glue the plate into the frame.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bethel|first=Denise B.|year=1992|title=Notes on an Early Daguerreotype of Walt Whitman|journal=Walt Whitman Quarterly Review|volume=9|issue=3|url=http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article%3D1327%26context%3Dwwqr&ei=BTbUVKnoM8KfgwTe44DIDQ&usg=AFQjCNFvtrRPvd4tON2Qy-63F9t95rsnCg&sig2=ZLpNPxcaM7SkFzhv8X6J4Q&bvm=bv.85464276,d.eXY}}</ref> Other clues used by historians to identify daguerreotypes are hallmarks in the silver plate and the distinctive patterns left by different photographers when polishing the plate with a leather buff, which leaves extremely fine parallel lines discernible on the surface.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ntm.cz/data/veda-a-vyzkum/booklet-eng.pdf|title=Daguerreotypes: Europe's Earliest Photographic Records|year=2014|publisher=daguerrebase.org|pages=25, 54}}</ref> As the daguerreotype itself is on a relatively thin sheet of soft metal, it was easily sheared down to sizes and shapes suited for mounting into lockets, as was done with miniature paintings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hannavy|first=John|title=Victorian Photographers at Work|year=1997|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=0-7478-0358-7|page=90}}</ref> Other imaginative uses of daguerreotype portraits were to mount them in [[Pocket watch|watch fobs and watch cases]], jewel caskets and other ornate silver or gold boxes, the handles of [[walking stick]]s, and in brooches, bracelets and other jewelry now referred to by collectors as "daguerreian jewelry".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daguerre.org/resource/exhibit/present.htm|title=The Birth of an Industry: The Collection of Matthew R. Isenburg|publisher=daguerre.org}}</ref> The cover glass or crystal was sealed either directly to the edges of the daguerreotype or to the opening of its receptacle and a protective hinged cover was usually provided. ==Unusual characteristics== [[File:Portrait of a Daguerreotypist, 1845.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a daguerreotypist displaying daguerreotypes and cases]] Daguerreotypes are normally laterally reversed—mirror images—because they are necessarily viewed from the side that originally faced the camera lens. Although a daguerreotypist could attach a mirror or [[Prism (optics)#Reflective prisms|reflective prism]] in front of the lens to obtain a right-reading result, in practice this was rarely done.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://photohistory-sussex.co.uk/DickensCharlesPortraits.htm|title=Portraits of Charles Dickens (1812–1870)|last=Simkin|first=David|publisher=photohistory-sussex.co.uk|quote=An advertisement for Mr Claudet's Daguerreotype Portrait Rooms, which was published in the Journal of the Society of Arts in December 1852, states that "Mr. Claudet's portraits are taken non-inverted (viz. the right and left side, as in nature), for which, and his other improvements in Photography, the Great Exhibition Council Medal has been awarded to him.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=11 September 1841|title=Photographic Miniature. To the Editor of ''The Spectator''|journal=The Spectator|location=London|issue=689|pages=877–878|quote=In a letter to the editor of ''The Spectator'', Claudet explains that he has a mirror available, but does not use it normally as it requires an increase in exposure time, but he employs it when a face is asymmetrical, to reproduce the irregularity on the correct side.|url=http://www.daguerre.org/resource/texts/spectat-claudet.html}}</ref> The use of either type of attachment caused some light loss, somewhat increasing the required exposure time, and unless they were of very high optical quality they could degrade the quality of the image. Right-reading text or right-handed buttons on men's clothing in a daguerreotype may only be evidence that it is a copy of a typical wrong-reading original. The experience of viewing a daguerreotype is unlike that of viewing any other type of photograph. The image does not sit on the surface of the plate, after flipping from positive to negative as the viewing angle is adjusted, viewers experience an apparition in space, a mirage that arises once the eyes are properly focused. Of course when reproduced via other processes, this effect associated with viewing an original daguerreotype will no longer be apparent. Other processes that have a similar viewing experience are [[Holography|holograms]] on credit cards or [[Lippmann plate]]s. Although daguerreotypes are unique images, they could be copied by re-daguerreotyping the original. Copies were also produced by [[lithography]] or [[engraving]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wulibraries.typepad.com/artnews/2009/12/new-paris-et-ses-environs-sous-la-direction-de-m-ch-philipon-1840.html|title=Paris et ses environs: reproduits par le daguerreotype / sous la direction de M. Ch. Philipon (1840)|date=16 December 2009|publisher=wulibraries.typepad.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221212250/http://wulibraries.typepad.com/artnews/2009/12/new-paris-et-ses-environs-sous-la-direction-de-m-ch-philipon-1840.html|archivedate=21 February 2014}}</ref> Today, they can be digitally scanned. A well-exposed and sharp large-format daguerreotype is able to faithfully record fine detail at a resolution that today's digital cameras are not able to match.<ref>Wired Magazine (2010) [http://www.wired.com/2010/07/ff_daguerrotype_panorama/ "1848 Daguerreotypes Bring Middle America's Past to Life"]</ref> As Arago pointed out in his presentation of the process to the French Chamber of Deputies, the expense of the silver may be offset by being able to wipe a plate clean and produce images again and again on the same plate. ==Reduction of exposure time== In the early 1840s, two innovations were introduced that dramatically shortened the required exposure times: a lens that produced a much brighter image in the camera, and a modification of the chemistry used to sensitize the plate. The very first daguerreotype cameras used Chevalier [[Camera lens#Early photographic camera lenses|lenses]] which were "[[Lens speed|slow]]" (about [[F-number|f/14]]).<ref>Parisian optician Charles Chevalier had long been making assorted high-quality lenses for microscopes, telescopes and other optical devices. The "Chevalier lens" referred to in the context of these earliest photographic cameras was an 81&nbsp;mm diameter [[Lens (optics)#Types of simple lenses|meniscus]] [[Achromatic lens|achromatic doublet]], mounted with its concave surface forward, and had a [[focal length]] of about 380&nbsp;mm (each was ground and polished by hand, so the exact focal length of each was slightly different). A [[diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]] with a fixed 27&nbsp;mm diameter opening formed the front end of the lens barrel and was spaced away from the lens at a distance that optimally reduced the most important [[Lens (optics)#Aberrations|lens aberrations]]. Chevalier soon began producing other, faster camera lens designs which are also commonly called "Chevalier lenses", a potential source of confusion.</ref> They projected a sharp and undistorted but dim image onto the plate. Such a lens was necessary in order to produce the highly detailed results which had elicited so much astonishment and praise when daguerreotypes were first exhibited, results which the purchasers of daguerreotype equipment expected to achieve. Using this lens and the original sensitizing method, an exposure of several minutes was required to photograph even a very brightly sunlit scene. A much "faster" lens could have been provided—simply omitting the integral fixed [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]] from the Chevalier lens would have increased its working aperture to about [[F-number|f/4.7]] and reduced the exposure time by nearly 90 percent—but because of the existing state of lens design the much shorter exposure would have been at the cost of a peripherally distorted and very much less clear image. With uncommon exceptions, daguerreotypes made before 1841 were of immobile subjects such as landscapes, public or historic buildings, monuments, statuary, and [[Still life photography|still life]] arrangements. Attempts at [[portrait photography]] with the Chevalier lens required the sitter to face into the sun for several minutes while trying to remain motionless and look pleasant, usually producing grisly results. In 1841, the [[Petzval lens|Petzval Portrait Lens]] was introduced.<ref>The story of the development of the Petzval Portrait lens is given in ''The History of Photography'' J. M. Eder pp 291–313</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OJrJrEJ-r9QC&pg=PA35 ''A History of the Photographic Lens'' Rudolph Kingslake]</ref><ref>[https://www.lensrentals.com/blog/2010/10/from-petzvals-sum-to-abbes-number/ ''From Petzval's Sum to Abbe's Number'' Roger Cicala]</ref> Professor [[Andreas von Ettingshausen]] brought the need for a faster lens for daguerreotype cameras to his colleague, Professor Petzval's attention, who went ahead in cooperation with the Voigtländer firm to design a lens that would reduce the time needed to expose daguerreotype plates for portraiture. Petzval was not aware of the scale of his invention at the start of his work on the lens, and later regretted not having secured his rights by obtaining letters patent on his invention. It was the first lens to be designed using mathematical computation, and a team of mathematicians whose speciality was in fact calculating the trajectories of ballistics was put at Petzval's disposal by the [[Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria|Archduke Ludvig]]. It was scientifically designed and optimized for its purpose. With a working aperture of about [[F-number|f/3.6]], an exposure only about one-fifteenth as long as that required when using a Chevalier lens was sufficient. Although it produced an acceptably sharp image in the central area of the plate, where the sitter's face was likely to be, the image quality dropped off toward the edges, so for this and other reasons it was unsuitable for landscape photography and not a general replacement for Chevalier-type lenses. Petzval intended his lens to be convertible with two alternative rear components: one for portraiture and the other for landscape and architecture.<ref>[https://monoskop.org/images/b/b6/Kingslake_Rudolf_1955_The_Orthoscopic_Lens.pdf The Orthoscopic Lens]</ref> The other major innovation was a chemical one. In Daguerre's original process, the plate was sensitized by exposure to [[iodine]] fumes alone. A breakthrough came with the discovery that when exposure to [[bromine]] or [[chlorine]] fumes was correctly combined with this, the sensitivity of the plate could be greatly increased, which in turn greatly reduced the required exposure time to between fifteen and thirty seconds in favorable lighting conditions, according to Eder.<ref>''History of Photography''</ref> Several experimenters discovered the propensity of using chlorine and bromine in addition to iodine:<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp0fPG7UcXwC&pg=PA122 ''The Daguerreotype in America'' Beaumont Newhall]</ref> Wolcott, whose "Wolcott's mixture" was marketed by his partner, John Johnson that they called "quickstuff"; two unrelated individuals with the surname Goddard - Philadelphia physician and chemist [[Paul Beck Goddard]],<ref>[http://historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium2/pm.cgi?action=app_display&app=datasheet&app_id=2405& Paul Beck Goddard]</ref> and [[John Frederick Goddard]] who lectured at the Adelaide Gallery before assisting Beard with setting up the first daguerreotype portraiture studio on the roof of the Regent Street Polytechnic;<ref>[http://www.historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium/pm.cgi?action=display&login=richardbeard ''Historic Camera'' Richard Beard]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yVFdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA595 John Frederick Goddard]</ref> (John Frederick Goddard was the first to publish information that bromine increased the sensitivity of daguerreotype plates in the ''Literary Gazette'' of 12 December 1840)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FLTyvuWX6MMC&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34&dq=natterer+brothers&source=bl&ots=U91xJ4UB31&sig=e9Te6xnTHq3WJ75z-rnpC1a-bnM&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjzucCLnOzPAhUmP5oKHUACBRAQ6AEIIzAA#v=onepage&q=natterer%20brothers&f=false Susan Barger, William B. White ''The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth Century Technology and Modern Science'']</ref> <ref>[http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/texts/P8400004_GODDARD_LIT_GAZETTE_1840-12-12.pdf ''Literary Gazette'' 12 December 1840]</ref><ref>[http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/texts/P8630001_HUGHES_BRIT_JOURN_PHOTOG_1863-12-15.pdf ''The British Journal of Photography'' 15 December 1863 Jabez Hughes ''The Discoverer of the Use of Bromine in Photography: a Few Facts and an Appeal'']</ref> and in Vienna: Krachowila and the [[Johann August Natterer|Natterer]] brothers. ==Unusual daguerreotype cameras== A number of innovative camera designs appeared: One early attempt to address the lack of a good "fast" lens for portraiture, and the subject of the first US patent for photographic apparatus, was Alexander Wolcott's camera, which used a concave mirror instead of a lens and operated on the principle of the [[reflecting telescope]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction|year=1843|publisher=J. Limbird|page=119}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://britishphotohistory.ning.com/profiles/blogs/re-creation-of-beard-s-mirror-camera-1840|title=Re-creation of Beard's Mirror Camera (1840)|last=Smith|first=Roger Wesley|date=5 November 2012|publisher=britishphotohistory.ning.com}}</ref> The mirror was fitted at one end of the camera and focusing was done by adjusting the position of the plate in a holder that slid along a rail. Designed solely for portraiture, this arrangement produced a far brighter image than a Chevalier lens, or even the later Petzval lens, but image quality was only marginal and the design was only practical for use with small plates. Friedrich Voigtländer's small, all-metal Daguerrotype camera (1841) was small enough to be carried. It was fitted with a f/3.5 Petzval portrait lens at the front and a focusing lens at the back, and took round plates. Only 600 of these cameras were produced.<ref>[http://collectiblend.com/Cameras/Voigtlander/Daguerreotype-(Metallcamera).html Voigtländer Daguerreotype Camera]</ref> The directions for the use of the Voigtländer camera read as follows: <blockquote>Directions for the use of the new daguerreotype apparatus for the making of portraits, executed according to the calculations of Professor Petzval by Voigtländer and Son, Vienna, printed by J.P.Sollinger, August 1, 1841.</blockquote> <blockquote>The person to be photographed must be seated in the open air. For an exposure by overcast, dark skies in winter 3 ½ minutes is sufficient; on a sunny day in the shade 1½ to 2 minutes are enough, and in direct sunlight it requires no more than 40–45 seconds. The last, however, is seldom employed on account of the deep shadows direct sunlight creates.<ref>5th number of the Verh. d. n. ö. Gew. Verein, Vienna 1842, p. 72. Quoted by Eder 1978 p 225</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/collection/photography/photographictechnology/collectionitem.aspx?id=1990-5036/6956 Voigtländer Daguerreotype Camera. National Media Museum. UK.]</ref> </blockquote> The stated exposure times are evidently for plates sensitized with iodine only; improved sensitization methods were just being introduced in 1841–42. In 1845 Friedrich von Martens invented the first panoramic camera for curved daguerreotype plates with a lens that turned to cover an angle of 150 degrees. It was called "Megaskop-Kamera" of "Panorama-Kamera".<ref>Eder 1978 p. 255</ref> Netto constructed, in 1841, a studio in which the front part of the camera with the lens was built into the wall between the studio and the adjoining darkroom, the rear part of the camera being inside the darkroom.<ref>Nordisk tidskrift för fotografi (1920, p. 119) quoted in Eder 1978 p. 256</ref><ref>[http://hem.bredband.net/tjmop/giroux_sweden.htm Photographic studio according to Netto 1842]</ref> ==Portraiture== In one early attempt at portraiture, a Swedish amateur daguerreotypist caused his sitter nearly to lose an eye because of practically staring into the sun during the five-minute exposure.<ref>Eder, p 187. The amateur daguerreotypist was Lieutenant Lars Jesper Benzelstierna and his sitter was the actor Georg Dahlqvist.</ref> [[File:Device to hold heads during Daguerreotype exposure.JPG|thumb|upright|Device to hold heads still during the long exposure time required to make a daguerreotype portrait]] Even with fast lenses and much more sensitive plates, under portrait studio lighting conditions an exposure of several seconds was necessary on the brightest of days, and on hazy or cloudy days the sitter had to remain still for considerably longer. The head rest was already in use for portrait painting. Establishments producing daguerreotype portraits generally had a daylight studio built on the roof, much like a greenhouse. Whereas later in the history of photography artificial electric lighting was done in a dark room, building up the light with hard spotlights and softer floodlights, the daylight studio was equipped with screens and blinds to control the light, to reduce it and make it unidirectional, or diffuse it to soften harsh direct lighting. Blue filtration was sometimes used to make it easier for the sitter to tolerate the strong light, as a daguerreotype plate was almost exclusively sensitive to light at the blue end of the spectrum and filtering out everything else did not significantly increase the exposure time. Usually, it was arranged so that sitters leaned their elbows on a support such as a posing table, the height of which could be adjusted, or else head rests were used that did not show in the picture, and this led to most daguerreotype portraits having stiff, lifeless poses. Some exceptions exist, with lively expressions full of character, as photographers saw the potential of the new medium, and would have used the [[tableau vivant]] technique. These are represented in museum collections and are the most sought after by private collectors today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/events/exhibitions/archives/archives.html?zoom=1&tx_damzoom_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=108982&cHash=b461a5bf10|title=''A Game of Chess'' (Circa 1850)|publisher=musee-orsay.fr}}</ref> <!-- material beneath does not belong in this subsection --> The image in a daguerreotype is often described as being formed by the [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]], or alloy, of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[silver]] because mercury vapor from a pool of heated mercury is used to develop the plate; but using the [[A. E. Becquerel|Becquerel]] process (using a red filter and two-and-a-half [[F-number|stops]] extra exposure) daguerreotypes can be produced without mercury, and chemical analysis shows that there is no mercury in the final image with the Becquerel process. This brings into question the theory that the image is formed of amalgam with mercury development.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barger|first1=M. Susan|last2=White|first2=William B.|title=The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science|year=2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=0-8018-6458-5|page=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2015}} Although the daguerreotype process could only produce a single image at a time, copies could be created by re-daguerreotyping the original, although this proved difficult according to Joseph Maria Eder.<ref name="Eder 1978 p">{{harv|Eder|1978|p=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2015}} As with any original photograph that is copied, the contrast increases. With a daguerreotype, any writing will appear back to front. Recopying a daguerreotype will make the writing appear normal and rings worn on the fingers will appear on the correct hand. Another device to make a daguerreotype the right way round would be to use a mirror when taking the photograph. The daguerreotypes of the 1852 Omaha Indian (Native American) delegation in the Smithsonian include a daguerrotype copied in the camera, recognizable by the contrast being high and a black line down the side of the plate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~aisri/Preponderance/nmnh_Preponderance_6_Article2.html|title=A Preponderance of Evidence: The 1852 Omaha Indian Delegation Daguerreotypes Recovered|publisher=indiana.edu}}</ref> ==Proliferation== [[File:AdvSplendidDaguerreotypeAmerOfficeWaterburyCTCirca1840s.jpg|thumb|Advertisement for a traveling daguerreotype photographer, with location left blank]] [[André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=2075|title=André Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> and [[Jules Itier]] of France,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1699|title=Jules Itier|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> and [[Johann Baptist Isenring]] of Switzerland, became prominent daguerreotypists. In Britain, however, [[Richard Beard (photographer)|Richard Beard]] bought the British daguerreotype patent from Miles Berry in 1841 and closely controlled his investment, selling licenses throughout the country and prosecuting [[Patent infringement|infringers]].<ref>Wood, R. Derek. [http://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20140911220149/http://www.midley.co.uk/daguerreotype/dag_lawsuits.htm "The Daguerreotype in England: Some Primary Material Relating to Beard's Lawsuits."] ''History of Photography'', October 1979, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 305–09.</ref> Among others, [[Antoine Claudet]] and [[Thomas Richard Williams]] produced daguerreotypes in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1973|title=Antoine Claudet|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1698|title=Thomas Richard Williams|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> {{external media | width = 210px | align = right | headerimage= [[File:LucreciaGuerreroUribe 1848.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/getty-museum/getty-photographs/v/early-photography-daguerreotypes Early photography: making daguerreotypes], [[J. Paul Getty Museum]] with [[Khan Academy]]<ref name="khan">{{cite web|title=Early photography: Making Daguerreotypes| work=khanacademy.org|publisher=[[J. Paul Getty Museum]] with [[Khan Academy]]|url=http://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/getty-museum/getty-photographs/v/early-photography-daguerreotypes|accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref>}} Daguerreotype photography spread rapidly across the United States after the discovery first appeared in US newspapers in February 1839.<ref>[http://www.midley.co.uk/daguerreotype/newyork.htm R. Derek Wood ''The Arrival of the Daguerreotype in New York'']</ref> <ref>{{cite news|title=Chemical and Optical Discovery|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/1022661/chemical_and_optical_discovery/?|work=The Pittsburgh Gazette|date=28 February 1839|page=2|via=[[Newspapers.com]]}} {{Open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ewer|first1=Gary W.|title=Texts from 1839|url=http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/1839.html|accessdate=16 September 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915001519/http://daguerreotypearchive.org/1839.html|archivedate=15 September 2014|year=2011}}</ref> In the early 1840s, the invention was introduced in a period of months to practitioners in the United States by [[Samuel Morse]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=142 |title=Collections: National Museum of American History |publisher=Americanhistory.si.edu |date=17 December 2012|accessdate=27 July 2013}}</ref> inventor of the [[telegraphy|telegraph]] code. By 1853, an estimated three million daguerreotypes per year were being produced in the United States alone.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=Frederick S. |title=Obscene Profits: The Entrepreneurs of Pornography in the Cyber Age|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=0-415-93103-7|page=42}}</ref> One of these original Morse Daguerreotype cameras is currently on display at the [[National Museum of American History]], a branch of the [[Smithsonian Institution]], in [[Washington, DC]].<ref name="NMAH2">{{cite web |url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=142 |title=Morse Daguerreotype Camera |publisher=National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution |accessdate=16 June 2008}}</ref> A flourishing market in [[portrait]]ure sprang up, predominantly the work of itinerant practitioners who traveled from town to town. For the first time in history, people could obtain an exact likeness of themselves or their loved ones for a modest cost, making portrait photographs extremely popular with those of modest means. Celebrities and everyday people sought portraits and workers would save an entire day's income to have a daguerreotype taken of them, including occupational portraits.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url= http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11367/ |title = Occupational Portrait of Three Railroad Workers Standing on Crank Handcar |website = [[World Digital Library]]|date=1850–1860|accessdate =16 July 2013}}</ref> Notable U.S. daguerreotypists of the mid-19th century included [[James Presley Ball]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cincymuseum.org/ball/jpball.htm|title=J. P. Ball, African American Photographer|publisher=cincymuseum.org|accessdate=8 August 2008}}</ref> [[Samuel Bemis]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Newhall|first=Beaumont|title=The Daguerreotype in America|year=1976|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=0-486-23322-7|page=31}}</ref> [[Abraham Bogardus]],<ref>{{harv|Newhall|1976|p=77}}</ref> [[Mathew Brady]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Stuart A P |title=Mathew Brady: Photographer of Our Nation|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1-317-46502-4|page=27}}</ref> [[Thomas Martin Easterly]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1842|title=Thomas Martin Easterly|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=8 August 2009}}</ref> [[François Fleischbein]], [[Jeremiah Gurney]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1862|title=Jeremiah Gurney|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=8 August 2009}}</ref> [[John Plumbe|John Plumbe, Jr.]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=1979|title=John Plumbe, Jr.|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=8 August 2009}}</ref> [[Albert Southworth]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eastmanhouse.org/icp/pages/biographies.html|title=Biographies: Albert S. Southworth|date=2005|publisher=eastmanhouse.org|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> [[Augustus Washington]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npg.si.edu/exh/awash/awintro.htm|title=A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, African American Daguerreotypist|publisher=npg.si.edu|accessdate=8 August 2009}}</ref> [[Ezra Greenleaf Weld]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=11148|title=Ezra Greenleaf Weld|publisher=getty.edu|accessdate=8 August 2009}}</ref> and [[John Adams Whipple]].<ref>{{harv|Newhall|1976|pp=92, 102}}</ref> This method spread to other parts of the world as well: * The first daguerreotype in [[Australia]] was taken in 1841, but no longer survives. The oldest surviving Australian daguerreotype is a portrait of [[William Bland|Dr. William Bland]] taken in 1845.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Allan|title=Celebrating 100 years of the Mitchell Library|publisher=Focus Publishing|isbn=978-1-875359-66-0 |page=76|author2=State Library of New South Wales|chapter=Photography in Australia}}</ref> * In Jamaica [[Adolphe Duperly]], a Frenchman, produced a booklet of Daguerreotypes, ''Daguerian Excursions in Jamaica, being a collection of views&nbsp;... taken on the spot with the Daguerreotype'' which probably appeared in 1844.<ref name=Lint>{{cite web|title=Adolphe Duperly|url=http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/image/308580565307496535344349732/|website=Luminous Lint|publisher=Luminous-Lint|accessdate=7 January 2016}}</ref> * In 1857, [[Ichiki Shirō]] created the first known Japanese photograph, a portrait of his [[daimyo]] [[Shimazu Nariakira]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Terry|title=Early Japanese Images|year=2013|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=1-4629-1137-4|page=137}}</ref> The photograph was designated an [[Important Cultural Properties of Japan|Important Cultural Property]] by the [[government of Japan]].{{citation needed|date=January 2011}} ==Astronomical application in the 1870s== In 1839, [[François Arago]] had in his address to the French Chamber of Deputies outlined a wealth of possible applications including astronomy, and indeed the daguerreotype was still occasionally used for astronomical photography in the 1870s. Although the [[Collodion process|collodion wet plate process]] offered a cheaper and more convenient alternative for commercial portraiture and for other applications with shorter exposure times, when the [[transit of Venus]] was about to occur and observations were to be made from several sites on the earth's surface in order to calculate astronomical distances, daguerreotypy proved a more accurate method of making visual recordings through telescopes because it was a dry process with greater dimensional stability, whereas collodion glass plates were exposed wet and the image would become slightly distorted when the emulsion dried. ==Late and modern use== Although the daguerreotype process is sometimes said to have died out completely in the early 1860s, documentary evidence indicates that some very slight use of it persisted more or less continuously throughout the following 150 years of its supposed extinction.<ref>Nelson, Kenneth E. (1996). [http://daguerre.org/resource/history/history.html "A Thumbnail History of the Daguerreotype"]</ref> A few first-generation daguerreotypists refused to entirely abandon their beautiful old medium when they started making the new, cheaper, easier to view but comparatively drab ambrotypes and tintypes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Davis|first=D.T., Mrs.|date=November 1896|title=The Daguerreotype in America|journal=McClure's|volume=8|issue=1|pages=4–16|quote=The author notes Hawes, of Southworth and Hawes, has "a number of daguerreotypes made recently, for he is one of the few operators who remain loyal to the old process".|url=http://daguerre.org/resource/texts/davis/davis.html}}</ref> Historically minded photographers of subsequent generations, often fascinated by daguerreotypes, sometimes experimented with making their own or even revived the process commercially as a "retro" portraiture option for their clients.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1903|title=Copying Methods|journal=The Photo Miniature|publisher=Tennant and Ward|volume=IV|issue=42|page=202|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KNkcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA201&lpg=PA201&dq=Copying+methods+john+a+Tennant&source=bl&ots=2FoRT4TuX4&sig=M3cOJNpqZrLJFpODoXmRrYBI52Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zhTUVIbiAYKvggSe5oNQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cannon|first=Poppy|date=June 1929|title=An Old Art Revived|journal=The Mentor|publisher=Crowell Publishing Company|location=Springfield|volume=17|issue=5|pages=36–37|url=http://daguerre.org/resource/texts/hollinger/holling.html}}</ref> These eccentric late uses were extremely unusual and surviving examples reliably dated to between the 1860s and the 1960s are now exceedingly rare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Romer |first1=Grant B. |title=The daguerreotype in America and England after 1860 |journal=History of Photography |volume=1 |issue=3 |year=1977 |pages=201–12 |doi=10.1080/03087298.1977.10442912 }}</ref> The daguerreotype experienced a minor renaissance in the late 20th century and the process is currently practiced by a handful of enthusiastic devotees; there are thought to be fewer than 100 worldwide (see list of artists on cdags.org in links below). In recent years, artists like [[Jerry Spagnoli]], [[Adam Fuss]], Patrick Bailly-Maître-Grand, Alyssa C. Salomon,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Proctor|first1=Roy|title=Daguerreotype update: sunny North Side driveway|publisher=Richmond Times-Dispatch|date=December 23, 2001|page=G3|quote=According to Richmond artist Alyssa C. Salomon, who has devoted the last 18 months to mastering the not-so-lost art of the daguerreotype, plenty of room for invention remains in the process invented by Frenchman Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre. To prove it, Salomon is exhibiting 15 of what she calls her "post-modern daguerreotypes" in "The Imagined Life of things," her solo show at Astra Design.}}</ref> and [[Chuck Close]] have reintroduced the medium to the broader art world. The use of electronic flash in modern daguerreotypy has solved many of the problems connected with the slow speed of the process when using daylight. International group exhibitions of contemporary daguerreotypists' works have been held, notably the 2009 exhibition in Bry Sur Marne, France, with 182 daguerreotypes by forty-four artists, and the 2013 ImageObject exhibition in New York City, showcasing seventy-five works by thirty-three artists. The [[Astolat Dollhouse Castle]] also displays daguerreotypes. The appeal of the medium lies in the "magic mirror" effect of light striking the polished silver plate and revealing a silvery image which can seem ghostly and ethereal even while being perfectly sharp, and in the dedication and handcrafting required to make a daguerreotype. ==Gallery== <gallery mode=packed heights="200px"> File:Susse Frére Daguerreotype camera 1839.jpg|Daguerreotype camera built by La Maison [[Susse Frères]] in 1839, with a lens by Charles Chevalier Image:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|The first authenticated image of [[Abraham Lincoln]] was this daguerreotype of him as U.S. [[Congressman]]-elect in 1846, attributed to Nicholas H. Shepard of Springfield, Illinois File:Andrew Jackson-1844-2.jpg|Daguerreotype of [[Andrew Jackson]] at age 77 or 78 (1844 or 1845). File:Duke of Wellington Photo cleaned.jpg|Daguerreotype of [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington]] aged 74 or 75, made by [[Antoine Claudet]] in 1844. Image:Shimazu by ichiki.jpg|[[Ichiki Shirō]]'s 1857 daguerreotype of [[Shimazu Nariakira]], the earliest surviving Japanese photograph File:1851 07 28 Berkowski.jpg|The [[solar eclipse of July 28, 1851]] is the first correctly exposed photograph of a solar eclipse, using the daguerreotype process. </gallery> [[File:San Francisco-1853.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Six daguerreotypes show a view of [[San Francisco, California]], in 1853.]] ==See also== * [[Albumen print]] * [[Ambrotype]] * [[Calotype]] * [[Daguerreobase]] * [[Lippmann plate]] * [[Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey]] * [[Physautotype]] * [[Tintype]] ==Footnotes== {{reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book|last=Coe|first=Brian|title=The Birth of Photography: The Story of the Formative Years, 1800–1900|year=1976|publisher=Ash & Grant|location=London|isbn=0-904069-06-0}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/fdag/hd_fdag.htm#thumbnails|title=The Daguerreian Age in France: 1839–1855|last=Daniel|first=Malcolm|date=October 2004|publisher=metmuseum.org}} * {{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Keith F.|last2=Aspinwall|first2=Jane Lee |last3=Wilson|first3=Marc F. |others=Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art|title=The Origins of American Photography: From Daguerreotype to Dry-plate, 1839–1885|year=2007|publisher=Hall Family Foundation|location=Kansas City|isbn=0-300-12286-1}} * {{cite book|last1=Gernsheim|first1=Helmut|authorlink1=Helmut Gernsheim|last2=Gernsheim|first2=Alison |title=L.J.M. Daguerre: The History of the Diorama and the Daguerreotype|year=1968|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York|isbn=0-486-22290-X}} * {{cite journal|last=Goddard|first=John F.|date=12 December 1840|title=Valuable Improvement in Daguerréotype|journal=[[Literary Gazette|The Literary Gazette, and Journal of Belles Lettres, Arts, Sciences]]|location=London|issue=1247|url=http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/texts/P8400004_GODDARD_LIT_GAZETTE_1840-12-12.pdf}} * {{cite book|last=Hannavy|first=John|title=Case Histories: The Packaging and Presentation of the Photographic Portrait in Victorian Britain 1840–1875|year=2005|publisher=Antique Collector's Club|isbn=1-85149-481-2}} * {{cite book|last1=Hill|first1=Levi L.|last2=McCartey|first2=W., Jr.|title=A Treatise on the Daguerreotype: The Whole Art Made Easy, and All the Recent Improvements Revealed&nbsp;... |url=http://motamedi.info/text/Hill,%20LL%20(1850)%20A%20Treatise%20on%20the%20Daguerreoptype.pdf|year=1850|publisher=Holman & Gray|location=Lexington, New York}} * {{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=Samuel D. |title=The American Handbook of the Daguerreotype|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/167/167-h/167-h.htm|edition=5|year=1858|publisher=S.D Humphrey|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Kenny|first=Adele|title=Photographic Cases Victorian Design Sources 1840–1870|year=2001|publisher=Schiffer Publishing, Limited|isbn=0-7643-1267-7}} * {{cite book|last=Pfister|first=Harold Francis|others=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution|title=Facing the Light: Historic American Portrait Daguerreotypes: An Exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery, September 22, 1978-January 15, 1979|year=1978|publisher=National Portrait Gallery}} * {{cite book|last=Richter|first=Stefan|title=The Art of the Daguerreotype|year=1989|publisher=Viking|location=London|isbn=0-670-82688-X}} * {{cite book|last=Rudisill|first=Richard|title=Mirror Image: The Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society|year=1971|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|location=Albuquerque|isbn=0-8263-0198-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Sobieszek|first1=Robert A.|last2=Appel-Heyne|first2=Odette M.|last3=Moore|first3=Charles R.|title=The Spirit of Fact: The Daguerreotypes of Southworth & Hawes, 1843–1862|year=1976|publisher=D.R. Godine|location=Boston|isbn=0-87923-179-3}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~rmessing/cincinnatti/daguerre.pdf|title=Digital Analysis and Restoration of Daguerreotypes|last1=Tang|first1=Xiaoqing|last2=Ardis|first2=Paul A.|last3=Messing|first3=Ross|last4=Brown|first4=Christopher M.|last5=Nelson|first5=Randal C.|last6= Ravines|first6=Patrick|last7=Wiegandt|first7=Ralph|year=2010|publisher=rochester.edu|location=University of Rochester, Rochester, New York}} * {{cite book|last=Wood|first=John|title=America and the Daguerreotype|year=1991|publisher=University of Iowa Press|location=Iowa City|isbn=0-87745-334-9}} * {{cite book|last=Wood|first=John|title=The Scenic Daguerreotype: Romanticism and Early Photography|year=1995|publisher=University of Iowa Press|location=Iowa City|isbn=0-87745-511-2}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons}} *[http://www.daguerre.org/ The Daguerreian Society] A predominantly US oriented database & galleries *[http://www.daguerreotypearchive.org/ The Daguerreotype: an Archive of Source Texts, Graphics, and Ephemera] *[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56753837 Historique et description des procédés du daguerréotype rédigés par Daguérre, ornés du portrait de l'auteur, et augmentés de notes et d'observations par MM Lerebours et Susse Frères, Lerebours, Opticien de L'Observatoire; Susse Frères, Éditeurs. Paris 1839] {{fr icon}} ''Daguerre's Daguerreotype Manual.'' *{{YouTube|HEZdRU6-bBA|''The Nanotechnology of the Daguerreotype'' University of Rochester}} *[http://www.rochester.edu/news/photos/daguerreotype.html Cincinnati Waterfront Panorama Daguerreotype] at [[University of Rochester|rochester.edu]] * [http://www.cdags.org/ International Contemporary Daguerreotypes community (non profit org)] * [http://www.americandaguerreotypes.com The Social Construction of the American Daguerreotype Portrait] * [http://cwfp.biz/platesizes.php Daguerreotype Plate Sizes] * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/daghtml/dagdag.html Library of Congress Collection] * [http://www.cca.qc.ca/en/collection/1350 Daguerreotype collection at the Canadian Centre for Architecture] * [http://www.novacon.com.br/odditycameras/giroux.htm Original Giroux Daguerréotype Camera] * {{cite web|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2002/feb/featphoto|title=Photography, Old & New Again|last1=Fleischman|first1=John|last2=Kunzig|first2=Robert|date=1 February 2002|publisher=discovermagazine.com}} * [http://www.photographymuseum.com/sandh1.html ''The Daguerreotypes of Southworth and Hawes'' The American Museum of Photography''] {{photography subject}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Photographic processes dating from the 19th century]] [[Category:1837 introductions]] [[Category:French inventions]] [[Category:Alternative photographic processes]] [[Category:Black and white photography]] [[Category:Mercury (element)]] [[Category:19th century in art]] [[Category:19th-century photography]]'