Examine individual changes

'{{speciesbox | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22689180 |title=''Pulsatrix perspicillata'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> | image = Pulsatrix perspicillata chapmani (Costa Rica).jpg | image_caption =In the rainforest of [[Costa Rica]] | genus = Pulsatrix | species = perspicillata | authority = ([[John Latham (ornithologist)|Latham]], 1790) }} The '''spectacled owl''' (''Pulsatrix perspicillata)'' is a large tropical [[owl]] native to the [[neotropics]]. It is a resident breeder in forests from southern [[Mexico]] and [[Trinidad]], through [[Central America]], south to southern [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]] and northwestern [[Argentina]].<ref name=IUCN/> There are six subspecies.<ref name=ITIS/> One is occasionally treated as a separate species called the short-browed or brown spectacled owl<ref name= Konig/> but the consensus is that it is still merely a race until more detailed analysis can be done.<ref name= Robbins>{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop326.html |title=Elevate the subspecies pulsatrix of the Spectacled Owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata) to species |publisher=South American Classification Committee; Louisiana State University |accessdate=2014-11-11}}</ref> ==Distribution and habitat== The spectacled owl is found in [[Mexico]], [[Central America]] ([[Belize]], [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Panama]]), [[Trinidad]] and [[Tobago]], and [[South America]] ([[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Suriname]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guyana]], [[Paraguay]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]]).<ref name=IUCN/> The spectacled owl is primarily a bird of tropical [[rain forest]]s, being found mostly in areas where dense, old-growth forest is profuse. However, it may enter secondary habitats, such as forest edges, especially while hunting. On occasion, they have been found in dry forests, treed savanna plains, plantations and semi-open areas with trees. In areas such as [[Costa Rica]], they may inhabit subtropical montane forests of up to {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}}, although are generally associated with lowland forests.<ref name= Konig/> ==Description== [[File:Pulsatrix perspicillata.ogv|thumb|Video from [[Disney's Animal Kingdom]]]] The spectacled owl can range from {{convert|41|to|52.3|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. Mass in males can range from {{convert|453|to|1075|g|lb|abbr=on}}, where as females can weigh from {{convert|680|to|1250|g|lb|abbr=on}}. 10 males from the nominate subspecies (''P. p. perspicillata'') were found to average {{convert|767|g|lb|abbr=on}} while 8 females averaged {{convert|908|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Burnie">Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), {{ISBN|0789477645}}</ref><ref name = "CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), {{ISBN|978-1-4200-6444-5}}.</ref> It is unmistakable in most of its range (except with other ''Pulsatrix'' owls) with blackish brown upperparts, head and upper breast, white facial markings and whitish to yellowish-ochre underparts. The eyes are yellow, the only ''Pulsatrix'' with this eye color, and the beak is pale. The juvenile is even more distinctive than the adult, being completely white apart from a chocolate brown facial disc. The head is typically darker than the back and mantle but the shade of this area besides the composition of the breast band is the main distinguishing external feature of the subspecies.<ref name= Konig>''Owls of the World'' by Konig, Weick & Becking. Yale University Press (2009), {{ISBN|0300142277}}</ref> Compared to the [[band-bellied owl]] (''P. melanota''), it is of similar or slightly larger size, but that species has dark eyes, white eyebrows and a brown chest band broken by buffy-whitish barring the rest of broadly the underparts being whitish with reddish-brown barring. The spectacled owl is generally found at lower elevations than the band-bellied but their ranges overlap or abut from [[Colombia]] to northern [[Bolivia]]. The [[tawny-browed owl]] (''P. koeniswaldiana''), found from northeastern [[Argentina]] to eastern [[Brazil]], is fairly similar in appearance to the spectacled but is marked smaller with ochraceous-tawny from the eyebrows down to the belly and dark chestnut eyes. Each of the three currently recognized species also has a distinct song.<ref name= Konig/> Vocal activity tends to be most prominent on calm, moonlit nights. The primary sound made by the spectacled owl consists of guttural knocking or tapping sounds with a popping effect: ''PUP-pup-pup-pup-po'', ''POK pok pok bog bog bog bobobo'' or ''BOO Boo boo boo boo''. Each progressive note becomes weaker and lower in pitch but faster in pace as the call continues. The male is the primary singer to proclaim a territory, often singing from the upper third of a tall tree. However, females also sing, uttering the same song but with a higher pitch. Duets between pairs have been heard on moonlit nights. Females also make a [[hawk]]-like scream with an emphasis on the drawn-out second syllable, ''ker-WHEEER'', which has often been compared to a steam-whistle. Young spectacled owls beg with a harsh, high-pitched ''keew'' call.<ref name= Konig/> In [[Colombia]], an author noted that the song is similar to the tapping pattern of the [[great spotted woodpecker]] (''Dendrocopos major''). In [[Brazil]], spectacled owls are known locally as "knocking owls".<ref name= Mikkola>''Owls of the World: A Photographic Guide'' by Mikkola, H. Firefly Books (2012), {{ISBN|9781770851368}}</ref> == Subspecies == The following subspecies are currently recognized:<ref name=ITIS>{{ITIS|id=555442 |taxon=Pulsatrix perspicillata |accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata boliviana'' (Kelso, 1933)- Distributed in [[Bolivia]]. Most similar to ''P. p. chapmani'', with slightly lighter color on mantle than that race and a lighter, more buff underside color. The feathers appear to be relatively long on this race especially on the flanks, probably due to the cooler climates it inhabits. Specimens had wing of {{convert|335|to|366|mm|in|abbr=on}} and a tail length of {{convert|205|mm|in|abbr=on}}<ref name= Kelso>Kelso, L. (1934). ''A key to the owls of the Genus Pulsatrix Kaup''. The Auk, 234-236.</ref><ref name= Weick>Weick, F. (2007). ''Owls (Strigiformes): annotated and illustrated checklist''. Springer.</ref> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata chapmani'' (Griscom, 1932)- Found from eastern [[Costa Rica]] to northwestern [[Ecuador]]. A relatively dark hued subspecies, sooty black on the back and rich tawny-rufous below.<ref name= Kelso/> Wing is {{convert|326|to|346|mm|in|abbr=on}}, tail is {{convert|183|to|193|mm|in|abbr=on}}, the bill from the cere is {{convert|29.5|mm|in|abbr=on}}. A mean weight of {{convert|750|g|lb|abbr=on}} was published.<ref name= Weick/><ref>Stiles, F. G., & Skutch, A. F. (1989). ''Guide to the birds of Costa Rica''.</ref> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata perspicillata'' (Latham, 1790)- By far the largest distribution of the races, found from northwestern [[South America]] to as far south as central [[Brazil]] and [[Bolivia]]. Nominate as described above. Wing is {{convert|305|to|355|mm|in|abbr=on}}, tail is from {{convert|133|to|196|mm|in|abbr=on}} long, and bill from cere is {{convert|26.5|to|31.5|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Weick/> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata pulsatrix'' (Wied-Neuwied, 1820)- Or the "Short-browed Owl"; native to southeastern [[Brazil]] from about [[Bahia]] south to [[Rio Grande do Sul]] in the area of [[Aparados da Serra National Park]] and also bordering over into northeastern [[Argentina]]. This species has creamy-buff instead of white on the spectacles of the face. ''P. p. pulsatrix'' is lighter brown than in any other spectacled owl, with no contrasting darker plumage on the crown and nape as in other races. The breast band is brown and distinctly broken in the center. Main proposed difference (leading to it being considered a full species) is that territorial song is not as ascelerated as in other races. Apparently, where the ranges of more typical spectacled owls overlap with the short-browed types, they do not seem to hybridize. This is the largest variety of Spectacled Owl. Wing is {{convert|363|to|384|mm|in|abbr=on}} long and tail is {{convert|211|to|226|mm|in|abbr=on}}. Weight of a single male and single female was {{convert|1050|g|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1250|g|lb|abbr=on}}, conicidentally exactly the same of the maximum weight recorded for the nominate race of Spectacled Owl.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Robbins/><ref name = "CRC"/><ref name= Weick/> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata saturata'' (Ridgway, 1914)- Found from southern [[Mexico]] to northern [[Costa Rica]]. ''P. p. saturata'' differs from the typical spectacled owl only in that it is black on the head and the back, with black barring on the sides. It is one of the more distinct and widely described subspecies. Wing is {{convert|314|to|370|mm|in|abbr=on}} and tail is {{convert|182|to|204|mm|in|abbr=on}} long. The bill from the cere is {{convert|27|to|32.5|mm|in|abbr=on}}. Weight is from {{convert|591|to|761|g|lb|abbr=on}} in males and from {{convert|765|to|982|g|lb|abbr=on}} in females.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Weick/> * ''Pulsatrix perspicillata trinitatis'' (Bangs & T. E. Penard, 1918)- Found on [[Trinidad]] and [[Tobago]]. This poorly-known race is sometimes treated as synonymous with the nominate by some authorities.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Weick/> Today, authorities believe that the race is extinct.<ref name= Mikkola/> ==Behaviour== [[File:Pulsatrix perspicillata -London Zoo, England -parents and chick-8a.jpg|thumb|Male and female with their chick at the [[London Zoo]].]] This species is largely nocturnal, starting activity right around the time of last light at dusk and usually being back on their roosts for the day around first light. It is a solitary, unsocial bird, usually roosting singly each day and only peaceable associating with others of their own species for reproductive purposes. The spectacled owl is typically the largest and most dominant owl in its range, with the larger [[great horned owl]] (''Bubo virginianus'') rarely venturing into true rainforest habitats. Most hunting starts with the owl perched on a branch and scanning the area, then dropping with a quick pounce when prey is located. It preys principally on a wide array of [[mammal]]s, eating almost anything type that is nocturnally active. Various [[rodent]]s may be primary but virtually any type of small mammal in its habitat is vulnerable. The primary food by far in [[Oaxaca]], [[Mexico]] was the [[Peters's climbing rat]] (''Tylomys nudicaudus'') followed by [[Marmosa|mouse opossums]] (''Marmosa'' ssp.) of unidentified species.<ref name= De>De Silva, H. G., Pérez-Villafaña, M., & Santos-Moreno, J. A. (1997). ''Diet of the spectacled owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata) during the rainy season in Northern Oaxaca, Mexico''. Journal of Raptor Research, 31(4), 385-387.</ref> Numerous [[bat]]s, such as [[greater spear-nosed bat]]s (''Phyllostomus hastatus'') and [[broad-eared bat]]s (''Nyctinomops laticaudatus''), are also rather vulnerable apparently.<ref name= Konig/><ref>Knörnschild, M., & Tschapka, M. (2012). ''Predator mobbing behaviour in the Greater Spear-Nosed Bat, Phyllostomus hastatus''. Chiroptera Neotropical, 18(2), 1132-1135.</ref><ref>Carvalho, L. F., Cunha, N. L., Fischer, E., & Santos, C. F. (2013). ''Predation on Broad-eared bat Nyctinomops laticaudatus by the Spectacled Owl Pulsatrix perspicillata in southwestern Brazil''. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia-Brazilian Journal of Ornithology, 19(45), 3.</ref> Smaller monkeys such as [[tamarin]]s (''Saguinus'' ssp.) may be vulnerable to predation.<ref>Suarez, S. 2007. ''Paternity, Relatedness, and Socio-Reproductive Behavior in a Population of Wild Red-Bellied Tamarins (Saguinus labiatus)''. Ann Arbor, Michigan: ProQuest Information and Learning Company.</ref> Prey species can be heavier than the preying owl, weigh over {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, possibly up to {{convert|2|to|4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in ''[[Didelphis]]'' [[opossum]]s, ''[[Mephitis (genus)|Mephitis]]'' [[skunk]]s and [[agouti]]s (''Dasyprocta'' ssp.). Even the [[three-toed sloth]] (''Bradypus variegatus'') has been reported to have been killed, specifically an adult female estimated at {{convert|3.5|to|4.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight or more than four times the weight of the owl itself.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8486000/8486128.stm "Wild sloth killed by small spectacled owl in Panama"]. ''[[BBC News]]''.</ref><ref>Voirin, J. B., Kays, R., Lowman, M. D., & Wikelski, M. (2009). ''Evidence for Three-Toed Sloth (Bradypus variegatus) predation by spectacled owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata)''. Edentata, 8, 15-20.</ref> [[Invertebrate]]s are eaten regularly as well, second only in importance to mammals, and may be comprised mainly by [[caterpillar]]s, but also [[crab]]s, [[snail]]s, large [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s.<ref name= Konig/> Insects may be gleaned directly from foliage while the large owls actively forage. [[Frog]]s are also recorded amongst their prey. [[Bird]]s are also taken, including mainly medium-sized species in the average weight range of {{convert|100|to|500|g|oz|abbr=on}}, such as [[jay]]s, [[oropendola]]s (''Psarocolius'' ssp.), [[motmot]]s (''Momota'' ssp.), and [[pigeon]]s (''Patagioenas'' ssp.), which are taken off of their nocturnal perches and perhaps smaller types of owl.<ref name= Konig/><ref name = "CRC"/><ref name= De/> Little is known how spectacled owls interact with other owls but a study where playback of a number of owl species were played in [[Costa Rica]], spectacled owls appeared to the least responsive, neither vocally stimulated by the calling of other owl species nor by playback of calls of their own species.<ref>Enriquez, P. L., & Salazar, J. L. R. (1997). ''Intra-and Interspecific Calling in a Tropical Owl Community''. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT NC, 525-532.</ref> ===Reproduction=== In Costa Rica, eggs are laid variously in the dry season (November–May), or at the start of the wet season (June–July). This owl typically nests in an unlined tree cavity but may also use the crutch of a large tree. Like all owls, they do not build a nest so just lay their nest on the bare surface of the wood given, usually rotting wood in the case of tree cavities. Spectacled owls lay 1-2 eggs, which are incubated entirely or almost so by the female for about 5 weeks. If two eggs are hatched, often only one of the chicks will survive, the smaller chick usually perishing via starvation or by aggression from the larger nestling. Chicks leave the nest for surrounding branches at about 5–6 weeks but cannot usually fly well at this stage. However, they tend to depend on their parents for several months after leaving the nest and may be cared for and fed for up to a year once fledged, inhibiting the pair's ability to have young the following year. Spectacled owls may breed while still in immature plumage since it may take up to five years before full adult plumage is obtained.<ref name= Konig/> ==Status== The spectacled owl occurs over a very large range and is still a resident in much of its range. Due to this, it is classified as Least Concern by the [[IUCN]]. However, being a large, slow-maturing bird of prey with a strong sense of territoriality, it as a rule occurs at low densities. In areas where prey populations are hunted by people and habitats are destroyed or compromised, they may decrease. This is the likely source of extinction for an entire race on [[Trinidad]] (''P. p. trinitatis'').<ref name= Mikkola/> Occasionally, when roads are cut into the forest, they are killed by automobile collisions.<ref>Bencke, G. A., & Bencke, C. S. C. (1999). ''The potential importance of road deaths as cause of mortality for large forest owls in southern Brasil''. Cotinga, Bedfordshire, 11, 79-80.</ref> ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Spectacled Owl RWD1.jpg|Close-up of head File:Pulsatrix_perspicillata_-_Weltvogelpark_Walsrode_2010-5.jpg|The spectacled owl consuming prey File:Pulsatrix perspicillata -Ornika 2011, Bad Schonborn, Germany -bird show-8a.jpg|Two adults and one juvenile in captivity </gallery> == References == {{reflist}} * ''A guide to the birds of Costa Rica'' by Stiles and Skutch {{ISBN|0-8014-9600-4}} *[http://www.owlpages.com/owls.php?genus=Pulsatrix&species=perspicillata|Spectacled Owl Profile- OwlPages.com] * ''Birds of Venezuela'' by Hilty, {{ISBN|0-7136-6418-5}} *{{cite book | last = ffrench<!--this name should not be capitalized--> | first = Richard | title = A Guide to the Birds of Trinidad and Tobago | edition = 2nd | year = 1991 | publisher = Comstock Publishing | isbn = 0-8014-9792-2 }} ==External links== {{commons category|Pulsatrix perspicillata}} *[http://www.bird-stamps.org/cspecies/7811500.htm Stamps] (for [[Belize]], [[Honduras]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Suriname]]); [http://www.bird-stamps.org/recent/hondur/ext1d.htm Stamp-photo] *[http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=spectacled+owl&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24 Spectacled Owl photo gallery] VIREO [http://vireo.acnatsci.org/species_image.php?species=Pulsatrix+perspicillata Photo-High Res] *[http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=2674 Spectacled Owl videos] on the Internet Bird Collection <!-- see the good RangeMap/maps, lists, etc at: "www.natureserve.org"... RangeMap only has: "Permanent Resident" category--> <!-- most countries with stamps represented in EXT links- ...--> {{taxonbar}} [[Category:Pulsatrix]] [[Category:Birds of South America]] [[Category:Birds of Central America]] [[Category:Native birds of Southern Mexico]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Birds described in 1790]]'