Examine individual changes

'{{pp-pc1}} {{about |the country|the historical city|Great Zimbabwe|other uses|Zimbabwe (disambiguation)}} {{redirect |ZWE}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use South African English |date= April 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date= February 2017}} {{Coord |20|S|30|E|display= title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Zimbabwe | common_name = Zimbabwe | image_flag = Flag of Zimbabwe.svg | image_coat = Coat of Arms of Zimbabwe.svg | national_motto = "Unity, Freedom, Work"<ref name= "BEAVERCT">{{cite journal |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AFwtAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ydkFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3340,2548451&dq=zimbabwe+unity-freedom-work&hl=en |title=Zimbabwe |work= The Beaver County Times |date= 13 September 1981 |accessdate= 2 November 2011}}</ref> | national_anthem = <br />"[[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe]]"<ref name= "CIA-WF">{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/zi.html |title=The World Factbook – Zimbabwe |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><div style= "padding-top:0.5em;"><center>[[File:Zimbabwe National Anthem.ogg]]</center></div> | image_map = Location Zimbabwe AU Africa.svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color= dark blue |region= the [[African Union]] |region_color= light blue}} | capital = [[Harare]] | coordinates = {{Coord |17|50|S|31|3|E|type:city}} | largest_city = Harare | official_languages = [[Languages of Zimbabwe|16 languages]]:<ref name="language">{{Cite web |publisher=Government of Zimbabwe |via=Kubatana.net |url= http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) |format=[[Portable document format|PDF]] |date=January 2013 |dead-url=yes |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> {{hlist | [[Chewa language|Chewa]] | [[Chibarwe]] | [[English language|English]] | [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]] |"[[Khoisan languages|Koisan]]" (presumably [[Tsoa language|Tsoa]]) | [[Nambya language|Nambya]] | [[Ndau language|Ndau]] | [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] | [[Shangani language|Shangani]] |[[Shona language|Shona]] |"[[Zimbabwean sign languages|sign language]]" |[[Sotho language|Sotho]] | [[Tonga language (Zambia)|Tonga]] | [[Tswana language|Tswana]] | [[Venda language|Venda]] | [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 99.4% Black African (over 80% [[Shona people|Shona]]; [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]] are largest minority) | {{nowrap|0.2% [[White people in Zimbabwe|White African]]}} | 0.4% others, including [[Coloured]] and [[Indians in Zimbabwe|Indian]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 | demonym = Zimbabwean<br />Zimbo<ref>{{cite web |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VzXJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |title= Developments in English | work =International Association of University Professors of English Conference|date= 31 October 2014 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |via= Google Books}}</ref> (colloquial) | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Zimbabwe|Vice Presidents]] | leader_name2 = [[Constantino Chiwenga]] <br> [[Kembo Mohadi]] | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | legislature = [[Parliament of Zimbabwe|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Assembly (Zimbabwe)|House of Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] {{nobold |from the [[United Kingdom]]}} | established_event1 = [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Declared]] | established_date1 = 11 November 1965 | established_event2 = [[Rhodesia|Republic]] | established_date2 = 2 March 1970 | established_event3 = [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] | established_date3 = 1 June 1979 | established_event4 = Republic of Zimbabwe | established_date4 = 18 April 1980 | established_event5 = [[Constitution of Zimbabwe|Current constitution]] | established_date5 = 15 May 2013 | area_km2 = 390,757 | area_rank = 60th | area_sq_mi = 150,871 | percent_water = 1 | population_estimate = {{UN_Population |Zimbabwe}}{{UN_Population |ref}} | population_census = 12,973,808<ref name= "zimstat1">{{cite web |title= Census Results in Brief |url= http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/CensusPreliminary2012.pdf |publisher= Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency |accessdate= 25 August 2013 |deadurl=yes | format = PDF |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130903060905/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/CensusPreliminary2012.pdf |archivedate= 3 September 2013}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population |Year}} | population_estimate_rank = 73rd | population_census_year = 2012 | population_density_km2 = 26 | population_density_sq_mi = 57 | population_density_rank = 170th | GDP_PPP = $33.872 billion<ref name= "imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_year = 2017 | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,276<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = $17.105 billion<ref name= "imf2">{{cite web |url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=77&pr.y=17&sy=2015&ey=2022&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=698&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title= Zimbabwe |publisher= International Monetary Fund}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2017 | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,149<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | Gini = 50.1 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 1995 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title= GINI Index |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=3 |publisher= World Bank |accessdate= 21 July 2013}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.535 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2017<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 156th | currency = [[United States dollar]] (official for government), [[South African rand]], and many other currencies^a, e.g. [[Botswana pula]], [[euro]], [[Renminbi|Chinese renminbi]], [[Indian rupee]]s, [[pound sterling]], [[Australian dollar]]s. [[Zimbabwean bond coins]] are used as a proxy for US dollar and cent coins. [[Zimbabwean bond notes]] for 2 and 5 dollars were introduced in 2016 at par value of the US dollar | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]<ref name= TimeZone>{{cite web |url= http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |title= Zimbabwe Time |website= Greenwich Mean Time |publisher= Greenwich 2000|accessdate= 17 November 2017|deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719182003/http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |archivedate= 19 July 2011 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> | utc_offset = +2 | drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic|left]] | calling_code = [[+263]] | cctld = [[.zw]] | footnote_a = The [[Zimbabwean dollar]] is no longer in active use after it was officially suspended by the government due to [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]]. The [[United States dollar]] (US$), [[Euro]] (€), [[South African rand]] (R), [[Botswana pula]] (P), [[Pound sterling]] (£), [[Indian rupee]]s ({{INR}}), [[Australian dollar]]s (A$), Chinese [[Renminbi]] (元/¥), and [[Japanese yen]] (¥)<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/22/zimbabwe-to-make-chinese-yuan-legal-currency-after-beijing-cancels-debts | title = Zimbabwe to make Chinese yuan legal currency after Beijing cancels debts | agency = France-Presse | newspaper = The Guardian | date = 22 December 2015}}.</ref> are legal tender.{{larger |<ref>{{Citation | last = Hungwe | first = Brian | date = 6 February 2014 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26034078 | work = News | title = Zimbabwe's multi-currency confusion | publisher = BBC | accessdate = 26 May 2014}}.</ref>}} The United States dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions. }} '''Zimbabwe''' ({{IPAc-en|z|ɪ|m|ˈ|b|ɑː|b|w|eɪ|,_|-|w|i}}), officially the '''Republic of Zimbabwe''',<ref>{{cite web |title= Zimbabwe |url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/zi.html |website= CIA World Factbook |publisher= CIA}}</ref> is a [[landlocked country]] located in [[southern Africa]], between the [[Zambezi]] and [[Limpopo River]]s, bordered by [[South Africa]], [[Botswana]], [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]. The capital and largest city is [[Harare]]. A country of roughly {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population |Zimbabwe}}|R}}/1e6 round 0}} million{{UN_Population |ref}} people, Zimbabwe has 16 [[official languages]],<ref name="language" /> with [[English language|English]], [[Shona language|Shona]], and [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a major route for migration and trade. The [[British South Africa Company]] of [[Cecil Rhodes]] first [[Rhodesia (region)|demarcated]] the present territory during the 1890s; it became the [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] British colony of [[Southern Rhodesia]] in 1923. In 1965, the conservative [[White people in Zimbabwe|white]] [[Minority rule|minority government]] [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] as [[Rhodesia]]. The state endured international isolation and a 15-year [[Rhodesian Bush War|guerrilla war]] with [[black nationalist]] forces; this culminated in a [[Lancaster House Agreement|peace agreement]] that established universal enfranchisement and ''[[de jure]]'' sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980. Zimbabwe then joined the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], from which it was suspended in 2002 for breaches of international law by its then-government, and from which it withdrew in December 2003. The [[sovereign state]] is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), the [[African Union]] (AU), and the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA). It was once known as the "Jewel of Africa" for its prosperity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/|title=Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again|first=Boris|last=Johnson|date=15 November 2017|publisher=|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/the-jewel-of-africa/|title=The Jewel of Africa|first=Doris|last=Lessing|date=10 April 2003|publisher=|via=www.nybooks.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-economy-battered-over-the-years/2724325.html|title=What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?|first=Irwin|last=Chifera|publisher=}}</ref> [[Robert Mugabe]] became [[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]] in 1980, when his [[ZANU-PF]] party won the [[Southern Rhodesian general election, 1980|elections]] following the end of white minority rule; he was the [[President of Zimbabwe]] from 1987 until his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread [[human rights]] violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252745|title=Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report|year=2015|accessdate=6 May 2016|publisher=[[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]}}</ref> Mugabe maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric of the [[Cold War]] era, blaming Zimbabwe's economic woes on conspiring Western capitalist countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23431534|title=Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe|publisher=''[[BBC]]''|date=16 August 2013|accessdate=6 May 2016}}</ref> Contemporary African political leaders were reluctant to criticise Mugabe, who was burnished by his anti-imperialist credentials, though Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] called him "a cartoon figure of an archetypal African dictator".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-03-16-tutu-zimbabwe_N.htm|title=Archbishop Desmond Tutu lambasts African silence on Zimbabwe|publisher=''[[USA Today]]''|date=16 March 2007|accessdate=6 May 2016}}</ref> The country has been in economic decline since the 1990s, experiencing several crashes and [[hyperinflation]] along the way.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/quora/2015/11/29/what_caused_zimbabwe_s_economic_crash.html |title=What Caused Zimbabwe’s Economic Crash? |date= 29 November 2015 |work = Quora |via= Slate}}</ref> On 15 November 2017, in the wake of over a year of [[2016–17 Zimbabwe protests|protests]] against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|Mugabe was placed under house arrest]] by [[Zimbabwe National Army|the country's national army]] in a [[coup d'état]].<ref name= "cnn_turmoil">{{cite news |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/ |title= Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup |first1=David |last1=McKenzie |first2=Brent |last2=Swails |first3=Angela |last3=Dewan |work=CNN |access-date=2017-11-15}}</ref><ref name= "guardian_confined">{{cite news |date=15 November 2017|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |title= Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |work=The Guardian |accessdate= 15 November 2017}}</ref> On 19 November 2017, ZANU-PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice President [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] in his place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ruling party sacks Mugabe as leader |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42043370 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed.<ref name= "bbc_resigns">{{cite web |title= Zimbabwe's President Mugabe 'resigns' |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42071488 |website=BBC News |accessdate=21 November 2017}}</ref> ==Etymology == <!-- Section header is linked. --> {{further|Great Zimbabwe|Rhodesia (name)}} The name "Zimbabwe" stems from a [[Shona language|Shona]] term for [[Great Zimbabwe]], an ancient ruined city in the country's south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that "Zimbabwe" derives from ''dzimba-dza-mabwe'', translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" (''dzimba'' = plural of ''imba'', "house"; ''mabwe'' = plural of ''bwe'', "stone").<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|title= Zimbabwe – big house of stone|publisher= Somali Press|accessdate= 14 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix|journal= Zambezia|year= 1994|volume= 21|pages= 51–80|author= Lafon, Michel|url= http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol21n1/juz021001005.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Mediated monuments and national identity|author= Vale, Lawrence J.|doi= 10.1080/136023699373774|journal= Journal of Architecture|volume= 4|year= 1999|pages= 391–408|issue= 4}}</ref> The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the modern-day [[Provinces of Zimbabwe|province]] of [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]]. Archaeologist [[Peter Garlake]] claims that "Zimbabwe" represents a contracted form of ''dzimba-hwe'', which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually references chiefs' houses or graves.<ref>{{cite book|last= Garlake|first= Peter|authorlink= Peter Garlake|title= Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology|year= 1973|publisher= Thames & Hudson|location= London, UK|isbn= 978-0-8128-1599-3|page= 13}}</ref> Zimbabwe was formerly known as [[Southern Rhodesia]] (1898), [[Rhodesia]] (1965), and [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] (1979). The first recorded use of "Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as a coinage by the black nationalist Michael Mawema,<ref name=fontein119120/> whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961.<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114/> The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the surname of [[Cecil Rhodes]], the primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory during the late 19th century—was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations.<ref name=fontein119120>{{cite book|title= The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage|last= Fontein|first= Joost|location= London|publisher= [[University College London| University College London Press]]|date= September 2006|edition= First|isbn= 978-1844721238|pages= 119–20}}</ref> According to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as "Matshobana" and "[[Monomotapa]]" before his suggestion, "Zimbabwe", prevailed.<ref>{{cite journal|title= What's in a Name? Welcome to the 'Republic of Machobana'|journal= Read on|publisher= Training Aids Development Group|location= Harare|year= 1991|page= 40}}</ref> A further alternative, put forward by nationalists in [[Matabeleland]], had been "Matopos", referring to the [[Matobo National Park|Matopos Hills]] to the south of [[Bulawayo]].<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114>{{cite book|title= Do "Zimbabweans" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State|last= Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first= Sabelo J.|location= Bern|publisher= [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang AG]]|year= 2009|edition= First|isbn= 978-3-03911-941-7|pages= 113–14}}</ref> It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used — a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114/> — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.<ref name=fontein119120/> In a 2001 interview, black nationalist [[Edson Zvobgo]] recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a political rally, "and it caught hold, and that was that".<ref name=fontein119120/> The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name during the Second ''[[Chimurenga]]'' campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the [[Rhodesian Bush War]] of 1964–1979. Major factions in this camp included the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (led by [[Robert Mugabe]] from 1975), and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (led by [[Joshua Nkomo]] from its founding in the early 1960s).{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} ==History== {{Main|History of Zimbabwe}} ===Pre-colonial era (1000–1887)=== {{further|Bantu expansion}} [[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|upright|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]].]] Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with [[Shirazi era|Arab merchants]] on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilisations that would dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins at [[Great Zimbabwe]], near [[Masvingo]], and other smaller sites. The main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.<ref name="autogenerated241">{{cite book|title=Historical Archaeology|last=Hall|first=Martin|author2=Stephen W. Silliman|year=2005|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-0751-8|pages=241–44}}</ref> From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]]. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. From c. 1450 to 1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the [[Kingdom of Mutapa]]. This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central [[Mozambique]]. It is known by many names including the [[Mutapa Empire]], also known as ''Mwene Mutapa'' or ''Monomotapa'' as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the [[Arabs]] and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.<ref name="autogenerated241"/> As a direct response to increased [[Europe]]an presence in the interior, and especially due to the increasing amount of Carnegie family farmers, a new Shona state emerged, known as the [[Rozwi Empire]]. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau by force of arms. They continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding [[musket]]s to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to defend recent conquests.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Around 1821, the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] general [[Mzilikazi]] of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled against King [[Shaka]] and created his own clan, the [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]]. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]], leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the [[Mfecane]]. When [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Boers|trekboers]] converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of Tswana Barolong Warriors and Griqua Commandos. By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to [[vassal]]dom.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last= Nelson|first=Harold|title=Zimbabwe: A Country Study|pages=1–317|publisher=The Studies|year=1983}}</ref> After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as [[Matabeleland]], establishing [[Bulawayo]] as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental [[kraal]]s, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, [[Lobengula]]. ===Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)=== {{Main|Company rule in Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} {{refimprove section|date=May 2016}} [[File:Matabeleland.png|thumb|right|[[Matabeleland]] in the 19th century.]] In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with [[Cecil Rhodes]]'s [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a [[Rudd Concession|concession for mining rights]] from [[King Lobengula]] of the [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]] peoples.<ref name="mining">Hensman, Howard (1901). ''Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career''. pp. 106–07.<!-- publishing info; ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a [[royal charter]] to the company over [[Matabeleland]], and its subject states such as [[Mashonaland]] as well.<ref name="treaties">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], pp. 178–81.</ref> Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the [[Pioneer Column]], a group of Europeans protected by well-armed [[British South Africa Police]] (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (now [[Harare]]), and thereby establish [[Company rule in Rhodesia|company rule]] over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new [[Maxim gun|Maxim]] guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the [[First Matabele War]]. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the [[Limpopo River]] and [[Lake Tanganyika]], then known as "Zambesia".<ref name="treaties"/> In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,<ref name="treaties"/> mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James (2008). ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170; {{ISBN|055430032X}}.</ref> In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name "[[Rhodesia (name)|Rhodesia]]" for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898 "[[Southern Rhodesia]]" became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi,<ref>Southern Rhodesia Order in Council of 20 October 1898 which includes at seection 4 thereof: "The territory for the time being within the limits of this Order shall be known as Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref name="adopted">{{cite journal|url=http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm|title=A Country in Search of a Name|author=Gray, J. A.|year=1956|journal=The [[Northern Rhodesia Journal]]|volume=3|issue=1|page=78}}</ref> which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately and later termed [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]). Shortly after Rhodes' disastrous [[Jameson Raid]] on the [[South African Republic]], the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The [[Second Matabele War]] lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as ''[[Chimurenga]]'') against company rule during 1896 and 1897.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} Following these failed insurrections, the Ndebele and Shona groups were finally subdued by the Rhodes administration, which organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} [[File:1899railroad salisbury.jpg|thumb|The opening of the railway to [[Umtali]] in 1899.]] Southern Rhodesia was annexed by the [[United Kingdom]] on 12 September 1923.<ref>Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia'' by Vera Gowlland-Debbas</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645</ref> Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Southern Rhodesia Constitution Letters Patent, 1923</ref> Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] [[British Empire|British colony]], subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the [[Southern Rhodesia in World War I|First]] and [[Southern Rhodesia in World War II|Second World Wars]] than any other part of the Empire, including Britain itself.<ref name="moorcraft"/> In 1953, in the face of African opposition,<ref name="fed">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], p. 292.</ref> Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with [[Nyasaland]] ([[Malawi]]) in the ill-fated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|Central African Federation]], which was essentially dominated by Southern Rhodesia. Growing [[African nationalism]] and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While multiracial democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, however, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy [[minority rule]].{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} With Zambian independence, [[Ian Smith]]'s [[Rhodesian Front]] (RF) dropped the designation "Southern" in 1964 and issued a [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] (commonly abbreviated to "UDI") from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965, intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of "[[no independence before majority rule]]". It was the first such course taken by a British colony since the [[United States Declaration of Independence|American declaration]] of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions.<ref name="moorcraft">{{cite journal|url=http://www.historytoday.com/paul-moorcraft/rhodesias-war-independence|title=Rhodesia's War of Independence|date=31 August 1990|journal=History Today|volume=40 |issue= 9|first=Paul|last=Moorcraft|quote=[P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.}}</ref> ===UDI and civil war (1965–1980)=== {{Main|Rhodesia|Rhodesian Bush War|Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Lancaster House Agreement}} {{refimprove section|date=May 2016}} [[File:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|[[Ian Smith]] signing the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience.]] After the [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] (UDI), the British government petitioned the United Nations for [[economic sanctions|sanctions]] against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state.<ref name="eafp">Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'', Infobase Publishing, p. 537; {{ISBN|143810989X}}.</ref> These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.<ref name="eafp"/> The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. A [[Rhodesian Bush War|guerrilla war]] subsequently ensued when [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and [[Robert Mugabe]]'s [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated guerilla operations against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Warsaw Pact]] and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with [[Maoism]] and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a [[Rhodesian constitutional referendum, 1969|referendum]] the previous year, but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant communists. [[File:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|right|Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]].]] In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]], who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the [[Internal Settlement]], [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia general election, 1979|elections]] were held in April 1979, concluding with the [[United African National Council]] (UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]]. The [[Internal Settlement]] left control of the [[Rhodesian Security Forces]], civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites.<ref name="endsanctions">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/1/newsid_2492000/2492915.stm|title=On This Day|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=14 December 2008 | date=1 June 1979}}</ref> On 12 June, the [[United States Senate]] voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia. Following the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1979|fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] (CHOGM), held in [[Lusaka]], Zambia from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at [[Lancaster House]]. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.<ref name="chair">Chung, Fay (2006). ''Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe'', Preben (INT) Kaarsholm. p. 242; {{ISBN|9171065512}}.</ref> With [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]], [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]] of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47 [[plenary session]]s.<ref name="chair" /> On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the [[Lancaster House Agreement]], effectively ending the guerrilla war.<ref name="lancaster">Preston, Matthew (2004). ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' p. 25; {{ISBN|1850435790}}.</ref> On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status (the 'aye' votes included Ian Smith himself). The bill then passed the Senate and was assented to by the President. With the arrival of [[Christopher Soames, Baron Soames|Lord Soames]], the new Governor, just after 2 p.m. on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] as the Colony of [[Southern Rhodesia]], although on 13 December Soames declared that during his mandate the name Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Rhodesia would continue to be used. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December, and the [[United Nations]] on 16 December, before calling on its member states to do likewise on 21 December. Thus Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Botswana lifted sanctions on 22–23 December; Australia partly pre-empted this, lifting all but trade sanctions on 18 December, and trade sanctions on 21 December.<ref>Zimbabwe, May 1980/Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence, Canberra: Government Printer, 1980. p. 122.<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> During the [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 1980|elections of February 1980]], Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/zimletmarch80.htm|title=Letter by George M. Houser, Executive Director of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), on the 1980 independence election in Rhodesia|author=George M. Houser|accessdate=1 December 2007}}</ref> [[Prince Charles]], as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to the new nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in [[Harare]] in April 1980.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Ian |date=2008 |title=Bitter Harvest |url= |location=London |publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd |page=367 |isbn=978-1-85782-604-3 |author-link=Ian Smith }}</ref> ===Independence era (1980–present)=== [[File:Zimbabwe, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Trends in Zimbabwe's [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]], 1970–2010.]] [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe's first president]] after its independence was [[Canaan Banana]] in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as Head of State. Robert Mugabe, leader of the ZANU party, was the country's first Prime Minister and Head of Government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Godwin |first1=Peter |last2=Hancock |first2=Ian |date=1995 |orig-year=1993 |title='Rhodesians Never Die': The Impact of War and Political Change on White Rhodesia, c. 1970–1980<!-- single quotes are part of the title--> |url= |location=Harare |publisher=Baobab Books |page=312 |isbn=0-908311-82-6 |author-link1=Peter Godwin |author-link2=Ian Hancock }}</ref> Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around [[Matabeleland]]. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as ''[[Gukurahundi]]'' ({{Lang-sn|"the early rain which washes away the [[chaff]] before the spring rains"}}).<ref name="watch">Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). ''Against the Grain'', Zebra, p. 134; {{ISBN|1770071121}}.</ref> The [[Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade|Fifth Brigade]], a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to the Zimbabwean Prime Minister,<ref name=meredith6273/> entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting "dissidents".<ref name=meredith6273>{{cite book| title=Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe|last=Meredith|first=Martin|authorlink=Martin Meredith |date= September 2007|origyear=2002|location=New York|publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1-58648-558-0|pages=62–73}}</ref><ref name=hill77>{{cite book|title=The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown |last= Hill |first=Geoff |location=Johannesburg |publisher=Struik Publishers|year=2005|origyear=2003|isbn=978-1-86872-652-3|page=77}}</ref> Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year ''Gukurahundi'' campaign ranged from 3,750<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rhodesia.nl/Matabeleland%20Report.pdf|title= Report on the 1980s disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, March 1997 – Conclusion – FINAL ESTIMATE: The figure for the dead and missing is not less than 3000. This statement is now beyond reasonable doubt. Adding up the conservative suggestions made above, the figure is reasonably certainly 3750 dead. More than that it is still not possible to say, except to allow that the real figure for the dead could be possibly double 3000, or even higher. Only further research will resolve the issue.|publisher=}}</ref> to 80,000.<ref name=hill77/> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx|title=Gukurahundi killed 80,000: Eddie Cross|publisher=|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112015104/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx#|archive-date=12 November 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.<ref name=catholiccommission>{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace|first1=|last1=Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe|first2=|last2=Legal Resources Foundation|date=1 January 1997|publisher=|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=REPORT ON THE 1980s DISTURBANCES IN MATABELELAND & THE MIDLANDS |publisher= [[Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe]]|date=March 1997|accessdate=8 August 2015}}</ref> The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the [[ZANU-PF|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front]] (ZANU–PF).<ref name=meredith6273/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123124818/http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html|archivedate=23 November 2008 | title= Chronology of Zimbabwe |publisher=badley.info|accessdate=9 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1831470.stm|title=Timeline: Zimbabwe|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=9 December 2008 |date=15 October 2009}}</ref> [[Zimbabwean general election, 1990|Elections in March 1990]] resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|title=Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections|accessdate=9 December 2008 |publisher=EISA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205015007/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|archivedate=5 December 2008 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902092508/http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html|archivedate=2 September 2009 |title=Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe|author=Moyo, Jonathon M.|publisher=University of Zimbabwe|accessdate=9 December 2008}}</ref> During the 1990s, students, [[trade unionist]]s, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU-PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and [[junior doctor]]s went on strike over salary issues.<ref name="l">{{cite news|url=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|title=A Brief History of Zimbabwe|publisher=about.com|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108142024/http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|archivedate=8 January 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm |title=Zimbabwe: ZANU PF hegemony and its breakdown (1990–1999)|publisher=EISA|accessdate=9 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205012226/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm|archivedate=5 December 2008 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.<ref name="k">{{cite news |url= http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0862066.html|title=History of Zimbabwe|work=[[Infoplease]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.avert.org/history-hiv-aids-africa.htm|title=History of HIV & AIDS in Africa|work=[[AVERT]]|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the [[ZANU (PF)|ZANU-PF]] government around 1997. Despite the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population of around 0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile agricultural land.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/692638.stm |title=Britain's troubles with Mugabe|publisher=BBC News|date=3 April 2000}}</ref> In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its [[Land reform in Zimbabwe#Fast-track land reform and violence|Fast Track Land Reform]] programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population.<ref name="humanrightswatcha">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/zimbabwe/ZimLand0302.pdf|title= Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe|publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]]}}&nbsp;{{small|(175&nbsp;KB)}}</ref> Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other supports led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.<ref name="humanrightswatcha"/> Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/world/africa/in-zimbabwe-land-takeover-a-golden-lining.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining|work=The New York Times|date=20 July 2012|accessdate=21 July 2012|author=Polgreen, Lydia}}</ref> [[File:Food insecurity in Zimbabwe.svg|thumb|Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008]] President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/09/st05/st05304-ad01re01.en09.pdf|title=Council Common Position renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe |work=Council of the European Union|date=26 January 2009}}</ref> In 2002, the nation was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant [[Electoral fraud|election tampering]].<ref name="tampering">{{cite web |url=http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629145037/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-date=29 June 2007 |title=Zimbabwe Suspended Indefinitely from Commonwealth|publisher=[[Human Rights First]]|date=8 December 2003|dead-url=yes}}</ref> The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705162909/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archivedate=5 July 2008 |title=Commonwealth website confirms Zimbabwe "terminated" its membership with effect from 7 December 2003 |publisher=Thecommonwealth.org|date=12 December 2003}}</ref> The [[Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001]] (ZDERA) went into effect in 2002, creating a credit freeze of the Zimbabwean government through Section 4 C, Multilateral Financing Restriction. The bill was sponsored by [[Bill Frist]], and co-sponsored by US senators [[Hillary Clinton]], [[Joe Biden]], [[Russ Feingold]] and [[Jesse Helms]]. Through ZDERA Section 4C, the Secretary of the Treasury is ordered to direct US Directors at the International Financial Institutions listed in Section 3, "to oppose and vote against-- (1) any extension by the respective institution of any loan, credit, or guarantee to the Government of Zimbabwe; or (2) any cancellation or reduction of indebtedness owed by the Government of Zimbabwe to the United States or any international financial institution."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/s494/text|title=Text of S. 494 (107th): Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (Passed Congress/Enrolled Bill version)|date=12 December 2001|publisher=[[GovTrack]]|accessdate=29 December 2016}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Following [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005|elections in 2005]], the government initiated "[[Operation Murambatsvina]]", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4188702.stm|title=Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story|date=30 August 2005 |publisher=BBC|accessdate=19 December 2008}}</ref> The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as [[Amnesty International]], authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.<ref name="muram">{{cite web|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010190256/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006|archivedate=10 October 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International|date=9 August 2006 |publisher=Web.archive.org|accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref> On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|presidential election]] along with a [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2008|parliamentary election]]. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai]] (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak|cholera outbreak]] in December) and various basic affairs.<ref name="Carter">{{cite news|url= http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2008Nov24/0,4675,AFZimbabwe,00.html|date=24 November 2008|title=Carter warns situation appears dire in Zimbabwe|author=Jacobson, Celean|agency=Associated Press|work=Fox News}}</ref> In September 2008, a [[2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations|power-sharing agreement]] was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/12/18/Mugabe-wants-sanctions-removed/UPI-84591292686762|title=Mugabe wants sanctions removed|agency=United Press International|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=21 August 2011}}</ref> [[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] attended the Independence Day celebrations in [[South Sudan]] in July 2011]] A 2011 survey by [[Freedom House]] suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|publisher=[[Freedom House]]|author=Booysen, Susan|date=4 March 2011|accessdate=16 February 2012|title=Changing Perceptions in Zimbabwe – Nationwide Survey of the Political Climate in Zimbabwe November 2010 – January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20121212043124/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|archivedate=12 December 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that the "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people".<ref>{{cite report|title=OCHA in 2012–2013: Plan and Budget: Zimbabwe|publisher=United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]|url=http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe|date=December 2011|accessdate=16 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130200054/http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe |archivedate=30 January 2012}}</ref> On 17 January 2013, Vice President [[John Nkomo]] died of cancer at St Anne's Hospital, [[Harare]] at the age of 78.<ref>{{cite news|last=Chinaka|first=Cris|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/17/cnews-us-zimbabwe-nkomo-idCABRE90G0IA20130117|title=Mugabe deputy John Nkomo dies after cancer battle|agency=Reuters|date=17 January 2013|accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref> A new constitution approved in the [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013]] curtails presidential powers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution|url=https://www.reuters.com-archive-classified.eu/article/2013/03/16/us-zimbabwe-referendum-idUSBRE92F03G20130316|agency=Reuters|accessdate=16 March 2013|author=Dzirutwe, MacDonald |deadurl=yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 [[Zimbabwean general election, 2013|Zimbabwean general election]] which ''[[The Economist]]'' described as "rigged."<ref name =Economist072016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|last=|first=|date=9 July 2016|work=|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=8 July 2016|via=}}</ref> and the ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]'' as "stolen".<ref name="Out of House">{{Cite news|url=|title=Out of House and Home|last=Fletcher|first=Martin|date=7 February 2017|work=|publisher=|newspaper=The Telegraph|location=|edition=Telegraph Magazine|page=39|access-date=|via=}}</ref> The [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai|Movement for Democratic Change]] alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23591941 | title=Zimbabwe election: A guide to rigging allegations | publisher=BBC News | date=7 August 2013 | accessdate=7 June 2016}}</ref> In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU-PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://africanarguments.org/2015/04/23/as-the-house-burns-whither-the-zimbabwean-opposition-by-nicole-beardsworth/|title=As the House Burns, Whither the Zimbabwean Opposition? – By Nicole Beardsworth – African Arguments|publisher=}}</ref> After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU-PF government re-instituted [[one party rule]],<ref name="Out of House" /> doubled the civil service and, according to ''The Economist'', embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption".<ref name =Economist072016/> A 2017 study conducted by the [[Institute for Security Studies]] (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/zimbabwes-shady-police-roadblocks-reflect-its-failing-governance|title=Zimbabwe's shady police roadblocks reflect its failing governance - ISS Africa|last=Matyszak|first=Derek|date=20 September 2017|website=ISS Africa|language=en|access-date=2017-09-22}}</ref> In July 2016 [[2016 Zimbabwe protests|nationwide protests]] took place regarding the economic collapse in the country,<ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |accessdate=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/mugabe-at-war-with-militias-that-keep-him-in-power-kbldr7v8l|title=Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power|last=Raath|first=Jan|last2=Graham|first2=Stuart|date=25 July 2016|website=|publisher=The Times|access-date=25 July 2016|subscription=Yes}}</ref> and the finance minister admitted "Right now we literally have nothing."<ref name =Economist072016/> In November 2017, [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|the army led a coup d'état]] following the dismissal of Vice President [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]], placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a [[coup]].<ref name="cnn_turmoil" /><ref name="guardian_confined" /> Mugabe resigned on 21 November 2017, after leading the country for 37 years. Although under the [[Constitution of Zimbabwe]] Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice President [[Phelekezela Mphoko]], a supporter of [[Grace Mugabe]], ZANU-PF chief whip [[Lovemore Matuke]] stated to the [[Reuters]] news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president.<ref name="bbc_resigns" /> In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about 5 per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2016 a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3,5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and death from politically motivated violence sponsored by government exceeds 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least 3 million Zimbabweans in 37 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx|title=The costs of the Robert Mugabe era|website=newzimbabwe.com|accessdate=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201005250/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx#|archive-date=1 February 2018|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Geography and environment== {{unreferenced section|date=May 2016}} {{main|Geography of Zimbabwe}} [[File:ZmbziRvr.jpg|thumb|The [[Zambezi River]] in the [[Mana Pools National Park]].]] [[File:Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification.]] Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes [[15th parallel south|15°]] and [[23rd parallel south|23°S]], and longitudes [[25th meridian east|25°]] and [[34th meridian east|34°E]]. It is bordered by [[South Africa]] to the south, [[Botswana]] to the west and southwest, [[Zambia]] to the northwest, and [[Mozambique]] to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from [[Namibia]], nearly forming a four-nation [[quadripoint]]. Most of the country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern Highlands, with [[Mount Nyangani]] as the highest point at 2,592 m.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} These highlands are renowned for their great natural beauty, with famous tourist destinations such as Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba and Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda. About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]], one of the world's biggest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme northwest and is part of the [[Zambezi]] river.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} === Geology === Over geological time Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-Gondwana erosion cycles (Known as African and post-African), and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=A E |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Landscape evolution in Zimbabwe from the Permian to present, with implications for kimberlite prospecting|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Moore2009_2.pdf|journal=Geological Society of South Africa|volume=112|pages=1–47–88|via=}}</ref> ===Climate=== Zimbabwe has a tropical climate with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter, the Zambezi valley is also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season generally runs from late October to March and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts, the latest one commencing early in 2015 and ongoing into 2016. Severe storms are rare.<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005">Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; {{ISBN|1590848101}}.</ref> ===Flora and fauna=== {{unreferenced section|date=May 2016}} {{main|Wildlife of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Curled trunk.jpg|thumb|An elephant at a water hole in [[Hwange National Park]].]] The country is mostly savannah, although the moist and mountainous eastern highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in these Eastern Highlands include [[teak]], [[mahogany]], enormous specimens of strangling fig, forest newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others. In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane, combretum and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species. ===Environmental issues=== Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. [[Deforestation]] and [[poaching]] has reduced the amount of wildlife. Wood[[land degradation]] and deforestation, due to [[population growth]], [[urban expansion]] and lack of fuel, are major concerns<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00156-5|title=Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies?|year=2000|last1=Chipika|first1=J|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=79|page=175|last2=Kowero|first2=G.|issue=2–3}}</ref> and have led to erosion and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have also been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns.<ref name="Forestry">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsdzezimbabwe.co.uk/2015/03/chaos-as-tobacco-sales-start.html|title=Chaos as tobacco sales start|publisher=NewsdezeZimbabwe|accessdate=21 March 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> ==Government and politics== {{Main|Politics of Zimbabwe|Elections in Zimbabwe}} Zimbabwe is a republic with a [[presidential system]] of government. The [[semi-presidential system]] was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after a [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013|referendum]] in March 2013. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an [[upper chamber]], the [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]], was reinstated.<ref name="reinstated">[http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive/legisl/050916czamd17ac.asp?sector=LEGISL Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 17) Act, 2005] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233356/http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive/legisl/050916czamd17ac.asp?sector=LEGISL |date=27 September 2007 }} NGO Network Alliance Project</ref> The [[House of Assembly of Zimbabwe|House of Assembly]] is the [[lower chamber]] of Parliament. Former President [[Robert Mugabe]]'s [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front]] (commonly abbreviated ZANU-PF) has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence.<ref>Mugabe, Robert. (2007). ''Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite'', Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed, page(s) needed--></ref> In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the [[Parliamentary republic|ceremonial presidency]] and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president, a [[Presidential system]]. His ZANU party has won every election since independence, in the 1990 election the second-placed party, [[Edgar Tekere]]'s Zimbabwe Unity Movement, won only 20% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|title=Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book|accessdate=6 January 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185709/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|archivedate=27 December 2007}}</ref> During the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near-sweep by the ruling party.<ref name="Frankel">Frankel, Matthew. [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0526_myanmar_boycott_frankel.aspx "Myanmar Boycott is Misguided"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511085706/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0526_myanmar_boycott_frankel.aspx |date=11 May 2011 }}, [http://www.brookings.edu The Brookings Institution], 26 May 2010.</ref> When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU.<ref name="Frankel"/> Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.<ref name="allegations">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140104021201/http://www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus041805.html Zimbabwe: Election Fraud Report, 04/18/05]. [[University of Pennsylvania]], 18 April 2005.</ref> The [[Zimbabwe parliamentary elections, 2005|2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections]] were held on 31 March and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and [[Jonathan Moyo]], calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.<ref name="moyo">[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=qw111061602454B251 "Mugabe's former ally accuses him of foul play"], ''Independent Online Zimbabwe'', 12 March 2005.</ref> Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} General elections were again held in Zimbabwe on 30 March 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7322468.stm|title=Zimbabwe stands 'on a precipice'|publisher=BBC News|date=31 March 2008|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> The official results required a runoff between Mugabe and [[Morgan Tsvangirai]], the opposition leader; the MDC challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/03/27/zimbabwe.election|title=Mugabe critics predict fraud in Zimbabwe elections|date=28 March 2008|publisher=CNN}}</ref> The run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a "violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run-off, the ZEC held the run-off and President Mugabe received a landslide majority.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7467990.stm|title=Mugabe rival quits election race|publisher=BBC News|date=22 June 2008}}</ref> [[File:Election campaign March 2005.jpg|thumb|Supporters of the [[Movement for Democratic Change (prior to 2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] in 2005.]] The [[MDC-T]] led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the Lower chamber of Parliament. The MDC split into two factions. One faction ([[MDC-M]]), now led by [[Arthur Mutambara]] contested the elections to the Senate, while the other, led by Tsvangirai, opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. The opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with Tsvangirai being elected to lead [[MDC-T]], which has become more popular than the other group.<ref name="findarticles1">{{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1660337.html|work=The Independent|location=UK|title=Contrast in styles as contenders hold rallies in Harare townships|date=4 March 2002|author=Latham, Brian|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229132808/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1660337.html |archivedate=29 December 2013}}</ref> Mutambara, a robotics professor and former [[NASA]] robotics specialist has replaced [[Welshman Ncube]] who was the interim leader of MDC-M after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the Senate. The Mutambara formation has been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto. {{As of|2008}}, the Movement for Democratic Change has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500–5,000 for the other formation.<ref name="findarticles1"/> On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in [[Johannesburg]] that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.<ref name="SABCre">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0,2172,168544,00.html |title=Zimbabwe’s MDC factions reunite |accessdate=13 February 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502155226/http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0%2C2172%2C168544%2C00.html |archivedate= 2 May 2008 |df= }}, SABC News, 28 April 2008.</ref><ref name="Reunites">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7371823.stm|title=Opposition reunites in Zimbabwe|publisher=BBC News|date=28 April 2008|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary majority.<ref name="Reunites"/> On the same day, Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five constituencies had been completed, that the results were being collated and that they would be published on 29 April.<ref>Chinaka, Cris (29 April 2008) [http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/all-eyes-on-zim-as-zec-wrap-up-recount-1.398301 All eyes on Zim as ZEC wrap-up recount], Reuters via iol.co.za; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain control over the army. Donor nations have adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which are estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as Prime Minister by President Mugabe.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} In November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million donated by the [[Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria]]. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/03/world/africa/03zimbabwe.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=Aid Group Says Zimbabwe Misused $7.3 Million|work=The New York Times|date=3 November 2008|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger}}</ref> In February 2013, Zimbabwe's election chief, [[Simpson Mtambanengwe]], resigned due to ill health. His resignation came months before the country's constitutional referendum and elections.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21441744|title=Zimbabwe: Election chief Mutambanengwe resigns|year=2013|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Zimbabwe}} {{See also|Child marriage in Zimbabwe}} {{refimprove section|date=May 2016}} [[File:Demonstration against Mugabe.JPG|thumb|right|A demonstration in [[London]] against [[Robert Mugabe]]. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|title=Police baton charge Harare protesters|date=3 December 2008|publisher=ABC News}}</ref>]] There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the [[Robert Mugabe|Mugabe administration]] and the dominant party, the [[Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front|ZANU-PF]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard-Hassmann|first=Rhoda E.|date=24 November 2010|title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/402721|journal=Human Rights Quarterly|volume=32|issue=4|pages=898–920|doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030|issn=1085-794X}}</ref> In 2011, there were reports of 640 corpses having been recovered from the Monkey William Mine in [[Chibondo]]. They were allegedly authenticated by the Fallen Heroes Trust of Zimbabwe and the Department of National Museums and Monuments who are leading the exhumation process as victims of the Ian Smith regime during the [[Rhodesian Bush War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manicapost.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27171:mass-grave-discovered-&Itemid=131|title=Mass grave discovered |publisher=Manicapost.com|date=22 March 2013|accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-27743-article-Exhumation+begins+at+the+Rusape+Heroes+Acre.html|title=Exhumation begins at the Rusape Heroes Acre|publisher=Bulawayo24.com|accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref> One body was identified as a ZANLA cadre, Cde Rauya, by the Fallen Heroes Trust Chief exhumer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zbc.co.zw/news-categories/top-stories/11136-zanla-cadre-exhumed-in-chibondo.html|title=ZANLA cadre exhumed in Chibondo|publisher=Zbc.co.zw|date=14 August 2011|accessdate=30 December 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192029/http://www.zbc.co.zw/news-categories/top-stories/11136-zanla-cadre-exhumed-in-chibondo.html |archivedate=29 October 2013}}</ref> Government Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains were discovered in 2008, but claimed the remains were decades old despite clear evidence the exhumed skeletons still had hair and clothes. Solidarity Peace Trust said that the presence of soft tissues "is not necessarily an indicator that these bones entered the grave more recently, although it could be."<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/zimbabwe-mass-grave-used-as-political-propaganda-1.1048061|title=Zimbabwe mass grave used as political propaganda|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|date=31 March 2011|accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref> Journalists found a body in the mine with 'what appeared to be blood and fluids dripping onto the skulls below'. The opposition MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its supporters during disputed elections in 2008. Amnesty International (AI) expressed concern that "international best practice on exhumations is not being adhered to ... [M]ishandling of these mass graves has serious implications on potential exhumations of other sites in Zimbabwe. Thousands of civilians were also killed in Matabeleland and Midlands provinces in the mid 1980s and are allegedly buried in mine shafts and mass graves in these regions", AI added.<ref name="autogenerated3"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/zimbabwe-mass-grave-bodies-must-be-exhumed-forensic-experts-2011-04-06 |title=Zimbabwe: Mass grave bodies must be exhumed by forensic experts |publisher=Amnesty International|date=6 April 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207185358/https://www.amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/zimbabwe-mass-grave-bodies-must-be-exhumed-forensic-experts-2011-04-06 |archivedate=7 December 2014}}</ref> According to human rights organisations such as [[Amnesty International]]<ref name="AI">{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/zwe-summary-eng|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203015112/http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/zwe-summary-eng|archivedate=3 December 2007|title=Zimbabwe|accessdate=2 December 2007|publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref> and [[Human Rights Watch]]<ref name="hrw">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/zimbab14720.htm|title=Zimbabwe – Events of 2006|accessdate=2 December 2007|publisher=Human Rights Watch|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011095246/http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/zimbab14720.htm |archivedate=11 October 2007}}</ref> the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, [[freedom of movement]] and residence, [[freedom of assembly]] and the [[rule of law|protection of the law]]. In 2009, Gregory Stanton, then President of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, stated there was "clear evidence that Mugabe government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the International Criminal Court.<ref>Howard-Hassmann 2010, p.&nbsp;909</ref> Male [[homosexuality]] is [[LGBT rights in Zimbabwe|illegal in Zimbabwe]]. Since 1995, the government has [[LGBT rights opposition|carried out campaigns]] against both homosexual men and women.<ref>{{cite web|title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition|url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|work=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]|date=17 May 2016}}</ref> President Mugabe has blamed gays for many of Zimbabwe's problems and viewed homosexuality as an "un-African" and immoral culture brought by European colonists and practiced by only "a few whites" in his country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/523162.stm|title=BBC News - Africa - Zimbabwe gay rights face dim future|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai|Movement for Democratic Change]] (MDC) rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10517688|title=Zimbabwe election violence spreads to Harare|accessdate=7 December 2008|work=The New Zealand Herald|first=Raymond|last=Whitaker|date=22 June 2008}}</ref> In the attacks of 2007, party leader [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] and 49 other opposition activists were arrested and severely beaten by the police. After his release, Morgan Tsvangirai told the [[BBC]] that he suffered head injuries and blows to the arms, knees and back, and that he lost a significant amount of blood and hundreds were killed.<ref name="bbc_Morgan">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6449691.stm|title=Unbowed Tsvangirai urges defiance|accessdate=2 December 2007|date=14 March 2007|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Police action was strongly condemned by the [[United Nations Secretary-General|UN Secretary-General]], [[Ban Ki-moon]], the [[European Union]] and the United States.<ref name="bbc_Morgan"/> While noting that the activists had suffered injuries, but not mentioning the cause of them,<ref name="herald">{{cite web|title=Opposition protesters' case not heard|author=The Herald, Zimbabwe|date=14 March 2007|url=http://www.herald.co.zw/inside.aspx?sectid=16333&cat=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316181021/http://www.herald.co.zw/inside.aspx?sectid=16333&cat=1|archivedate=16 March 2007|accessdate=14 March 2007}}</ref> the Zimbabwean state-owned daily newspaper ''[[The Herald (Zimbabwe)|The Herald]]'' claimed the police had intervened after demonstrators "ran amok looting shops, destroying property, mugging civilians, and assaulting police officers and innocent members of the public". The newspaper argued that the opposition had been "willfully violating the ban on political rallies".<ref name="herald"/> There are also abuses of media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech.<ref name="AI"/> It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the [[Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation]], as a propaganda tool.<ref name="propaganda">[http://www.pressreference.com/Uz-Z/Zimbabwe.html Zimbabwe Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers] ''Press Reference'', 2006.</ref> Newspapers critical of the government, such as the ''[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]]'', closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their license.<ref name="bombs">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1141168.stm|title=Zimbabwe newspaper bombed|publisher=BBC News|date=28 January 2001|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="license">{{cite news|last=Wines|first=Michael|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E0DB1E3BF934A35751C0A9629C8B63|title=Zimbabwe: Newspaper Silenced|work=The New York Times|date=7 February 2004|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> [[BBC News]], [[Sky News]], and [[CNN]] were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted.<ref name="Telegraph">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/5935043/Zimbabwe-lifts-reporting-ban-on-BBC-and-CNN-after-eight-years.html "Zimbabwe lifts reporting ban on BBC and CNN"], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 30 July 2009.</ref> Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.<ref name="networks">{{cite news|author=Nkosi, Milton|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ukfs/hi/newsid_4400000/newsid_4401700/4401767.stm|title=Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?|publisher=BBC News|date=1 April 2005|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-url=https://archive.is/20080623173259/http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-date=23 June 2008 |title=Al Jazeera kicked out of Zimbabwe |dead-url=yes |accessdate=1 June 2016 |df= }}, zimbabwemetro.com, 22 June 2008.</ref> ===Armed forces=== {{refimprove section|date=May 2016}} {{Main|Zimbabwe Defence Forces}} [[File:Flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces.svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Zimbabwe Defence Forces]].]] The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three insurrectionist forces – the [[Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army]] (ZANLA), the [[Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army]] (ZIPRA), and the [[Rhodesian Security Forces]] (RSF) – after the [[Second Chimurenga]] and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] (ZNA) and [[Air Force of Zimbabwe]] (AFZ) as separate entities under the command of Rtd General [[Solomon Mujuru]] and Air Marshal [[Norman Walsh]] who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Josiah Tungamirai]] in 1985. In December 2003, General Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army.<ref name="minist">{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.zw/zdf/zdf.htm |title=Zimbabwe Ministry of Defence|accessdate=17 November 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102151320/http://www.mod.gov.zw/zdf/zdf.htm|archivedate=2 November 2007}}</ref> The ZNA currently has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel.<ref name="Airforce of Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/AFZ0.html|title=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|publisher=ZDF News|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref> The [[Zimbabwe Republic Police]] (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwejournalists.com/story.php?art_id=3364&cat=4|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105170018/http://www.zimbabwejournalists.com/story.php?art_id=3364&cat=4|archivedate=5 January 2008|title=MILITARISATION OF ZIMBABWE: Does the opposition stand a chance?|author=Chari, Freeman Forward|publisher=zimbabwejournalists.com|date=24 December 2007}}</ref> Following majority rule in early 1980, [[British Army]] trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a [[battalion]] structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Godwin|authorlink=Peter Godwin (writer)|year=1996|title=Mukiwa – A White Boy in Africa|isbn=0-333-67150-3|publisher=Macmillan|location=London, UK}}</ref> This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure. From early 1981, this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments, and ZANLA and ZANU fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} The ZNA was originally formed into four [[brigade]]s, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]] were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The [[Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade|Fifth Brigade]] was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and murder during the brigade's occupation of [[Matabeleland]] in what has become known as [[Gukurahundi]] ({{Lang-sn|"the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains"}}), the campaign which finished off Mugabe's liberation struggle.<ref name="watch" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.zw/army/zna.htm|title=Ministry of Defence, Zimbabwe|accessdate=11 November 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102184314/http://www.mod.gov.zw/army/zna.htm|archivedate=2 November 2007}}</ref> The Brigade had been re-formed by 2006, with its commander, Brigadier-General John Mupande praising its "rich history".<ref name="Herald Reporter">{{cite news|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/News_5th_Gets_Comm.html|publisher=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|title=5th Brigade gets new commander|date=22 February 2006|accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Provinces of Zimbabwe|Districts of Zimbabwe|Wards of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Administrative Divisions of Zimbabwe.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|right|[[Provinces of Zimbabwe|Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe]]]] Zimbabwe has a [[centralised government]] and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out.<ref name="CIA-WF"/> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Province !! Capital |- | [[Bulawayo]]|| Bulawayo |- | [[Harare]]|| Harare |- | [[Manicaland]] || [[Mutare]] |- | [[Mashonaland Central]] || [[Bindura]] |- | [[Mashonaland East]] || [[Marondera]] |- | [[Mashonaland West]] || [[Chinhoyi]] |- | [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]] || [[Masvingo|Masvingo city]] |- | [[Matabeleland North]] || [[Lupane District]] |- | [[Matabeleland South]] || [[Gwanda]] |- | [[Midlands Province|Midlands]] || [[Gweru]] |} The names of most of the provinces were generated from the [[Mashonaland]] and [[Matabeleland]] divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the [[First Matabele War]]. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the [[Shona people]] and the [[Matabele people]], although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor, appointed by the [[President of Zimbabwe|President]].<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/cms/UsefulResourses/ZimbabweConstitution.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221053703/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/cms/UsefulResourses/ZimbabweConstitution.pdf|archivedate=21 December 2008|format=PDF|title=Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|accessdate=19 December 2008}}</ref> The provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/PROVINCIAL_COUNCILS_AND_ADMINISTRATION_ACT_29_11.pdf|format=PDF|title=Provincial Councils and Administration Act (Chapter 29:11)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|accessdate=19 December 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227155122/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/PROVINCIAL_COUNCILS_AND_ADMINISTRATION_ACT_29_11.pdf|archivedate=27 December 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The provinces are subdivided into 59 [[Districts of Zimbabwe|districts]] and 1,200 [[Municipalities of Zimbabwe|wards]] (sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/RURAL_DISTRICT_COUNCILS_ACT_29_13.pdf|format=PDF|title=Rural District Councils Act (Chapter 29:13)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|accessdate=19 December 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227145728/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/RURAL_DISTRICT_COUNCILS_ACT_29_13.pdf|archivedate=27 December 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a Headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|format=PDF|title=Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|accessdate=19 December 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904033010/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|archivedate=4 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Tree map export zwe all show 2010 SITC4.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|A proportional representation of Zimbabwe's exports, 2010]] Minerals, gold,<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005" /> and agriculture are the main foreign exports of Zimbabwe. Tourism also plays a key role in its economy.<ref name = "FA_Canada">{{cite web|url=http://infoexport.gc.ca/ie-en/DisplayDocument.jsp?did=1589|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226160722/http://infoexport.gc.ca/ie-en/DisplayDocument.jsp?did=1589|archivedate=26 February 2008|title=Country Profile – Zimbabwe|accessdate=2 December 2007|publisher=Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada|quote=Since the country is well endowed with natural resources such as minerals, [[arable land]] and [[wildlife]], many opportunities lie in resource-based activities such as mining, agriculture and tourism and their downstream industrial activities.}}</ref> The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest [[platinum]] reserves being mined by [[Anglo American plc]] and Impala Platinum.<ref name="nofix"/> The [[Marange diamond fields]], discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century.<ref name="EarthTimes">[http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/diamond-company-in-trouble-with-harare-mps-1.472176#.U_aWGSimH-E "Diamond company in trouble with Harare MPs"], ''Independent Online'', South Africa, 2 February 2010.</ref> They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU-PF politicians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/06/26/diamonds-rough|title=Diamonds in the rough, report by Human Rights Watch|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=26 June 2009|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> In terms of carats produced, the Marange field is one of the largest diamond producing projects in the world,<ref name=Kitco>[http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html "Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production"], ''[[Kitco]]'', 20 August 2013.</ref> estimated to produce 12 million carats in 2014 worth over $350 million.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.<ref name="AN_economy">{{cite news|url=http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/12598|title=Zimbabwe-South Africa economic relations since 2000|accessdate=3 December 2007|date=31 October 2007|publisher=Africa News|quote=Zimbabwe remains South Africa's most important trading partner in Africa.|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101093932/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/12598|archivedate=1 January 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and costly.<ref name="Heritage: Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe Economy: Facts, Data, & Analysis on Economic Freedom|publisher=Heritage.org|date=12 January 2012|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> Government spending was predicted to reach 67% of GDP in 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL2961278920080629|title=FACTBOX: Zimbabwe's meltdown in figures|agency=Reuters|date=29 June 2008|accessdate=30 May 2010}}</ref> Tourism was an important industry for the country, but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread [[deforestation]] is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabwe's Wildlife Decimated by Economic Crisis|author=Wadhams, Nick|location=Nairobi|publisher=[[National Geographic News]]|date=1 August 2007|accessdate=5 August 2007|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070801-zimbabwe-animals.html}}</ref> The [[Information and communications technology|ICT]] sector of Zimbabwe has been growing at a fast pace. A report by the mobile internet browser company, Opera, in June/July 2011 has ranked Zimbabwe as Africa's fastest growing market.<ref>[http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/zimbabwe-ranked-fastest-growing-internet-market/1007/ Zimbabwe Ranked Fastest growing Internet Market]. Biztechafrica.com (10 August 2011); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/why-ict-critical-illiterate-africa/4841/ Why ICT is critical in ‘illiterate’ Africa|BiztechAfrica Business, Telecom, Technology & IT News Africa]. Biztechafrica.com (3 December 2012); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref> [[File:2010 market Harare Zimbabwe 5866074969.jpg|thumb|A market in [[Mbare, Harare]] ]] Since 1 January 2002, the government of Zimbabwe has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen, through US legislation called the [[Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001]] (ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the Secretary of the Treasury to direct directors at international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=s107-494&version=enr&nid=t0%3Aenr%3A30|title=Zimbabwe Democracy And Economic Recovery Act of 2001 at Govtrack.us News|date=18 October 2011}}</ref> According to the United States, these [[Economic sanctions|sanctions]] target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2004/30091.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060603054102/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2004/30091.htm|archivedate=3 June 2006|title=Zimbabwe: Sanctions Enhancement|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|date=2 March 2004|author=Boucher, Richard}}</ref> [[File:GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960-2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique.png|thumb|upright=1.6|The GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100).]] Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj25n3/cj25n3-12.pdf|title=The loss of property rights and the collapse of Zimbabwe|work=Cato Journal|author=Richardson, Craig J.|format=PDF|volume=25|pages=541–565|accessdate=10 November 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102064633/http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj25n3/cj25n3-12.pdf|archivedate=2 January 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.<ref name="drained">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrforumzim.com/reports/tort990003/torture990003b.htm |title=Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe in 1999 |accessdate=16 March 2007 |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602193428/http://www.hrforumzim.com/reports/tort990003/torture990003b.htm |archivedate=2 June 2010 }}, ''Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum'' (1999).</ref> From 1999–2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP ''decrease'' of 6.1%.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Guinness Book of Records 2014|last=Glenday|first=Craig|publisher=|year=2013|isbn=9781908843159|location=|pages=123|quote=|via=}}</ref> The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000.<ref name="CNN-2000-04-18">{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |title=Zimbabwe President Mugabe labels white farmers 'enemies' |accessdate=20 September 2007 |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629014621/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |archivedate=29 June 2006 }}. [[CNN]] (18 April 2000).</ref><ref name="Time-2002-02-18">Robinson, Simon (18 February 2002). [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,203620,00.html "A Tale of Two Countries"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref><ref name="USAToday-2002-06-24">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/06/25/zimbabwe.htm|title=Zimbabwe forbids white farmers to harvest|work=USA Today|date=24 June 2002|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="BBC-2002-08-15">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm|title=White farmers under siege in Zimbabwe|publisher=BBC News|date=15 August 2002|accessdate=6 June 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106120323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm |archivedate=6 January 2012}}</ref> The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy.<ref>[http://news.sky.com/story/265649/mugabe-interview-the-full-transcript Mugabe Interview: The Full Transcript], News.sky.com (24 May 2004); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref> By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953.<ref>{{cite report|author=Clemens, Michael|author2=Moss, Todd |date=20 July 2005|accessdate=4 April 2011|title=Costs and Causes of Zimbabwe's Crisis|url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/2918|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]] }}</ref> In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor [[Gideon Gono]], started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.<ref name="Meldrum-2005-05-21">{{cite news|last=Meldrum|first=Andrew|url=https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,2763,1489173,00.html|title=As country heads for disaster, Zimbabwe calls for return of white farmers|work=The Guardian|location=London, UK|date=21 May 2005|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref> By 2016 there were about 300 farms owned by white farmers left out of the original 4,500. The farms left were either too remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime.<ref name="Out of House" /> In January 2007, the government issued long term leases to some white farmers.<ref name="Timberg-WP-2007-01-06">{{cite news|last=Timberg|first=Craig|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/05/AR2007010501746_pf.html|title=White Farmers Given Leases in Zimbabwe|work=The Washington Post|date=6 January 2007|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref> At the same time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.<ref name="AP/WP-2007-02-05">{{cite news|agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/05/AR2007020501262_pf.html|title=Zimbabwe threatens white farmers|date=5 February 2007|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Chinaka-2007-08-08">{{cite news|last=Chinaka|first=Cris|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL0839141020070808|title=Zimbabwe threatens white farmers on evictions|agency=[[Reuters]]|date=8 August 2007|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref> Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.<ref name="unemployment">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9475943|title=How to stay alive when it all runs out|work=The Economist|date=12 July 2007|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an official estimated high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office.<ref name="Zimbabwe inflation at 11,200,000">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/08/19/zimbabwe.inflation/index.html|title=Zimbabwe inflation hits 11,200,000 percent|date=19 August 2008|publisher=CNN|accessdate=4 May 2016}}</ref> This represented a state of [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]], and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hBpdlcnYSM6PN90n6Zjw-aG46VBA|title=Zimbabwe introduces 100-billion-dollar note|date=19 July 2008|accessdate=28 March 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> On 29 January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister [[Patrick Chinamasa]] announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business, alongside the Zimbabwe dollar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7859033.stm|title=Zimbabwe abandons its currency|publisher=BBC News|date=29 January 2009|accessdate=4 April 2011}}</ref> In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth the Zimbabwean Dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-04-12-voa9-69816747/367559.html|title=Zimbabwe Suspends Use of Own Currency|publisher=VOA News|date=12 April 2009}}</ref> In 2016 Zimbabwe allowed trade in the [[United States dollar]] and various other currencies such as the [[South African rand|rand]] (South Africa), the [[Botswana pula|pula]] (Botswana), the [[euro]], and the Pound Sterling (UK).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2016/02/29/news/zimbabwe-currency/index.html|title=This country has nine currencies|last=Giokos|first=Eleni|date=29 February 2016|website=CNNMoney|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8–9% a year between 2009 and 2012.<ref name="Worldbank">{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zimbabwe/overview|title=Zimbabwe Overview|last=|first=|date=4 October 2016|website=The World Bank|publisher=World Bank Group|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> In November 2010, the IMF described the Zimbabwean economy as "completing its second year of buoyant economic growth".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|title=Zimbabwe economy buoyant, more reform needed: IMF|date=8 November 2010|agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112194941/http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archivedate=12 November 2010|publisher=talkzimbabwe.co|title=Zimbabwe economy growing: IMF|date=9 November 2010}}</ref> By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s<ref name="Worldbank" /> but between 2012 and 2016 growth faltered.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2016-09-08-zimbabwe-economic-reform-re-engagement-chitiyo-vines-vandome-final.pdf|title=The Domestic and External Implications of Zimbabwe’s Economic Reform and Re-engagement Agenda|last=Chitiyo|first=Know|last2=Vines|first2=Alex|date=September 2016|website=Chatham House|publisher=Royal Institute for International Affairs|others=|access-date=8 January 2017|last3=Vandome|first3=Christopher}}</ref> [[Zimplats]], the nation's largest platinum company, has proceeded with US$500 million in expansions, and is also continuing a separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the company.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestandard.co.zw/business/29142-zimplats-ignores-seizure-threat.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511145956/http://www.thestandard.co.zw/business/29142-zimplats-ignores-seizure-threat.html|archivedate=11 May 2011|last=Dube|first=Jennifer|title=Zimplats ignores seizure threat|date=3 April 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011|newspaper=The Standard|location=Harare, Zimbabwe}}</ref> The pan-African investment bank [[IMARA (bank)|IMARA]] released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://ir.imarainvestor.com/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?ResLibraryID=43595&GoTopage=1&Category=1211&BzID=1648|title=IMARA: Global investors get upbeat briefing on Zim prospects|date=17 February 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011|publisher=[[IMARA]]|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511103601/http://ir.imarainvestor.com/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?ResLibraryID=43595&GoTopage=1&Category=1211&BzID=1648|archivedate=11 May 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In late January 2013, the Zimbabwean finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections that is estimated to cost 107 million USD.<ref>Kitsepile, Nyathi (30 January 2013) [http://www.africareview.com/News/Zimbabwe-finance-coffers-are-empty/-/979180/1679520/-/kghs8a/-/index.html Zimbabwe has only $217 in the bank, says finance minister: News], Africareview.com; retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/Newsfront/Zimbabwe-Empty-Accounts/2013/01/30/id/488118 Zimbabwe Claims Its Accounts Are Bare]. Newsmax.com (30 January 2013); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref> As of October 2014, [[Metallon Corporation]] was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.<ref name=Metallon>Marawanyika, Godfrey, [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-17/biggest-zimbabwe-gold-miner-to-decide-on-london-listing-by-march Biggest Zimbabwe Gold Miner to Rule on London Trade by March], Bloomberg News, 17 October 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2016.</ref> The group is looking to increase its production to 500,000 [[Troy weight|troy ounces]] per annum by 2019.<ref name=Metallon/> ===Agriculture=== Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange, and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products.<ref name="CIA-WF"/> For example, between 2000 and 2016 annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 to 244,000.<ref name="Out of House" /> Coffee production, once a prized export commodity came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee farms in 2000, and has never recovered.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://newsofthesouth.com/zimbabwes-coffee-production-declines/ |title=Zimbabwe`s Coffee Production Declines |last=Mumera |first=Wisdom |date=9 Jan 2016 |website=newsofhesouth.com}}</ref> For the past ten years, the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] ([[ICRISAT]]) has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt [[conservation agriculture]] techniques, a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Between 2005 and 2011, the number of smallholders practising conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5000 to more than 150000. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130916133602/http://eiard.org/media/uploads/File/Case%20studies/2013_SDC%20funded/ICRISAT%20-%20Conservation%20agriculture%20and%20micro-dosing%20in%20Zimbabwe.pdf ''Conservation agriculture and microdosing in Zimbabwe''], WRENmedia, January 2013</ref> ===Tourism=== {{refimprove section|date=May 2016}} {{Main|Tourism in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Victoria5.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Victoria Falls]], the end of the upper [[Zambezi]] and beginning of the middle Zambezi.]] Since the [[Land reform in Zimbabwe|land reform programme]] in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. After rising during the 1990s, (1.4 million tourists in 1999) industry figures described a 75% fall in visitors to Zimbabwe in 2000.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} By December, less than 20% of hotel rooms had been occupied.<ref name="tourism">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1220218.stm|title=Sun sets on Zimbabwe tourism|author=Machipisa, Lewis|accessdate=16 November 2007|publisher=BBC News|date=14 March 2001}}</ref> In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe was $1.1 billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's GDP. It is expected to rise 1.4% in 2017. Employment in travel and tourism, as well as industries travel and tourism indirectly supports, was 5.2% of national employment and is expected to rise by 1.4% in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2017/zimbabwe2017.pdf|title=Travel and tourism: Economic impact 2017 Zimbabwe|last=|first=|date=March 2017|website=|access-date=}}</ref> Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007. Australia's [[Qantas]], Germany's [[Lufthansa]], and [[Austrian Airlines]] were among the first to pull out and in 2007 [[British Airways]] suspended all direct flights to Harare.<ref name="tourism"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/10/29/wairways129.xml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130233121/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F10%2F29%2Fwairways129.xml |archivedate=30 November 2007 |title=British Airways abandons flights to Zimbabwe |author=Berger, Sebastien |accessdate=16 November 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London, UK |date=29 October 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The country's flagship airline [[Air Zimbabwe]], which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sibanda|first=Tichaona|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201202231437.html|title=Zimbabwe: Air Zimbabwe Vanishes From the Skies Indefinitely|publisher=allAfrica.com|date=23 February 2012|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref>{{update inline|date=August 2017}} As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]] on the [[Zambezi]], which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north west of Zimbabwe. Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The [[Victoria Falls National Park]] is also in this area and is one of the eight main [[national parks]] in Zimbabwe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwetourism.net/index.php/where-to-go/destinations/hwange-national-park|title=Zimbabwe Tourism Authority|accessdate=16 November 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203100122/http://www.zimbabwetourism.net/index.php/where-to-go/destinations/hwange-national-park|archivedate=3 December 2007}}</ref> the largest of which is [[Hwange National Park]]. The [[Eastern Highlands]] are a series of mountainous areas near the border with [[Mozambique]]. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, [[Mount Nyangani]] at {{convert|2,593|m|ft|abbr=on}} is located here as well as the [[Bvumba Mountains]] and the [[Nyanga National Park]]. [[World's View, Nyanga|World's View]] is in these mountains and it is from here that places as far away as {{convert|60|–|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} are visible and, on clear days, the town of [[Rusape]] can be seen. Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique [[dry stone]] style. The most famous of these are the [[Great Zimbabwe]] ruins in [[Masvingo]]. Other ruins include [[Khami|Khami Ruins, Zimbabwe]], [[Dhlo-Dhlo]] and [[Naletale]]. The [[Matobo National Park|Matobo Hills]] are an area of [[granite]] [[kopje]]s and wooded valleys commencing some {{convert|22|mi|km}} south of [[Bulawayo]] in southern Zimbabwe. The Hills were formed over 2,000 million years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. [[Mzilikazi]], founder of the [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]] nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become famous and a tourist attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife. [[Cecil Rhodes]] and other early white pioneers like [[Leander Starr Jameson]] are buried in these hills at a site named World's View.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html|title=Zimbabwe: The Spirit of Matobo|work=zimbabwe.safari.co.za|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101100547/http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html |archivedate=1 November 2013}}</ref> ===Water supply and sanitation=== {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe}} [[Water supply]] and [[sanitation]] in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and [[sanitation]] systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the [[World Health Organization]] in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved, i.e. clean, [[drinking-water]] sources, and only 40% of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities.<ref>[http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.167?lang=en "Exposure Data by Country"], World Health Organization; accessed 19 October 2014.</ref> Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas.<ref name=wsp1>[http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf "Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe AMCOW. Collaboratively published report circa 2010], wsp.org; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> [[File:Public_expenditure_on_education_in_Southern_Africa_as_a_share_of_GDP,_2012_or_closest_year.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Public_expenditure_on_education_in_Southern_Africa_as_a_share_of_GDP,_2012_or_closest_year.svg|thumb|Public expenditure on education in Southern Africa as a share of GDP, 2012 or closest year. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015)]] There are many factors which continue to determine the nature, for the foreseeable future, of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe. Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organizations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the Zimbabwean state.<ref name="wsp1" /><ref name="hrw2">[http:// www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf "Troubled Water Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe’s Capital"], Human Rights Watch (2013).</ref> ==Science and technology == {{Main|Science and technology in Zimbabwe}} Zimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a long-standing tradition of promoting research and development (R&D), as evidenced by the levy imposed on tobacco-growers since the 1930s to promote market research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002288/228806e.pdf|title=Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe|editor-last=Lemarchand|editor-first=Guillermo A.|editor-last2=Schneegans|editor-first2=Susan|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|isbn=978-92-3-100034-8|location=Paris|pages=Volume 2. GO–SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last=|first=|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=535–555}}</ref> The country also has a well-developed education system, with one in eleven adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the country’s solid knowledge base and abundant natural resources, Zimbabwe has the potential to figure among the countries leading growth in sub-Saharan Africa by 2020.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> [[File:Life sciences and geosciences dominate, Cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Life%20sciences%20and%20geosciences%20dominate,%20Cumulative%20totals%20by%20field,%202008%E2%80%932014.svg|thumb|Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 20.6]] To do so, however, Zimbabwe will need to correct a number of structural weaknesses. For instance, it currently lacks the critical mass of researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the infrastructure is in place to harness research and development to Zimbabwe’s socio-economic development, universities and research institutions lack the requisite financial and human resources to conduct research and the current regulatory environment hampers the transfer of new technologies to the business sector. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and professionals in key areas of expertise (medicine, engineering, etc.) that is of growing concern. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average (91 in 2013) but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Despite the fact that human resources are a pillar of any research and innovation policy, the ''Medium Term Plan'' ''2011–2015'' did not discuss any explicit policy for promoting postgraduate studies in science and engineering. The scarcity of new PhDs in science and engineering fields from the University of Zimbabwe in 2013 was symptomatic of this omission.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Nor does the development agenda to 2018, the ''Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation,'' contain any specific targets for increasing the number of scientists and engineers, or the staffing requirements for industry and other productive sectors. In addition, the lack of co-ordination and coherence among governance structures has led to a multiplication of research priorities and poor implementation of existing policies.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> [[File:Scientific_publication_trends_in_SADC_countries,_2005-2014.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scientific_publication_trends_in_SADC_countries,_2005-2014.svg|thumb|Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded]] The country's ''Second Science and Technology Policy'' was launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The ''Second Science and Technology Policy'' also asserts the government commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) and, above all, South Africa (175) and the Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million.<ref name=":1" /> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Zimbabwe}} {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Zimbabwe{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|2.7 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|12.2 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Zimbabwe}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} [[File:Shona witch doctor (Zimbabwe).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[n'anga]] (Traditional Healer) of the majority (70%) [[Shona people]], holding a [[kudu]] horn trumpet]] Zimbabwe's total population is 12.97&nbsp;million.<ref name="zimstat1"/> According to the United Nations [[World Health Organization]], the life expectancy for men was 56 years and the life expectancy for women was 60 years of age (2012).<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO – Zimbabwe|url=http://www.who.int/countries/zwe/en|accessdate=17 January 2015}}</ref> An association of doctors in Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.<ref>{{cite news|title=In Zimbabwe, life ends before 40|author=Thornycroft, Peta |location=Harare|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=10 April 2006|accessdate=10 April 2006|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/in-zimbabwe-life-ends-before-40/2006/04/09/1144521210993.html}}</ref> The [[HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe]] was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15–49 in 2009.<ref name="UNAIDS">{{cite web|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe|accessdate=16 January 2011|publisher=UNAIDS}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.<ref name = "UNESCO">{{cite web|url=http://www.harare.unesco.org/educaids/zimprevalence.html|title=HIV Prevalence Rates Fall in Zimbabwe|accessdate=3 December 2007|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> Some 85% of Zimbabweans are Christian; 62% of the population attends religious services regularly.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575825_3/Zimbabwe.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031022353/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575825_3/Zimbabwe.html|archivedate=31 October 2007|title=MSN Encarta |accessdate=13 November 2007}}</ref> The largest Christian churches are [[Anglican]], Roman Catholic, [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://adventistatlas.org/ViewCountry.asp?CtryCode=zw|title=Zimbabwe|accessdate=22 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724224739/http://adventistatlas.org/ViewCountry.asp?CtryCode=zw#|archive-date=24 July 2011|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and [[Methodist]]. As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. [[ancestor worship|Ancestral worship]] is the most practised non-Christian religion, involving [[spirituality|spiritual]] intercession; the [[mbira|mbira dzavadzimu]], which means "voice of the ancestors", an instrument related to many [[lamellophone]]s ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" (musika vanhu in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.<ref name = "US_state">{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51503.htm |title =Zimbabwe – International Religious Freedom Report 2005|accessdate=3 December 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |quote=An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim. }}</ref> [[File:Women and children at a borehole.jpg|thumb|left|A group of women and children in Norton, Zimbabwe]] Bantu-speaking ethnic groups make up 98% of the population. The majority people, the [[Shona people|Shona]], comprise 70%. The [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]] are the second most populous with 20% of the population.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/zpeople.html|title=The People of Zimbabwe|accessdate=13 November 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712141810/http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/zpeople.html|archivedate=12 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="ethnic">{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0108169.html|title=Ethnicity/Race of Zimbabwe|accessdate=6 January 2008}}</ref> The Ndebele descended from [[Zulu people|Zulu]] migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa. Other [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] ethnic groups make up the third largest with 2 to 5%: these are [[Venda]], [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]], [[Shangaan]], [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]], [[Sotho language|Sotho]], [[Ndau language|Ndau]], [[Nambya]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Lozi language|Lozi]].<ref name="ethnic"/> Minority ethnic groups include [[White people in Zimbabwe|white Zimbabweans]], who make up less than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also [[Afrikaner]], [[Greeks in Zimbabwe|Greek]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Franco-Mauritian|French]] and [[Dutch people|Dutch]] communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000 or 4.3% of the population in 1975<ref>Wiley, David and Isaacman, Allen F. (1981). ''Southern Africa: society, economy, and liberation''. Michigan State University, University of Minnesota. p. 55</ref> to possibly 120,000 in 1999, and was estimated to be no more than 50,000 in 2002, and possibly much less. The 2012 census lists the total white population at 28,782 (roughly 0.22% of the population), one-tenth of its 1975 estimated size.<ref>Quarterly Digest Of Statistics, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office, 1999.</ref> Most emigration has been to the United Kingdom (between [[Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom|200,000 and 500,000]] Britons are of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. [[Coloureds]] form 0.5% of the population, and various [[Asian people|Asian]] ethnic groups, mostly of Indian and Chinese origin, are also 0.5%.<ref>Quarterly Digest of Statistics, 1998, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref> According to 2012 Census report, 99.7% of the population is of African origin.<ref name="zimstat.co.zw">[http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/CensusResults2012/National_Report.pdf Zimbabwe Population Census 2012] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901000000/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/CensusResults2012/National_Report.pdf |date=1 September 2014 }}, zimstat.co.zw; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3.6 (2002 Census),<ref>[http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/Census.pdf Zimbabwe Profile based on the 2002 Population Census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121155/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/Census.pdf |date=2 April 2015 }}. zimstat.co.zw</ref> 3.8 (2006)<ref>[http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/ZDHSOLD/ZDHS2006.pdf Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 2005–06] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092621/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/ZDHSOLD/ZDHS2006.pdf |date=2 April 2015 }}, zimstat.co.zw; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> and 3.8 (2012 Census).<ref name="zimstat.co.zw"/> ===Largest cities=== {{Largest cities of Zimbabwe}} ===Refugee crisis=== The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees into neighbouring countries. An estimated 3.4 million Zimbabweans, a quarter of the population, had fled abroad by mid-2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2115988,00.html|title=Refugees flood from Zimbabwe ''The Observer''|work=The Guardian|location=London, UK|first=Andrew|last=Meldrum|date=1 July 2007|accessdate=6 April 2010}}</ref> Some 3,000,000 of these left for South Africa and Botswana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sokwanele.com/articles/sokwanele/zimrefugeessufferinsouthafricaandzimbabwe_20July2007.html|title=Zimbabwean refugees suffer in Botswana and South Africa|work=Sokwanele Civic Action Group|date=20 July 2007|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928003255/http://www.sokwanele.com/articles/sokwanele/zimrefugeessufferinsouthafricaandzimbabwe_20July2007.html|archivedate=28 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Apart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries, there are approximately 36,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs). There is no current comprehensive survey,<ref name="IDMC">{{cite web|url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/sub-saharan-africa/zimbabwe/|title=Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Internal displacement in Zimbabwe''|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825002638/http://www.internal-displacement.org/sub-saharan-africa/zimbabwe#|archive-date=25 August 2014|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> although the following figures are available: {| class="wikitable table" |- ! Survey ! Number ! Date ! Source |- | National Survey | 880–960,000 | 2007 | Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee<ref>{{cite web|title=The Many Faces of Displacement: IDPs in Zimbabwe|publisher=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre|location=Geneva|year=2008|format=PDF|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/48ad3b70c.pdf|accessdate=9 November 2010}}</ref> |- | Former Farm Workers | 1,000,000 | 2008 | UNDP<ref name="IDMC" /> |- | Victims of [[Operation Murambatsvina]] | 570,000 | 2005 | UN<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the Fact-Finding Mission to Zimbabwe to assess the Scope and Impact of Operation Murambatsvina|author=Tibaijuka, A.K.|publisher=UN Special Envoy on Human Settlements Issues in Zimbabwe|location=Geneva|year=2005|format=PDF|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/zimbabwe/zimbabwe_rpt.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050727105618/http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/zimbabwe/zimbabwe_rpt.pdf|archivedate=27 July 2005|accessdate=13 April 2009}}</ref> |- | People Displaced by Political Violence | 36,000 | 2008 | UN<ref name="IDMC"/> |} The above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries of the fast-track land reform programme but who have since been evicted.<ref name="IDMC"/> ===Languages=== {{main|Languages of Zimbabwe}} [[English language|English]] is the main language used in the education and judiciary systems. The [[Bantu languages]] [[Shona language|Shona]] and [[Northern Ndebele language|Sindebele]] are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. [[Shona language|Shona]] is spoken by 70% of the population, [[Northern Ndebele language|Sindebele]] by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include [[Venda]], [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Shangaan]], [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]], [[Sotho language|Sotho]], [[Ndau language|Ndau]] and [[Nambya]]. Less than 2.5%, mainly the white and "[[coloured]]" (mixed race) minorities, consider English their native language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |url=http://www.gapadventures.com/docs/pdi/africa/Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325004301/http://www.gapadventures.com/docs/pdi/africa/Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Zimbabwe |dead-url=yes |accessdate=1 June 2016}}, gapadventures.com; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, ''Feso'' by [[Solomon Mutswairo]], published in 1956.<ref name="feso">[http://www.unc.edu/~ottotwo/mothertongue.html Mother Tongue: Interviews with Musaemura B. Zimunya and Solomon Mutswairo] University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</ref> English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news now broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised languages.<ref name="language"/> ===Religions=== {{Main|Religion in Zimbabwe}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Zimbabwe]] |titlebar=#ddd |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Protestantism]]|blue|63}} {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism]]|yellow|17}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Ethnic religion]]|red|11}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion]]|green|7}} {{bar percent|Others|gray|2}} }} An estimated 80% of the country's citizens identify themselves as Christians. Protestants (mostly followers of Pentecostal African Churches) are around 63% of the population. Estimates from 2005 said there were 1,145,000 Roman Catholics in Zimbabwe. This is about 9% of the total population. The followers of ethnic religions are around 11%. Around 1% are Muslims, mainly from Mozambique and Malawi, 0.1% are [[Hindus]] and 0.3% are [[Baha'is]]. Approximately 7% of citizens have no religious practice or are atheist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/zimbabwe#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2013|title=Zimbabwe in PEW-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_246_1.asp|title=Zimbabwe in ARDA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|title=Zimbabwe at "International Religious Freedom Report", USA Departament of State}}</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Zimbabwe}} Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include [[beliefs]] and [[ceremonies]], one of them being [[Shona people|Shona]], Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group. The Shona people have many sculptures and [[rock carving|carvings]] which are made with the finest materials available.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ag_85hJI9aMC&pg=PR8&dq=zimbabwe+shona#v=onepage&q=zimbabwe%20shona&f=false|title=The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe|last=Berliner|first=Paul|date=June 1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226043791|language=en}}</ref> Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.<ref name="indepday">{{cite book|last=Owomoyela|first=Oyekan|year=2002|title=Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe|page=77|isbn=0-313-31583-3|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn.}}</ref> Celebrations are held at either the [[National Sports Stadium (Zimbabwe)|National Sports Stadium]] or [[Rufaro Stadium]] in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations [[dove]]s are released to symbolise peace and fighter jets fly over and the [[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|national anthem]] is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kas.de/proj/home/home/35/2/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010093006/http://www.kas.de/proj/home/home/35/2/|archivedate=10 October 2006|title=Zimbabwe Celebrates 25 years of Independence|accessdate=6 January 2008|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Stiftung}}</ref> Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the [[Miss Heritage Zimbabwe]] contest which has been held annually ever since 2012. ===Arts=== {{Main|Zimbabwean art}} {{see also|Music of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Reconciliation Amos Supuni Woerden.jpg|thumb|"Reconciliation", a [[stone sculpture]] by [[Amos Supuni]]]] Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include [[pottery]], [[basketry]], textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become world-famous in recent years having found popularity in the 1940s. Most subjects of [[rock carving|carved]] figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with [[sedimentary]] rocks such as [[soapstone]], as well as harder [[igneous]] rocks such as [[serpentine group|serpentine]] and the rare stone [[Serpentinite|verdite]]. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada. e.g. [[Dominic Benhura]]'s statue in the [[Singapore Botanic Gardens]]. Shona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern style is a fusion of African [[folklore]] with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas, Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the United States. Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. [[Charles Mungoshi]] is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5752|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016092853/http://zimbabwe.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5752|archivedate=16 October 2007|title=Charles Mungoshi|publisher=Zimbabwe – Poetry International Web}}</ref> [[Catherine Buckle]] has achieved international recognition with her two books ''African Tears'' and ''Beyond Tears'' which tell of the ordeal she went through under the 2000 [[Land reform in Zimbabwe|Land Reform]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africantears.netfirms.com/beyondtears.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030001000/http://africantears.netfirms.com/beyondtears.htm|archivedate=30 October 2007|title=Tribute to Cathy Buckle|accessdate=2 November 2007}}</ref> The first [[Prime Minister of Rhodesia]], [[Ian Smith]], wrote two books <nowiki> – </nowiki> ''[[The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith|The Great Betrayal]]'' and ''[[Bitter Harvest (2001 book)|Bitter Harvest]].'' The book ''[[The House of Hunger]]'' by [[Dambudzo Marechera]] won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author [[Doris Lessing]]'s first novel ''[[The Grass Is Singing]]'', the first four volumes of ''[[The Children of Violence]]'' sequence, as well as the collection of short stories ''African Stories'' are set in Rhodesia. In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo's novel ''We Need New Names'' was shortlisted for the [[Booker Prize]]. The novel tells the story of the devastation and emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the [[Gukurahundi]] in the early 1980s.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Internationally famous artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the [[metamorphosis]] of man into beast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://karaart.com/collections/shona/origins3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001001084811/http://karaart.com/collections/shona/origins3.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date= 1 October 2000 |title=Cultural Origins of art |accessdate=6 January 2008 |df= }}</ref> Zimbabwean musicians like [[Thomas Mapfumo]], [[Oliver Mtukudzi]], the [[Bhundu Boys]]; [[Stella Chiweshe]], [[Alick Macheso]] and [[Audius Mtawarira]] have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-theatre-art/Southern-and-South-Africa|title=African theatre - Southern and South Africa {{!}} art|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-01-19|language=en}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== [[File:Goat Offal.JPG|thumb|A meal of sadza ''(right)'', greens, and goat [[offal]]. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.]] Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. "Mealie meal", also known as [[cornmeal]], is used to prepare ''[[sadza]]'' or ''isitshwala'', as well as [[porridge]] known as ''bota'' or ''ilambazi''. Sadza is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste/porridge. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as [[gravy]], [[vegetable]]s ([[spinach]], [[chomolia]], or [[spring greens]]/[[collard greens]]), [[bean]]s, and [[meat]] (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried). Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk ([[sour milk]]), commonly known as "lacto" (''mukaka wakakora''), or dried [[Tanganyika sardine]], known locally as ''kapenta'' or ''matemba''. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with [[peanut butter]], milk, butter, or [[jam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zambuko.com/mbirapage/resource_guide/pages/culture/sadza_text.html | publisher=Zambuko.com |title=Sadza ne Nyama: A Shona Staple Dish |accessdate=3 November 2007}}</ref> Bota is usually eaten for breakfast. [[Graduation]]s, [[wedding]]s, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued or [[Roasting|roasted]] by the family. [[File:Boerewors raw.jpg|thumb|Raw [[boerewors]]]] Even though the [[Afrikaner]]s are a small group (10%) within the white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. [[Biltong]], a type of [[Jerky (food)|jerky]], is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stephanie Hanes|title=Biltong: much more than just a snack|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=20 September 2006|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0920/p13s01-lifo.html|accessdate=3 October 2006}}</ref> [[Boerewors]] is served with sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef rather than pork, and barbecued.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} As Zimbabwe was a British colony, some people there have adopted some colonial-era English eating habits. For example, most people will have [[porridge]] in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked ''sadza'', or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for [[tea]] to be had after dinner.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Rice, pasta, and [[Potato production in Zimbabwe|potato-based foods]] ([[french fries]] and [[mashed potato]]) also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed vegetables and meat.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} A potpourri of peanuts known as ''nzungu'', boiled and sundried maize, [[black-eyed pea]]s known as ''nyemba'', and [[bambara groundnut]]s known as ''nyimo'' makes a traditional dish called ''mutakura''. Mutakura can also be the above ingredients cooked individually. One can also find local snacks, such as ''maputi'' (roasted/popped maize kernels similar to [[popcorn]]), roasted and salted [[peanut]]s, [[sugar cane]], [[sweet potato]], pumpkin, and indigenous fruits, such as [[horned melon]], ''gaka'', ''[[adansonia]]'', ''mawuyu'', ''[[uapaca kirkiana]]'', ''mazhanje'' (sugar plum), and many others.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} === Sports === {{Main|Sport in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Canada wins Zimbabwe in Rio Olympics 07.jpg|thumb|[[Zimbabwe women's national football team]] at the [[Football at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament|2016 Olympic Games]]]] [[Association football|Football]] ''(also known as soccer)'' is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} [[Zimbabwe national football team|The Warriors]] have qualified for the [[Africa Cup of Nations]] three times (2004, 2006, 2017), and won the [[COSAFA Cup|Southern Africa championship]] on four occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009) and the [[CECAFA Cup|Eastern Africa cup]] once (1985). [[Rugby union]] is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. [[Zimbabwe national rugby union team|The national side]] have represented the country at 2 [[Rugby World Cup]] tournaments in 1987 and 1991. The team are currently ranked 26 in the world by World Rugby.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldrugby.org/rankings|title=World Rugby|first=|last=worldrugby.org|publisher=}}</ref> [[Cricket]] also has a following among the white minority. It is one of twelve [[Test cricket]] playing nations and a [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] full member as well. Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include [[Andy Flower]], [[Heath Streak]] and [[Brendan Taylor]]. Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in [[field hockey]] [[Zimbabwe women's national field hockey team|with the women's team]] at the [[Zimbabwe at the 1980 Summer Olympics|1980 Summer Olympics]] in Moscow, and seven by swimmer [[Kirsty Coventry]], three at the [[Zimbabwe at the 2004 Summer Olympics|2004 Summer Olympics]] and four at the [[Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics|2008 Summer Olympics]]. Zimbabwe has also done well in the [[Commonwealth Games]] and [[All-Africa Games]] in swimming with Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |title=2004 Olympic Games swimming results |accessdate=22 July 2007 |publisher=CNN |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509051921/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |archivedate=9 May 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |title=Montreal 2005 Results|accessdate=9 June 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070128064425/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |archivedate = 28 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php|title=12th FINA World Championships|accessdate=9 June 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070606111744/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php |archivedate = 6 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/commonwealthgames2002/bsp/statistics/results.stm |title=BBC Sport Commonwealth Games 2002 Statistics|accessdate=29 August 2007 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Zimbabwe has also competed at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] and the [[Davis Cup]] in tennis, most notably with the Black family, which comprises [[Wayne Black]], [[Byron Black]] and [[Cara Black]]. Zimbabwe has also done well in golf. The Zimbabwean [[Nick Price]] held the official World Number 1 status longer than any player from Africa has ever done in the 24-year history of the ranking.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gold |first=Jack Of |url=http://www.freetv4africa.co.uk/2012/05/africa-punching-above-its-weight-in.html |title=Africa punching above it's &#91;sic&#93; weight in golf |publisher=Free TV 4 Africa |date=29 May 2012 |accessdate=6 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208110629/http://www.freetv4africa.co.uk/2012/05/africa-punching-above-its-weight-in.html |archivedate=8 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Other sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball, volleyball, [[netball]], and [[water polo]], as well as [[Squash (sport)|squash]], [[motorsport]], martial arts, [[chess]], cycling, [[polocrosse]], [[kayaking]] and [[horse racing]]. However, most of these sports do not have international representatives but instead stay at a junior or national level. Zimbabwean professional [[rugby league]] players currently playing overseas are [[Masimbaashe Motongo]] and [[Judah Mazive]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/hull-fc-masimbaashe-matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|title=From Zimbabwe to Hull FC: Masimbaashe Matongo's 'dream' journey is just beginning|date=17 November 2015|newspaper=Hull Daily Mail|accessdate=18 February 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225200610/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/Hull-FC-Masimbaashe-Matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|archivedate=25 December 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|title=Zimbabwe teenager Judah Mazive signs contract to play rugby in England|newspaper=Zimbabwe Today|publisher=|accessdate=18 February 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113154539/http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|archivedate=13 January 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Former players include now [[SANZAAR]] CEO [[Andy Marinos]] who made an appearance for [[South Africa national rugby league team|South Africa]] at the [[Super League World Nines]] and featured for the [[Sydney Bulldogs]] as well as Zimbabwe-born former [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland rugby union international]] [[Scott Gray (rugby union)|Scott Gray]], who spent time at the [[Brisbane Broncos]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.superxv.com/south-africas-marinos-appointed-new-sanzar-ceo/|title=South Africa's Marinos appointed new SANZAR CEO – Super Rugby – Super 18 Rugby and Rugby Championship News, Results and Fixtures from Super XV Rugby|publisher=|accessdate=18 February 2017}}</ref> ===Media=== {{Main|Media of Zimbabwe}} The media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the growing economic and political crisis in the country. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is currently facing less political interference and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supreme Court strikes down repressive media legislation|url=http://cpj.org/2003/05/supreme-court-strikes-down-repressive-media-legisl.php|website=Committee to Protect Journalist}}</ref> In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. CNN welcomed the move. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, "the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe".<ref name="Telegraph" /> The BBC also welcomed the move saying, "we're pleased at being able to operate openly in Zimbabwe once again".<ref name="BBC1">{{cite web|author=Williams, Jon |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2009/07/resuming_operations_in_zimbabw.html |title=Resuming operations in Zimbabwe |publisher=BBC |date= 29 July 2009}}</ref> In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately owned newspapers, including the previously banned ''[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]]'', for publication.<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE64P5NX20100526 |title=Zimbabwe licenses new private newspapers |agency=Reuters |date=26 May 2010|author=Banya, Nelson }}</ref> Reporters Without Borders described the decisions as a "major advance".<ref name="IFEX">[http://www.ifex.org/zimbabwe/2010/05/28/licences_granted/ "independent dailies allowed to resume publishing"], ''[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]'', 28 May 2010.</ref> In June 2010 ''[[NewsDay (Zimbabwean newspaper)|NewsDay]]'' became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.<ref name="Reuter">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE65312720100604 |title=Zimbabwe gets first private daily newspaper in years |agency=Reuters |date=4 June 2010|author=Chinaka, Cris }}</ref> ZBC's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Finally, Zimbabwe’s ‘private’ radio station goes on air |url=http://www.zimeye.org/finally-zimbabwes-private-radio-station-goes-on-air/ |publisher=zimeye.org |date=26 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725060843/http://www.zimeye.org/finally-zimbabwes-private-radio-station-goes-on-air/ |archivedate=25 July 2014 }}</ref> Since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) was passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including ''[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]]'' whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential [[The Zimbabwean]].<ref name="rwb" /><ref name="cgmg">Ruzengwe, Blessing (17 March 2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060301060504/http://cgmg.jour.city.ac.uk/news.php?story=249 "The nine lives of Wilf Mbanga"], ''The London Globe'' via ''[[Metrovox]]''.</ref> As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by [[exile]]d Zimbabweans. Because the internet is currently unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists.<ref name="fh">{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |title=Freedom House 2007 Map of Press Freedom: Zimbabwe |publisher=Freedomhouse.org|accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> [[Reporters Without Borders]] claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, [[imprison]]ment, censorship, [[blackmail]], abuse of power and denial of [[justice]] are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news."<ref name="rwb" /> The main published newspapers are [[The Herald (Zimbabwe)|''The Herald'']] and [[The Chronicle (Zimbabwe)|''The Chronicle'']] which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively. The heavy-handedness on the media has progressively relaxed since 2009. In its 2008 report, [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked the Zimbabwean media as 151st out of 173.<ref name="rwb">{{cite web|url=http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=29031 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101010153/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=29031 |archivedate=1 November 2008 |title=Reporters without Borders Press Freedom Index |publisher=Reports Without Borders |accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref> The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], [[Sky News]], [[Channel 4]], [[American Broadcasting Company]], [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)]], and [[Fox News]]. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country. === Scouting === {{Main|The Scout Association of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Burnham sketch by baden-powell.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|Baden-Powell]]'s drawing of Chief of Scouts [[Frederick Russell Burnham|Burnham]], [[Matobo Hills]], 1896]] It was in the [[Matabeleland]] region in Zimbabwe that, during the [[Second Matabele War]], [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|Robert Baden-Powell]], the founder of [[Scouting]], and [[Frederick Russell Burnham]], the American-born Chief of Scouts for the British Army, first met and began their lifelong friendship.<ref name="scouting">{{cite book |last=Burnham |first=Frederick Russell |authorlink=Frederick Russell Burnham |title=Scouting on Two Continents |publisher=Doubleday, Page & company |year=1926 |page=2; Chapters 3 & 4 |oclc=407686}}</ref> In mid-June 1896, during a scouting patrol in the [[Matobo Hills]], Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell [[woodcraft]]. Baden-Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich in exploration, [[tracking (hunting)|tracking]], [[fieldcraft]], and self-reliance.<ref name="vanwyk">{{cite book |last=van Wyk |first=Peter |year=2003|url=http://www.burnhamkingofscouts.com/| title=Burnham: King of Scouts |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=1-4122-0028-8}}</ref> It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature [[campaign hat]] like the one worn by Burnham.<ref name="jeal">{{cite book |first=Tim |last=Jeal |authorlink=Tim Jeal |title=Baden-Powell |publisher=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-09-170670-X}}</ref> Scouting in the former [[Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] started in 1909 when the first Boy Scout troop was registered. Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second [[World Scout Jamboree]] in [[Ermelunden, Denmark]]. In 1959, Rhodesia hosted the Central African Jamboree at [[Ruwa]]. In 2009, Scouts celebrated 100 years of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at [[Gordon Park, Zimbabwe|Gordon Park]], a Scout campground and training area, as part of these celebrations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zimbabwe Scouts celebrate their centenary in a park that Baden-Powell had visited in 1936|url=http://www.scout.org/en/around_the_world/africa/information_events/news/zimbabwe_scouts_celebrate_their_centenary_in_a_park_that_b_p_once_visited|accessdate=26 August 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> Besides scouting, there are also leadership, life skills and general knowledge courses and training experiences mainly for school children ranging from pre-school to final year high school students and some times those beyond High school. These courses and outings are held at, for example, ''Lasting Impressions'' ({{YouTube|Q5GiuX0O_so|Lasting Impressions ~Zimbabwe}}), ''Far and Wide Zimbabwe'' ([http://www.farandwide.co.zw/ Far and wide.]) and ''Chimanimani Outward Bound'' ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616100110/http://www.outwardbound.net/locations/zimbabwe.php |date=16 June 2007 |title=Outwardbound Zimbabwe }}). ===National symbols=== [[File:Zimbabwe Bird.svg|thumb|upright|Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design]] The stone-carved [[Zimbabwe Bird]] appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and [[Rhodesia]], as well as on [[Rhodesian dollar|banknotes]] and coins (first on [[Coins of the Rhodesian pound|Rhodesian pound]] and then [[Coins of the Rhodesian dollar|Rhodesian dollar]]). It probably represents the [[Bateleur|bateleur eagle]] or the [[African fish eagle]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe|journal=African Arts|year=1985|volume=18|pages=68–73, 99–100|author=Huffman, Thomas N.|jstor=3336358|issue=3|doi=10.2307/3336358}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe Symbols of a Nation by Edward Matenga|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|year=2001|volume=56|pages=105–106|author=Sinclair, Paul |jstor=3889033|issue=173/174|doi=10.2307/3889033}}</ref> The famous [[soapstone]] bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of [[Great Zimbabwe]], built, it is believed, sometime between the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the [[Shona people|Shona]]. The ruins, which gave their name to modern Zimbabwe, cover some {{convert|1800|acre|km2}} and are the largest ancient stone construction in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Zimbabwe|url=http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809145423/http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archivedate=9 August 2007|author=Landow, George P.|publisher=Brown University}}</ref> [[Balancing Rocks]] are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They are often remarked on and have been depicted on both the [[banknotes of Zimbabwe]] and the [[Rhodesian dollar]] banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in [[Epworth, Zimbabwe|Epworth]], approximately {{convert|9|mi|km}} south east of Harare.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.fortunecity.com/madzimbabwe/Buildings/Natural/Balancing%20Rocks/BalancingRocks.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817012750/http://members.fortunecity.com/madzimbabwe/Buildings/Natural/Balancing%20Rocks/BalancingRocks.html|archivedate=17 August 2009|title=Balancing Rocks|accessdate=15 November 2007}}</ref> There are many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to [[Sudan]]. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the [[Matobo National Park]] in [[Matabeleland]].{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} The [[National Anthem of Zimbabwe]] is "Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" ({{Lang-sn|"Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe"}}; {{Lang-nd|"Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe"}}). It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace "{{Lang|sn|[[Ishe Komborera Africa]]}}" as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor [[Solomon Mutswairo]] and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} ==Health== {{See also|HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwean cholera outbreak}} [[File:2008 Zimbabwe Cholera Outbreak Combined.svg|thumb|Map showing the spread of [[cholera]] in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources.]] At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate.<ref>Davies, R. and Sanders, D. (1998). "Adjustment policies and the welfare of children: Zimbabwe, 1980–1985". In: Cornia, G.A., Jolly, R. and Stewart, F. (eds.) ''Adjustment with a human face, Vol. II: country case studies''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 272–99; {{ISBN|0198286112}}.</ref> Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have an achieved a good record of health development.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dugbatey, K. |year=1999|pmid=10414831 |title=National health policies: sub-Saharan African case studies (1980–1990)|journal=Soc. Sci. Med.|volume=49|pages=223–239|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00110-0|issue=2}}</ref> Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases (such as [[Plague (disease)|plague]] in 1994). The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Marquette, C.M. |year=1997|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(97)00019-3 |title=Current poverty, structural adjustment, and drought in Zimbabwe|journal=World Development|volume=25|pages=1141–1149|issue=7}}</ref> the impact of the [[HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|HIV/AIDS pandemic]]<ref name="nofix" /> and the economic crisis since the year 2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the world according to UN figure &nbsp;– 44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42013720|title=Zimbabwe in 10 numbers|date=2017-11-18|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-11-18|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/health.htm|title=United Nations Statistics Division|accessdate=7 December 2008}}</ref> The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. [[Infant mortality]] rose from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.<ref name="nofix">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7346042.stm|title=No quick fix for Zimbabwe's economy |date=14 April 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=19 December 2008 | first=Jorn | last=Madslien}}</ref> By 2016 HIV/AIDS prevalence had been reduced to 13.5%<ref name=":2" /> compared to 40% in 1998.<ref name="Worldbank" /> The health system has more or less collapsed. At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two [[Hospital|wards]] and no [[operating theatre]]s working.<ref name="hospitalsprnid">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7714892.stm|title=The death throes of Harare's hospitals|date=7 November 2008|publisher=BBC |accessdate=3 December 2008 | first=Brian | last=Hungwe}}</ref> Due to [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]], those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.<ref name="coping">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/zimbabwe-feature-261108?opendocument|title=Zimbabwe: coping with the cholera outbreak|date=26 November 2008|accessdate=3 December 2008}}</ref> The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.<ref name="Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7760088.stm|title=Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500|date=2 December 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2 December 2008}}</ref> In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing [[cholera]] epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces and the outbreak had spread to [[Botswana]], Mozambique, South Africa and [[Zambia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7768740.stm |title=PM urges Zimbabwe cholera action |publisher=BBC News |date=6 December 2008 |accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Milliband">[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5294534.ece "Miliband backs African calls for end of Mugabe"], ''[[The Times]]'', 5 December 2008.</ref> On 4 December 2008 the [[government of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe government]] declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid.<ref name="Zimbabwe declares national emergency over cholera">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE4B31T420081204?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews&rpc=69&pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0|title=Zimbabwe declares national emergency over cholera|date=4 December 2008|agency=Reuters|accessdate=4 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="emergency">{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hsW9YNn1roEp0rzjeGSJo0pKcj2A|title=Zimbabwe declares cholera outbreak a national emergency|date=4 December 2008|agency=Agence France-Presse |accessdate=4 December 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018.<ref name="On the cholera frontline">[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83378 On the cholera frontline]. [[IRIN]]. 9 March 2009</ref> In [[Harare]], the city council offered free graves to cholera victims.<ref name="rain">{{cite news|url=http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206151846/http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archivedate=6 December 2008|title=Zimbabwe says cholera epidemic may spread with rain|date=30 November 2008|agency=Reuters|accessdate=3 December 2008}}</ref> There had been signs that the disease is abating, with cholera infections down by about 50% to around 4,000 cases a week.<ref name="On the cholera frontline" /> The 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614<ref name="Worldbank" /> compared to 960 in 2010–11<ref name="Worldbank" /> and 232 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 (94 in 2009).<ref name="Worldbank" /> The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|accessdate=1 June 2016}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" !Period !Life expectancy in<br />Years !Period !Life expectancy in<br />Years |- |1950–1955 |48.5 |1985–1990 |60.2 |- |1955–1960 |50.6 |1990–1995 |54.7 |- |1960–1965 |52.5 |1995–2000 |47.4 |- |1965–1970 |54.1 |2000–2005 |44.1 |- |1970–1975 |55.8 |2005–2010 |48.4 |- |1975–1980 |57.8 |2010–2015 |57.6 |- |1980–1985 |60.5 | | |} Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''<ref>{{cite web|title=World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations|periodical=|publisher=|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|deadurl=|format=|accessdate=2017-07-15|archiveurl=|archivedate=|last=|date=|year=|month=|day=|language=|pages=|quote=}}</ref> ==Education== {{Main|Education in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Saint-Georges-College.jpg|thumb|[[St George's College, Harare]] was established in 1896 by a French [[Jesuit]]]] Due to large investments in education since independence, Zimbabwe has the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90.70%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranking of African Countries By Literacy Rate: Zimbabwe No. 1|url=http://theafricaneconomist.com/ranking-of-african-countries-by-literacy-rate-zimbabwe-no-1/|publisher=The African Economist}}</ref> This is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the [[United Nations Development Programme]]<ref name="IRINAfrica">[http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 "Unlicensed and outdoors or no school at all"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094256/http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |date=11 May 2011 }}, irinnews.org, 23 July 2010.</ref><ref name="AllAfrica">[http://allafrica.com/stories/201007150032.html "Zimbabwe: Country Leads in Africa Literacy Race"], AllAfrica.com, 14 July 2010.</ref> and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while still substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.<ref>{{cite report|title=Poverty Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey 2011/12 Report|publisher=Zimstat|year=2013|url=http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/09/25/zimbabwe.schools/index.html|author=Nkepile Mabuse|title=Zimbabwe schools begin fightback|accessdate=28 September 2009|publisher=CNN|date=28 September 2009}}</ref> The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the [[government school|government-run]] schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidized by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe's education system consists of 2 years of pre-school, 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with [[General Certificate of Education|"O" level]] and [[Advanced Level (UK)|"A" level]] subjects also offered in June.<ref name="embassy">{{cite web |url=http://harare.usembassy.gov/zimbabwe_educational_profile.html |title=Zimbabwe US Embassy |accessdate=15 November 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118190900/http://harare.usembassy.gov/zimbabwe_educational_profile.html |archivedate=18 November 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> There are seven public (Government) universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited.<ref name="embassy" /> The [[University of Zimbabwe]], the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of [[Mount Pleasant, Harare|Mount Pleasant]]. Notable [[alumni]] from Zimbabwean universities include [[Welshman Ncube]]; Peter Moyo (of Amabhubesi); [[Tendai Biti]], [[Chenjerai Hove]], Zimbabwean poet, novelist and essayist; and [[Arthur Mutambara]]. Many of the current politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other universities abroad. [[National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe|National University of Science and Technology]] (NUST) is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of Universities. Its guidance, cultural values is the encouragement of all its members and society of those attitudes of fair mindedness, understanding, tolerance and respect for people and views which are essential for the attainment and maintenance of justice, peace and harmony at all times. [[Africa University]] is a United Methodist related university institution located in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36 African countries. The institution has been growing steadily and has steady study material and learning facilities. The highest professional board for accountants is the [[Institute of Chartered Accountants of Zimbabwe]] (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in South Africa, Canada, the UK and Australia. A qualified [[Chartered Accountant]] from Zimbabwe is also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States. The [[Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers]] (ZIE) is the highest professional board for engineers. Education in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6566919.stm |title=BBC report on 40 years in Zimbabwe's schools |accessdate=3 November 2007 | date=19 April 2007 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == See also == {{portal|Zimbabwe}} * [[Index of Zimbabwe-related articles]] * [[Outline of Zimbabwe]] ==Notes== {{Notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Parsons |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=1993 |title=A New History of Southern Africa |edition=2nd |location=London, England |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-84195319-8 }} * {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 | author = | publisher = UNESCO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC-BY-SA IGO3.0 }} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last=Barclay |first=Philip |title=Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair |year=2010}}. * Bourne, Richard. ''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?'' (2011); 302 pages. * {{Citation |editor1-first=JoAnn |editor1-last=McGregor |editor2-first=Ranka |editor2-last=Primorac |title=Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival |publisher= [[Berghahn Books]] |year=2010}}, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse. * [[Martin Meredith|Meredith, Martin]]. ''Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/ excerpt and text search]. * {{Citation |first1=Peter |last1=Orner |author1-link=Peter Orner |first2=Annie |last2=Holmes |title=Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives |year=2011 |publisher=Voice of witness |url= http://www.voiceofwitness.org/hope-deferred/}}. * Smith, Ian Douglas. ''Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/ excerpt and text search]. Fontein, Joost "Remaking Mutirikwi: Landscape, Water and belonging in Southern Zimbabwe" (2015), James Currey, BIEA Eastern African Series. {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Zimbabwe}} * [http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe]—official government site * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050619011628/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ Zimbabwe Government Online] official government mirror site * {{Dmoz|Regional/Africa/Zimbabwe}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249 Zimbabwe profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Zimbabwe}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|zi|Zimbabwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/zimbabwe.htm Zimbabwe] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZW Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe] from [[International Futures]] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe] {{Zimbabwean topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{Geography of Zimbabwe}} {{Languages of Zimbabwe}} {{Africa}} {{G15}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Territories of the British Empire}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Zimbabwe| ]] [[Category:1980 establishments in Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Bantu countries and territories]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Southeast African countries]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1980]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Military dictatorships]]'