Examine individual changes

'{{update|date=January 2018}} {{copy edit|date=January 2018}} '''Brain simulation''' is the concept of creating a [[computer simulation|computer-run model]] of [[brain]] neuron connections, for either the whole brain or its parts. Modeling a brain (or brain subsystem) , involves creating both a model of neuron electrical and bulk chemical function (e.g. extracellular [[serotonin]] gradients). A model of the neural connectome for the target organism is also required. The connectome is extremely complex and its detailed wiring is not yet understood theoretically; thus , it is presently being modeled empirically for smaller mammals by projects such as the [[Blue Brain Project]]. The Blue Brain Project intends to create a computer simulation of a mammalian cortical column down to the molecular level.{{citation needed|reason=cellular level seems more viable; molecular level strikes me as unachievable|date=March 2018}} By one estimate, a full reconstruction of the human connectome , using the methodology of the Blue Brain Project would require a [[zettabyte]] of data storage.<!-- [[The Brain with David Eagleman]] (2015) has a principal researcher in a Swiss lab face the camera and say this; this surely rivals CERN or LIGO or a complete Hubble-resolution astronomical map --> In 2013, [[Human Brain Project]] created a Brain Simulation Platform (BSP), which is an internet-accessible collaborative platform designed for the simulation of brain models. The Human Brain Project has utilized techniques used by the Blue Brain Project and built upon them. Brain simulation projects intend to contribute to a complete understanding of the brain, and eventually assist the process of treating and diagnosing brain disease.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.technologynetworks.com/informatics/articles/neuroinformatics-and-the-blue-brain-project-part-1-295850|title=Neuroinformatics and The Blue Brain Project|work=Informatics from Technology Networks|access-date=2018-01-30}}</ref>, ==C. elegans (roundworm)== [[File:C.elegans-brain-network.jpg|thumb|right|[[Brain mapping|Brain map]] of the [[Caenorhabditis elegans|C. elegans]] roundworm 302 neurons, interconnected by 5000 synapses]] The connectivity of the neural circuit for touch sensitivity of the simple [[Caenorhabditis elegans|C. elegans]] nematode (roundworm) was mapped in 1985<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=5|author=Chalfie M|author2=Sulston JE|author3=White JG|author4=Southgate E|author5=Thomson JN|author6=Brenner S |title=The neural circuit for touch sensitivity in Caenorhabditis elegans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=956–64 |date=April 1985 |pmid=3981252 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3981252}}</ref> and partly simulated in 1993.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Niebur E|author2=Erdös P |title=Theory of the locomotion of nematodes: control of the somatic motor neurons by interneurons |journal=Mathematical Biosciences |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=51–82 |date=November 1993 |pmid=8260760 |doi=10.1016/0025-5564(93)90033-7}}</ref> Since 2004, many software simulation models of the complete neural and muscular system have been developed, including the simulation of a worm's physical environment. Some of these models are even available for download.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Bryden |first1=J. |last2=Cohen |first2=N. |date=2004 |title=A simulation model of the locomotion controllers for the nematodode Caenorhabditis elegans |display-editors=4 |editor1-last=Schaal |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Ijspeert |editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Billard |editor3-first=A. |editor4-last=Vijayakumar |editor4-first=S. |editor5-last=Hallam |editor5-first=J. |editor6-last=Meyer |editor6-first=J.-A. |conference=From Animals to Animats 8: Proceedings of the eighth international conference on the Simulation of Adaptive Behaviour |pages=183–92 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/7961/}}</ref><ref>[https://github.com/Flowx08/Celegans-simulation C. Elegans simulation], Open source software project at Github</ref> However, there is still a lack of understanding of how the neurons and the connections between them generate the surprisingly complex range of behaviors that are observed in the relatively simple organism.<ref>[http://itee.uq.edu.au/~markw/celegans/ Mark Wakabayashi] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512215753/http://itee.uq.edu.au/~markw/celegans/ |date=May 12, 2013 }}, with links to MuCoW simulation software, a demo video and the doctoral thesis COMPUTATIONAL PLAUSIBILITY OF STRETCH RECEPTORS AS THE BASIS FOR MOTOR CONTROL IN C. elegans, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Mailler | first1 = R. | last2 = Avery | first2 = J. | last3 = Graves | first3 = J. | last4 = Willy | first4 = N. | chapter = A Biologically Accurate 3D Model of the Locomotion of Caenorhabditis Elegans | doi = 10.1109/BioSciencesWorld.2010.18 | title = 2010 International Conference on Biosciences | pages = 84–90 | date = 7–13 March 2010| isbn = 978-1-4244-5929-2 | url = http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~roger-mailler/publications/BIOSYSCOM2010.pdf}}</ref> This discrepancy between knowledge of how the mapped neurons interact with their neighbours, and bafflement as to how the overall brain functions, is an example of an [[Emergence|emergent property]]. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://phys.org/news/2013-08-complex-behavior-spontaneously-emerge-brain.html|title=How does complex behavior spontaneously emerge in the brain?|access-date=2018-02-27}}</ref> ==Drosophila neural system== {{see|Insect brain}} The brain of the fruit fly, [[Drosophila]], has also been thoroughly studied. A simulated model of the fruit fly's brain offers a unique model of sibling neurons.<ref>Arena, P.; Patane, L.; Termini, P.S.; [https://scholar.google.se/scholar?cluster=12345296403665184996&hl=sv&as_sdt=0,5 An insect brain computational model inspired by Drosophila melanogaster: Simulation results], The 2010 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN).</ref> ==Mouse brain mapping and simulation== [[Henry Markram]] mapped the types of neurons and their connections between 1995 and 2005.{{cn|date=January 2018}} In December 2006<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/Jahia/site/bluebrain/op/edit/pid/19085|title=Project Milestones|work=Blue Brain|accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref>, The [[Blue Brain]] project completed the simulation of a rat's [[cortical column|neocortical column]]. The neocortical column is considered the smallest functional unit of the [[neocortex]]. The neocortex is the part of the brain thought to be responsible for higher functions, such as conscious thought and contains 10,000 neurons (and 10⁸ [[synapse]]s). In November 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/page18700.html|title=News and Media information|work=Blue Brain|accessdate=2008-08-11|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919051656/http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/page18700.html|archivedate=2008-09-19|df=}}</ref> the project reported the end of the first phase, delivering a data-driven process for creating, validating, and researching the neocortical column. An [[artificial neural network]] described the rat's neocortical column being "as big and complex as half of a mouse brain," which was run on an IBM [[blue gene]] supercomputer by the University of Nevada's research team in 2007. A simulated time of one second took ten seconds of computer time. The researchers claimed to observe "biologically consistent" nerve impulses which flowed through the virtual cortex. However, the simulation lacked the structures seen in real mice brains, and they intend to improve the accuracy of the neuron model.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/6600965.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |date=27 April 2007 |title=Mouse brain simulated on computer}}</ref> ==Blue Brain and the rat== [[Blue Brain]] is a project that was launched in May 2005 , by [[IBM]] and the [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]] in [[Lausanne]]. The intention of the project was to create a [[computer simulation]] of a mammalian cortical column, down to the molecular level.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.forbes.com/technology/sciences/2005/06/06/cx_mh_0606ibm.html| title=IBM Aims To Simulate A Brain| publisher=Forbes| first=Matthew| last=Herper| date=June 6, 2005| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref> The project uses a [[supercomputer]] based on IBM's [[Blue Gene]] design to simulate the electrical behavior of neurons based upon their synaptic connectivity and complement of intrinsic membrane currents. The project seeks to eventually reveal aspects of human cognition and various psychiatric disorders caused by malfunctioning neurons, such as [[autism]], and to understand how pharmacological agents affect network behavior. ==Human brain project== The [[Human Brain Project]] (HBP) is a 10-year program of research funded by the European Union. It began in 2013 and employs around 500 scientists across Europe. It includes 6 platforms: *Neuroinformatics (shared database), *Brain Simulation , *High-Performance Analytics and Computing , *Medical Informatics (patient database) , *Neuromorphic Computing (brain-inspired computing) , *Neurorobotics (robotic simulations). The Brain Simulation Platform (BSP) is a device for internet-accessible tools, which allows investigations that are not possible in the laboratory. They are applying Blue Brain techniques to other brain regions, such as the cerebellum, hippocampus, and the basal ganglia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Brain Simulation Platform|url=https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/en/brain-simulation/brain-simulation-platform/|website=Human Brain Project|accessdate=20 January 2018}}</ref>, ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Computational neuroscience]] [[Category:Brain]]'