Examine individual changes

'{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2014}} '''Nonverbal learning disorder''' (also known as '''nonverbal learning disability''', '''NLD''', or '''NVLD''') is a [[learning disorder]] characterized by verbal strengths as well as visual-spatial, motor, and social skills difficulties. It is sometimes confused with [[Asperger Syndrome]] or high [[IQ]]. Nonverbal learning disorder has never been included in the American Psychiatric Association's ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' or the World Health Organization's ''[[International Classification of Diseases]]''. == Overview == Considered to be neurologically based,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rourke |first1=Byron P. |title=Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: The final common pathway of white-matter disease/dysfunction? |journal=Clinical Neuropsychologist |volume=1 |issue=3 |year=1987 |pages=209–34 |doi=10.1080/13854048708520056 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Semrud-Clikeman |first1=M. |last2=Fine |first2=J. |title=Presence of Cysts on Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) in Children With Asperger Disorder and Nonverbal Learning Disabilities |journal=Journal of Child Neurology |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=471–5 |year=2011 |pmid=21398562 |doi=10.1177/0883073810384264 }}</ref><ref name=pmid24215424>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=Jodene Goldenring |last2=Musielak |first2=Kayla A. |last3=Semrud-Clikeman |first3=Margaret |title=Smaller splenium in children with nonverbal learning disability compared to controls, high-functioning autism and ADHD |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=641–61 |year=2014 |pmid=24215424 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2013.854763 }}</ref> nonverbal learning disorder is characterized by verbal strengths as well as visual-spatial, motor, and social skills difficulties.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Tom |last1=Humphries |date=Autumn 1993 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: A Distinct Group Within Our Population |journal=Communique |publisher=Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario |url=http://www.nldontheweb.org/nldentrylevelreading/nldadistinctgroup.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128033102/http://www.nldontheweb.org/nldentrylevelreading/nldadistinctgroup.html |archivedate=28 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Stanford School of Medicine |title=Nonverbal Learning Disorders |url=http://whatmeds.stanford.edu/diagnoses/nonverbal_learning.html }}</ref> People with this disorder may not at times comprehend nonverbal cues such as facial expression or tone of voice.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Maggie |last1=Mamen |date=Summer 2000 |title=Non Verbal Learning Disabilities: Impact on Social Functioning; And Interpersonal Skills |journal=Communique |publisher=Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario |volume=29 |issue=5 |url=http://www.nldline.com/new_page_52.htm }}</ref> Challenges with [[mathematics]] and [[handwriting]] are common.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Gayle |last1=Zieman |date=February 2000 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disability: The Math and Handwriting Problem |journal=Parenting New Mexico |url=http://www.ziemang.com/pnm_articles/0002ld.htm }}</ref> While various nonverbal impairments were recognized since early studies in child neurology,<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Gardner-Medwin |chapter=John Walton |pages=862–70 |editor1-first=Stephen |editor1-last=Ashwal |year=1990 |title=The Founders of Child Neurology |publisher=Norman |isbn=978-0-930405-26-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walton |first1=J. N. |last2=Ellis |first2=E. |last3=Court |first3=S. D. M. |title=Clumsy children: developmental apraxia and agnosia |journal=Brain |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=603–12 |year=1962 |pmid=13998739 |doi=10.1093/brain/85.3.603 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerstmann |first1=Josef |title=Syndrome of finger agnosia, disorientation for right and left, agraphia and acalculia: local diagnostic value |journal=Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=2 |year=1940 |pages=398–408 |doi=10.1001/archneurpsyc.1940.02280080158009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Orton |first1=S. T. |year=1937 |title=Reading, writing and speech problems in children |location=New York |publisher=W W Norton }}pp. 99 & 120</ref> there is ongoing debate as to whether/or the extent to which existing conceptions of NLD provide a valid diagnostic framework.<ref>{{cite journal |date=July 2011 |title=Differentiating NLD |journal=Current Psychiatry |volume=10 |issue=7 |url=http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/the-publication/past-issue-single-view/differentiating-nld/e472880479ab8ab0a615bde5b7b35288.html }}</ref><ref>Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger’s, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/</ref> As originally presented "nonverbal disabilities" (p.&nbsp;44) or "disorders of nonverbal learning" (p.&nbsp;272) was a category encompassing non-linguistic learning problems (Johnson and Myklebust, 1967).<ref>{{cite book |first=Doris J. |last1=Johnson |first2=Helmer R. |last2=Myklebust |year=1967 |chapter=Nonverbal Disorders of Learning |pages=272– |title=Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices |location=New York |publisher=Grune & Stratton |isbn=978-0-8089-0219-5}}</ref> "Nonverbal learning disabilities" were further discussed by Myklebust in 1975 as representing a subtype of learning disability with a range of presentations involving "mainly visual cognitive processing," social imperception, a gap between higher verbal ability and lower performance [[IQ]], as well as difficulty with handwriting.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Helmer R. |last1=Myklebust |year=1975 |title=Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention |pages=85– |editor1-first=Helmer R. |editor1-last=Myklebust |journal=Progress in Learning Disabilities |publisher=Grune and Stratton |volume=3 |issn=0079-6387 }}</ref> Later neuropsychologist Byron Rourke<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donders |first1=Jacobus |title=Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=5 |year=2011 |pages=417 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.617105}}</ref> sought to develop consistent criteria with a theory and model of brain functioning that would establish NLD as a distinct syndrome (1989).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 }}{{page needed|date=October 2015}}</ref> Questions remain about how best to frame the perceptual, cognitive and motor issues associated with NLD.<ref name=pmid24215424/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spreen |first1=Otfried |title=Nonverbal learning disabilities: A critical review |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=418–43 |year=2011 |pmid=21462003 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2010.546778 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=John M. |last1=Davis |first2=Jessica |last2=Broitman |year=2011 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8213-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mammarella |first1=Irene C. |last2=Cornoldi |first2=Cesare |title=An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD) |journal=Child Neuropsycholog |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=255–80 |year=2014 |pmid=23705673 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2013.796920 }}</ref> The [[DSM-5]] (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) and [[ICD-10]] (International Classification of Diseases) do not include NLD as a diagnosis.<ref>Horn, Nnifer L., PhD, HSPP. "An Overview of Learning Disabilities." http://beaconindiana.com/pdfs/OverviewOfLDs.pdf San Mateo, CA: Schwab Learning, 2002. N. pag. Web.</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Rosemary |last=Tannock |date=January 2014 |title=DSM-5 Changes in Diagnostic Criteria for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD): What are the Implications? |url=https://eida.org/dsm5-update/ |publisher=International Dyslexia Association }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2015/16 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code F81.9: Developmental disorder of scholastic skills, unspecified |url=http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/F01-F99/F80-F89/F81-/F81.9 |publisher=ICD10Data.com }}</ref> Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NLD—these conditions include [[Right hemisphere brain damage]] and Developmental Right Hemisphere Syndrome,<ref name=pmid7884301/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Linda |last1=Wilmshurst |year=2014 |chapter=Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer |pages=89–99 |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkcXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4833-2268-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Cynthia A. |last1=Riccio |chapter=Dyscalculia |pages=769–70 |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&pg=PA769 |year=2007 |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Elaine |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-67798-7 }}</ref><ref name=pmid2181523>{{cite journal |last1=Semrud-Clikeman |first1=Margaret |last2=Hynd |first2=George W. |title=Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=196–209 |year=1990 |pmid=2181523 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196 }}</ref> [[Developmental Coordination Disorder]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Recognizing and Referring Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: The Role of the Psychologist |url=https://canchild.ca/en/resources/135-recognizing-and-referring-children-with-developmental-coordination-disorder-the-role-of-the-psychologist |publisher=CanChild}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jongmans |first1=M. J. |last2=Smits-Engelsman |first2=B. C. M. |last3=Schoemaker |first3=M. M. |title=Consequences of Comorbidity of Developmental Coordination Disorders and Learning Disabilities for Severity and Pattern of Perceptual Motor Dysfunction |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=528–37 |year=2003 |pmid=15493435 |doi=10.1177/00222194030360060401 }}</ref> Social-Emotional Processing Disorder,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Katherine |last1=Tsatsanis |chapter=Right-Hemisphere Syndrome |pages=2596–600 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587 |editor1-first=Fred R. |editor1-last=Volkmar |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manoach |first1=Dara Sue |last2=Sandson |first2=Thomas A. |last3=Weintraub |first3=Sandra |date=April 1995 |title=The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities |journal=Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=99–105 |id={{INIST|3510330}} |url=http://journals.lww.com/cogbehavneurol/abstract/1995/04000/the_developmental_social_emotional_processing.3.aspx }}</ref> [[Asperger syndrome]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=Hadyn D. |last2=Gunter |first2=Helen L. |title=Asperger syndrome: a simple matter of white matter? |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=192–200 |year=1999 |pmid=10322476 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01315-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Fred R. |last1=Volkmar |first2=Ami |last2=Klin |chapter=Asperger Syndrome and Nonverbal Learning Disabilities |pages=107–21 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-5369-4 |editor1-first=Eric |editor1-last=Schopler |editor2-first=Gary B. |editor2-last=Mesibov |editor3-first=Linda J. |editor3-last=Kunce |year=1998 |title=Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism? |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4615-5369-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=David |last1=Dinklage |title=Aspergers Disorder and Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities: How Are These Two Disorders Related to Each Other? |url=http://www.aane.org/asperger_resources/articles/miscellaneous/asperger_nonverbal_learning.html |publisher=Asperger/Autism Network}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Martin T. |last2=Klin |first2=Ami |last3=Miller |first3=Karen |last4=Goulden |first4=Keith |last5=Coolman |first5=Richard |last6=Coolman |first6=David M. |title=When Asperger's Syndrome and a Nonverbal Learning Disability Look Alike |journal=Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics |volume=25 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=S59–64 |year=2004 |pmid=15502535 |doi=10.1097/00004703-200410001-00012 }}</ref> [[Gerstmann syndrome]]<ref name=pmid2181523/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Bonny J. |last1=Forrest |chapter=Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome |pages=826–7 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540 |editor1-first=Jeffrey S. |editor1-last=Kreutzer |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=DeLuca |editor3-first=Bruce |editor3-last=Caplan |year=2011 |title=Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-79948-3 }}</ref> and others. Labels for specific associated issues include visual-spatial deficit,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forrest |first1=Bonny J. |title=The Utility of Math Difficulties, Internalized Psychopathology, and Visual-Spatial Deficits to Identify Children With the Nonverbal Learning Disability Syndrome: Evidence for a Visual spatial Disability |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=129–46 |year=2004 |pmid=15590491 |doi=10.1080/09297040490911131 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harnadek |first1=M. C. S. |last2=Rourke |first2=B. P. |title=Principal Identifying Features of the Syndrome of Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=144–54 |year=1994 |pmid=8040632 |doi=10.1177/002221949402700303 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Peter H. |last2=McKenzie |first2=Beryl E. |title=Information Processing Deficits Associated with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Meta-analysis of Research Findings |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=829–40 |year=1998 |pmid=9758192 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00384 }}</ref> [[dyscalculia]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rourke |first1=B. P. |last2=Conway |first2=J. A. |title=Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=34–46 |year=1997 |pmid=9009877 |doi=10.1177/002221949703000103 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |title=Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components |journal=Learning and Individual Differences |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=130–133 |year=2010 |pmid=20161681 |pmc=2821095 |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008 }}</ref> [[dysgraphia]],<ref name=pmid7884301>{{cite journal |last1=Tsur |first1=V. G. |last2=Shalev |first2=R. S. |last3=Manor |first3=O. |last4=Amir |first4=N. |title=Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |year=1995 |pmid=7884301 |doi=10.1177/002221949502800202 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |chapter=Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic |pages=20–9 |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9ttiC0MvP8C&pg=PA20 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Stacey E. |last1=Szklut |first2=Darby Breath |last2=Philbert |chapter=Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder |pages=379–418 |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA379 |editor1-first=Darcy A. |editor1-last=Umphred |editor2-first=Rolando T. |editor2-last=Lazaro |editor3-first=Margaret L. |editor3-last=Roller |editor4-first=Gordon U. |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Burton |year=2013 |title=Neurological Rehabilitation |edition=6th |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-26649-9 }}</ref> as well as [[dyspraxia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=MC |last2=Dodd |first2=JL |title=Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions |journal=Pediatric Annals |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=321–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15871436 |doi=10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=William |last1=Solodow |first2=Sandra V. |last2=Sandy |first3=Fern |last3=Leventhal |first4=Scott |last4=Beszylko |first5=Margaret Jo |last5=Shepherd |first6=Jonathan |last6=Cohen |first7=Shoshana |last7=Goldman |first8=Richard |last8=Perry |first9=Jennifer J. |last9=Chang |first10=Ruth |last10=Nass |date=Fall 2006 |title=Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort |journal=Thalamus |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–33 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235436248_Frequency_and_diagnostic_criteria_for_nonverbal_learning_disabilities_in_a_general_learning_disability_school_cohort }}</ref> In their 1967 book [https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7402255W/Learning_disabilities_educational_principles_and_practices ''Learning Disabilities; Educational Principles and Practices''], Doris J. Johnson<ref>http://www.northwestern.edu/magazine/spring2007/feature/johnson.html</ref> and Helmer R. Myklebust<ref>http://ldblog.com/2008/03/28/helmer-myklebust/</ref> characterize how someone with these kinds of disabilities appears in a classroom: "An example is the child who fails to learn the meaning of the actions of others....We categorize this child as having a deficiency in social perception, meaning that he has an inability which precludes acquiring the significance of basic nonverbal aspects of daily living, though his verbal level of intelligence falls within or above the average." (p.&nbsp;272).<ref>Learning disabilities; educational principles and practices by Doris J. Johnson and Helmer R. Myklebust. Published 1967 by Grune & Stratton in New York https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7402255W/Learning_disabilities_educational_principles_and_practices</ref> In their chapter "Nonverbal Disorders Of Learning" (p.&nbsp;272-306) are sections titled "Learning Though Pictures," (274) "Gesture," (281) "Nonverbal Motor Learning," (282) "Body Image," (285) "Spatial Orientation," (290) "Right-Left Orientation," (292) "Social Imperception," (295) "Distractibility, Perseveration, and Disinhibition." (298) ==See also== * [[Autism spectrum]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == === Videos === * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhNgxXCFXro&t=38s What Is NVLD?]—The NVLD Project * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=llI4voAQZeo What Is Nonverbal Learning Disability?]—The National Center for Learning Disabilities * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JWh3lrscqE Asperger's Syndrome vs. Nonverbal LD: The Same or Different?]—The National Center for Learning Disabilities * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vymdZUuB-T4 Understanding Nonverbal Learning Disorder]—A introduction and developmental overview of Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NVLD or NLD) by psychologists Jessica Broitman, Ph.D and Jack Davis, Ph.D, and learning specialist, Kitty Lindow, M.Ed. === Books === * {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Doris J. |first2=Helmer R. |last2=Myklebust |title=Learning Disabilities: Educational Principles and Practices |location=New York |publisher=Grune & Stratton |year=1967 |lccn=66028287 |isbn=0808902199}} * {{cite book |last1=Rourke |first1=Byron P. |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |location=New York |publisher=Guilford |year=1989 |isbn=0898623782}} * {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Sue |title=The Source for Nonverbal Learning Disorders |location=East Moline, IL |publisher=LinguiSystems |year=1997 |isbn=0760601631}} * {{cite book |last=Palombo |first=Joseph |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: A Clinical Perspective |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2006 |isbn=9780393704785}} * {{cite book |last1=Broitman |first1=Jessica |first2=John M. |last2=Davis |title=Treating NVLD in Children Professional Collaborations for Positive Outcomes |location=New York |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=1461461790}} * {{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=John M. |first2=Jessica |last2=Broitman |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap between Science and Practice |location=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=1441982132}} === By Authors with NLD === * {{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Michael Brian |title=NLD from the Inside Out: Talking to Parents, Teachers, and Teens about Growing Up with Nonverbal Learning Disabilities |edition=Third |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2016 |url=http://nldfromtheinsideout.com/}} * {{cite book |last=Fast |first=Yvona |year=2004 |title=Employment for Individuals with Asperger Syndrome or Non-Verbal Learning Disability: Stories and Strategies |isbn=9781846420153}} * {{cite book |last=Flom |first=Peter |title=Screwed up Somehow but Not Stupid, Life with a Learning Disability |publisher=Peter Flom Consulting |year=2016 |isbn=9780692611692}} == External links == * [http://nvld.org/non-verbal-learning-disabilities/ NVLD Project] * [http://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/nonverbal-learning-disabilities Understood.org]—National Center for Learning Disabilities * [http://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/non-verbal-learning-disabilities/ LDA Learning Disabilities Association of America] * [http://www.nldline.com/ NLDline] * [http://www.ldonline.org/indepth/nonverbal LD OnLine] {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} [[Category:Learning disabilities]] [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]] [[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]'