Examine individual changes

'{{Infobox writing system |name=Urdu alphabet |altname=<span style="font-weight:normal; position: relative; top: 0.2em; line-height: 2em">{{Nastaliq|اردو تہجی}}</span> |type=Abjad |languages= [[Urdu]], [[Balti language|Balti]], [[Burushaski]], others |sample=Urdu example.svg |imagesize=120px |caption=Example of writing in the Urdu alphabet: ''Urdu'' |time= |fam1=[[Proto-Sinaitic alphabet|Proto-Sinaitic]] |fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] |fam3=[[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] |fam4=[[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] |fam5=[[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] |fam6=[[Persian alphabet|Perso-Arabic]] |unicode=[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0600.pdf U+0600 to U+06FF]<br /> [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0750.pdf U+0750 to U+077F]<br /> [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf U+FB50 to U+FDFF]<br /> [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE70.pdf U+FE70 to U+FEFF] }} {{Arabic script sidebar|Urdu}} {{Contains Urdu text}} The '''Urdu alphabet''' is the [[right-to-left]] [[alphabet]] used for the [[Urdu|Urdu language]]. It is a modification of the [[Persian alphabet]] known as Perso-Arabic, which is itself a derivative of the [[Arabic alphabet]]. The Urdu alphabet has up to 58 letters.<ref name="omniglot.com">http://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm</ref> With 39 basic letters and no distinct letter cases, the Urdu alphabet is typically written in the [[calligraphic]] [[Nastaʿlīq script]], whereas [[Arabic language|Arabic]] is more commonly in the [[Naskh (script)|Naskh]] style. Usually, bare transliterations of Urdu into Roman letters (called [[Roman Urdu]]) omit many [[phoneme|phonemic]] elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages commonly written in the [[Latin script]]. The [[National Language Authority]] of [[Pakistan]] has developed a number of systems with specific notations to signify non-English sounds, but these can only be properly read by someone already familiar with the loan letters.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} == History == The [[Urdu language]] emerged as a distinct register of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] well before the [[Partition of India]]. It is distinguished most by its extensive [[Persian language|Persian]] influences (Persian having been the official language of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal government]] and the most prominent [[lingua franca]] of the Indian subcontinent for several centuries before the solidification of British colonial rule during the 19th century). The standard Urdu script is a modified version of the [[Perso-Arabic script]] and has its origins in 13th century [[Iran]]. It is closely related to the development of the [[Nastaliq]] style of [[Perso-Arabic script]]. [[Urdu]] script in its extended form is known as [[Shahmukhi alphabet|Shahmukhi]] script and is used for writing other [[Indo-Aryan languages]] of North [[Indian subcontinent]] like [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Saraiki alphabet|Saraiki]] as well. Despite the invention of the [[Urdu keyboard|Urdu typewriter]] in 1911, Urdu newspapers continued to publish prints of handwritten scripts by calligraphers known as ''[[katib]]s'' or ''[[khush-navees]]'' until the late 1980s. The [[Pakistan]]i [[national newspaper]] ''[[Daily Jang]]'' was the first Urdu [[newspaper]] to use ''Nastaʿlīq'' computer-based composition. There are efforts under way to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers and the [[internet]]. Nowadays, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals are composed on computers with Urdu software programs. Urdu and [[Hindi language|Hindi]], an official federal language of [[India]], are different registers of the same language, and thus they are mutually intelligible and can use each other's script to write the other's language. Usage of script generally signifies the user's faith: Muslims generally use the Urdu (Perso-Arabic) script, while Hindus use the [[Devanagari]] script. In addition to Pakistan, the Urdu script is official in five states of India with a substantial percentage of Hindustani-speaking Muslims: [[Bihar]], [[Delhi]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Telangana]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Other than the [[Indian subcontinent]], the Urdu script is also used by [[Pakistani diaspora|Pakistan's large diaspora]], including in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and other places.<ref name="omniglot">[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm "Urdu"]. Omniglot.com.</ref> == Nastaʿlīq == {{Main|Nastaʿlīq script}} The Nastaʿlīq calligraphic writing style began as a [[Persian alphabet|Persian]] mixture of scripts [[Naskh (script)|Naskh]] and [[Ta'liq (script)|Ta'liq]]. After the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Mughal conquest]], Nasta'liq became the preferred writing style for Urdu. It is the dominant style in [[Pakistan]], and many Urdu writers elsewhere in the world use it. Nastaʿlīq is more cursive and flowing than its [[Naskh (script)|Naskh]] counterpart. == Alphabet == The Urdu script is an [[abjad]] script derived from [[Perso-Arabic script]], which is itself a derivative of the [[Arabic script]]. The Urdu alphabet was standardized in 2004 by the [[National Language Authority]], which is responsible for standardizing Urdu in [[Pakistan]]. According to the National Language Authority, Urdu has 58 letters of which 39 are basic letters while 18 are [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] to represent [[aspirated consonant]]s made by attaching basic consonant letters with a variant of [[He (letter)|He]] called do chashmi he.<ref name="alphabets">[http://www.dawn.com/news/919270/controversy-over-number-of-letters-in-urdu-alphabet "Controversy over number of letters in Urdu alphabet"]</ref><ref name="alphabets1">[http://www.cle.org.pk/Publication/papers/2007/corpus_based_urdu_lexicon_development.pdf "Corpus Based Urdu Lexicon Development "]</ref><ref name="omniglot.com"/> [[Taw#T.C4.81.CA.BC marb.C5.AB.E1.B9.ADah|Tāʼ marbūṭah]] is also sometimes considered a letter though it is rarely used except for in certain loan words from [[Arabic]].<br> No Urdu word begins with ں, ھ, ڑ or ے. As an abjad, the Urdu script only shows consonants and long vowels; short vowels can only be inferred by the consonants' relation to each other. While this type of script is convenient in [[Semitic languages]] like Arabic and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], whose consonant roots are the key of the sentence, Urdu is an [[Indo-European language]], which does not have the same luxury, hence necessitating more memorization. === Differences from [[Persian alphabet]] === Urdu has more letters added to the Persian base to represent sounds not present in Persian, which already has additional letters added to the Arabic base itself to represent sounds not present in Arabic. The letters added include: {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ٹ]]}}}} to represent [[voiceless retroflex stop|/ʈ/]], {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ڈ]]}}}} to represent [[voiced retroflex stop|/ɖ/]], {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ڑ]]}}}} to represent [[retroflex flap|/ɽ/]], {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ں]]}}}} to represent [[nasal vowel|/◌̃/]], and {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ے]]}}}} to represent [[open-mid front unrounded vowel|/ɛ:/]] or [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|/e:/]]. Furthermore, a separate do-cashmi-[[He (letter)|he]] letter, {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|ھ}}}}, exists to denote a [[aspirated consonant|/ʰ/]] or a [[murmured voice|/ʱ/]]. This letter is mainly used as part of the multitude of digraphs, detailed below. {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center |- |- !No. !colspan="2"|Name{{sfn|Delacy|2003|p=XV–XVI}} !ALA-LC<ref name="LoC">{{cite web|title=Urdu romanization|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/urdu.pdf|publisher=The Library of Congress}}</ref> ![[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]<ref name="Hunterian">Geographical Names Romanization in Pakistan. UNGEGN, 18th Session. Geneva, 12–23 August 1996. Working Papers [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/18th-gegn-docs/18th_gegn_WP85.pdf No. 85] and [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/18th-gegn-docs/18th_gegn_WP85-ad1.pdf No. 85 Add. 1.]</ref> ![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !Isolated glyph |- | 1 | {{Nastaliq|الف}} | ''alif'' |colspan="2"| ''ā'', ʾ, – | {{IPA|/ɑː, ʔ, ∅/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ا]]}}}} |- | 2 | {{Nastaliq|با}} | ''ba'' |colspan="2"| ''b'' | {{IPA|/b/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ب]]}}}} |- | 3 | {{Nastaliq|پا}} | ''pa'' |colspan="2"| ''p'' | {{IPA|/p/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[پ]]}}}} |- | 4 | {{Nastaliq|تا}} | ''ta'' |colspan="2"| ''t'' | {{IPA|/t/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ت]]}}}} |- | 5 | {{Nastaliq|ٹا}} | ''ṭa'' | ''ṭ'' | ''t'' | {{IPA|/ʈ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ٹ]]}}}} |- | 6 | {{Nastaliq|ثا}} | ''<u>s</u>a'' | ''<u>s</u>'' | ''s'' | {{IPA|/s/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ث]]}}}} |- | 7 | {{Nastaliq|جيم}} | ''jīm'' |colspan="2"| ''j'' | {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ج]]}}}} |- | 8 | {{Nastaliq|چيم}} | ''cīm'' | ''c'' | ''ch'' | {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[چ]]}}}} |- | 9 | {{Nastaliq|بڑی حا}} | ''baṛī ḥa'' | ''ḥ'' | ''h'' | {{IPA|/ɦ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ح]]}}}} |- | 10 | {{Nastaliq|خا}} | ''<u>kh</u>a'' | ''<u>kh</u>'' | ''kh'' | {{IPA|/x/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[خ]]}}}} |- | 11 | {{Nastaliq|دال}} | ''dāl'' |colspan="2"| ''d'' | {{IPA|/d/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2"| {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[د]]}}}} |- | 12 | {{Nastaliq|ڈال}} | ''ḍāl'' | ''ḍ'' | ''d'' | {{IPA|/ɖ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ڈ]]}}}} |- | 13 | {{Nastaliq|ذال}} | ''<u>z</u>āl'' | ''<u>z</u>'' | ''z'' | {{IPA|/z/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ذ]]}}}} |- | 14 | {{Nastaliq|را}} | ''ra'' |colspan="2"| ''r'' | {{IPA|/r/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ر]]}}}} |- | 15 | {{Nastaliq|ڑا}} | ''ṛa'' | ''ṛ'' | ''r'' | {{IPA|/ɽ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ڑ]]}}}} |- | 16 | {{Nastaliq|زاين}} | ''zain'' |colspan="2"| ''z'' | {{IPA|/z/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ز]]}}}} |- | 17 | {{Nastaliq|ژاين}} | ''<u>zh</u>ain'' | ''zh'' | ''zh'' | {{IPA|/ʒ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="2" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ژ]]}}}} |- | 18 | {{Nastaliq|سین}} | ''sīn'' |colspan="2"| ''s'' | {{IPA|/s/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[س]]}}}} |- | 19 | {{Nastaliq|شین}} | ''shīn'' | ''sh'' | ''sh'' | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ش]]}}}} |- | 20 | {{Nastaliq|صاد}} | ''suād'' | ''s'' | ''s'' | {{IPA|/s/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ص]]}}}} |- | 21 | {{Nastaliq|ضاد}} | ''zuād'' | ''z'' | ''z'' | {{IPA|/z/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ض]]}}}} |- | 22 | {{Nastaliq|طو}} | ''to'e'' | ''t'' | ''t'' | {{IPA|/t/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ط]]}}}} |- | 23 | {{Nastaliq|ظو}} | ''zo'e'' | ''z'' | ''z'' | {{IPA|/z/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ظ]]}}}} |- | 24 | {{Nastaliq|عین}} | ''ʿain'' |colspan="2"| ''ā'', ''o'', ''e'', ʿ, – | {{IPA|/ɑː, oː, eː, ʔ, ʕ, ∅/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ع]]}}}} |- | 25 | {{Nastaliq|غین}} | ''<u>gh</u>ain'' | ''<u>gh</u>'' | ''gh'' | {{IPA|/ɣ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[غ]]}}}} |- | 26 | {{Nastaliq|فا}} | ''fa'' |colspan="2"| ''f'' | {{IPA|/f/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ف]]}}}} |- | 27 | {{Nastaliq|قاف}} | ''qāf'' |colspan="2"| ''q'' | {{IPA|/q/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ق]]}}}} |- | 28 | {{Nastaliq|کاف}} | ''kāf'' |colspan="2"| ''k'' | {{IPA|/k/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[Kāf|ک]]}}}} |- | 29 | {{Nastaliq|گاف}} | ''gāf'' |colspan="2"| ''g'' | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[گ]]}}}} |- | 30 | {{Nastaliq|لام}} | ''lām'' |colspan="2"| ''l'' | {{IPA|/l/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ل]]}}}} |- | 31 | {{Nastaliq|میم}} | ''mīm'' |colspan="2"| ''m'' | {{IPA|/m/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[م]]}}}} |- | 32 | {{Nastaliq|نون}} | ''nūn'' |colspan="2"| ''n'' | {{IPA|/n, ɲ, ɳ, ŋ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ن]]}}}} |- | 33 | {{Nastaliq|نون غنّه}} | ''nūn <u>gh</u>unnah'' | ''ṉ'' | ''n'' | {{IPA|/[[Nasal vowel|◌̃]]/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ں]]}}}} |- | 34 | {{Nastaliq|واؤ}} | ''wāʾo'' | ''v'', ''ū'', ''o'', ''au'' | ''w'', ''ū'', ''o'', ''au'' | {{IPA|/ʋ, uː, oː, ɔː/}} | colspan="2" style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[و]]}}}} |- | 35 | {{Nastaliq|چھوٹی ہا}}<br>{{Nastaliq|گول ہا}} | ''choṭī ha''<br>''gol ha'' |colspan="2"| ''h'' | {{IPA|/ɦ/}} or {{IPA|/∅/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ہ]]}}}} |- | 36 | {{Nastaliq|دو چشمی ها}} | ''do-cashmī ha'' |colspan="2"| ''h'' | {{IPA|/ʰ/}} or {{IPA|/ʱ/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ھ]]}}}} |- | 37 | {{Nastaliq|ہمزہ}} | ''hamzah'' |colspan="2"| ʾ, – | {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, {{IPA|/∅/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" colspan="4" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ء]]}}}} |- | 38 | {{Nastaliq|چھوٹی يا}} | ''choṭī ya'' |colspan="2"| ''y'', ''ī'', ''á'' | {{IPA|/j, iː, ɑː/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ی]]}}}} |- | 39 | {{Nastaliq|بڑی يا}} | ''baṛī ya'' |colspan="2"| ''ai, e'' | {{IPA|/ɛː, eː/}} | style="height:150%;padding:10px;font-size: 160%;" | {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|[[ے]]}}}} |} The [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] of [[aspirated consonant]]s are as follows. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | No. | '''Digraph'''<ref name="LoC"/> | '''Transcription'''<ref name="LoC"/> | '''IPA''' | Example |- |1 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|بھ}} | ''bh'' | {{IPA|[bʱ]}} | بھاری |- |2 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|پھ}} | ''ph'' | {{IPA|[pʰ]}} | پھول |- |3 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|تھ}} | ''th'' | {{IPA|[tʰ]}} | تھم |- |4 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ٹھ}} | ''ṭh'' | {{IPA|[ʈʰ]}} | ٹھیس |- |5 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|جھ}} | ''jh'' | {{IPA|[d͡ʒʰ]}} | جھاڑی |- |6 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|چھ}} | ''ch'' | {{IPA|[t͡ʃʰ]}} | چھوکرا |- |7 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|دھ}} | ''dh'' | {{IPA|[dʱ]}} | دھوبی |- |8 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ڈھ}} | ''ḍh'' | {{IPA|[ɖʱ]}} | ڈھول |- |9 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|رھ}} | ''rh'' | {{IPA|[rʱ]}} | no example? |- |10 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ڑھ}} | ''ṛh'' | {{IPA|[ɽʱ]}} | کڑھنا |- |11 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|کھ}} | ''kh'' | {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | کھولنا |- |12 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|گھ}} | ''gh'' | {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}} | گھبراہٹ |- |13 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|لھ}} | ''lh'' | {{IPA|[lʱ]}} | no example? |- |14 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|مھ}} | ''mh'' | {{IPA|[mʱ]}} | no example? |- |15 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|نھ}} | ''nh'' | {{IPA|[nʱ]}} | ننھا |- |16 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|هھ}} | ''hh'' |{{IPA|[hʱ]}} | no example? |- |17 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|وھ}} | ''wh'' | {{IPA|[ʋʱ]}} | no example? |- |18 | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|یھ}} | ''yh'' | {{IPA|[jʱ]}} | no example? |} === Retroflex letters === [[File:Hindustani Urdu retroflex letter T.svg|right|200px]] Old Hindustani used four dots over three Arabic letters to represent retroflex consonants ({{script|Arab|ٿ}}, {{script|Arab|ڐ}}, {{script|Arab|ڙ}}).<ref>{{cite book|last=Ballantyne|first=James Robert|title=A Grammar of the Hindustani Language, with Brief Notices of the Braj and Dakhani Dialects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zalHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA11|year=1842|publisher=Madden & Company|page=11}}</ref> In handwriting those dots was often written like a small vertical line attached to a small triangle. Subsequently, this shape has become identical to a small letter {{Nastaliq|[[ط]]}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Berggren|first=Olaf|title=Scripts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBDnAAAAMAAJ&q=hindustani+four+dots&redir_esc=y|year=2002|publisher=Bibliotheca Alexandrina|page=108}}</ref> (It is commonly and erroneously assumed that ṭāʾ itself was used to indicate retroflex dentals because of its being an emphatic dental consonant that Arabic scribes thought approximated the retroflex dentals.) == Vowels == The [[Urdu]] language has 10 vowels and 10 nasalized vowels. Each vowel has four forms depending on its position: initial, middle, final and isolated. Like in its parent [[Arabic alphabet]], Urdu vowels are represented using a combination of digraphs and diacritics. [[Aleph|Alif]], [[Waw (letter)|Waw]], [[Yodh|Ye]], [[He (letter)|He]] and their variants are used to represent vowels. === Vowel chart === Urdu doesn't have standalone vowel letters. Short vowels (''a'', ''i'', ''u'') are represented by optional diacritics (''zabar'', ''zer'', ''pesh'') upon the preceding consonant or a placeholder consonant (''alif'', ''ain'', or ''hamzah'') if the syllable begins with the vowel, and long vowels by consonants ''alif'', ''ain'', ''ye'', and ''wa'o'' as matres lectionis, with disambiguating diacritics, some of which are optional (''zabar'', ''zer'', ''pesh''), whereas some are not (''madd'', ''hamzah''). Urdu does not have short vowels at the end of words. This is a table of Urdu vowels: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" !Romanization ![[International Phonetic Alphabet|Pronunciation]] !Final !Middle !Initial |- |a |{{IPA|/ə/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;َ}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;َ&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|اَ}} |- |ā |{{IPA|/aː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ا}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ا&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|آ}} |- |i |{{IPA|/ɪ/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ِ}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ِ&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|اِ}} |- |ī |{{IPA|/iː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ي}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ي&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ي&zwj;}} |- |e |{{IPA|/eː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ے}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ي&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ي&zwj;}} |- |ai |{{IPA|/ɛː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ے}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ي&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ي&zwj;}} |- |u |{{IPA|/ʊ/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ُ}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;ُ&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|اُ}} |- |ū |{{IPA|/uː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;و}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;و&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|او}} |- |- |o |{{IPA|/oː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;و}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;و&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|او}} |- |au |{{IPA|/ɔː/}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;َو}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|&zwj;َو&zwj;}} |style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|اَو}} |} === ''Alif'' === ''Alif'' is the first letter of the Urdu alphabet, and it is used exclusively as a vowel. At the beginning of a word, ''alif'' can be used to represent any of the short vowels: {{Nastaliq|اب}} ''ab'', {{Nastaliq|اسم}} ''ism'', {{Nastaliq|اردو}} ''Urdū''. For long ''ā'' at the beginning of words alif-mad is used: {{Nastaliq|آپ}} ''āp'', but a plain alif in the middle and at the end: {{Nastaliq|بھاگنا}} ''bhāgnā''. === ''Wāʾo'' === ''Wāʾo'' is used to render the vowels "ū", "o", "u" and "au" ([uː], [oː], [ʊ] and [ɔː] respectively), and it is also used to render the [[labiodental approximant]], [ʋ]. === ''Ye'' === ''Ye'' is divided into two variants: ''choṭī ye'' ("little ye") and ''[[baṛī ye]]'' ("big ye"). ''Choṭī ye'' ({{Nastaliq|ی}}) is written in all forms exactly as in Persian. It is used for the long vowel "ī" and the consonant "y". ''Baṛī ye'' ({{Nastaliq|ے}}) is used to render the vowels "e" and "ai" ({{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/ɛː/}} respectively). ''Baṛī ye'' is distinguishable in writing from ''choṭī ye'' only when it comes at the end of a word/ligature. Additionally, ''Baṛī ye'' is never used to begin a word/ligature, unlike ''choṭī ye''. {| class="wikitable" !Letter's name !Final Form !Middle Form !Initial Form !Isolated Form |- |{{Nastaliq|چھوٹی يے}}<br />Choṭī ye |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـی}} |rowspan="2" style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـیـ}} |rowspan="2" style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|یـ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ی}} |- |{{Nastaliq|بڑی يے}}<br />Baṛī ye |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـے}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ے}} |} === ''The 2 he's'' === ''He'' is divided into two variants: ''gol he'' ("round he") and ''do-cashmī he'' ("two-eyed he"). ''Gol he'' ({{Nastaliq|ہ}}) is written round and zigzagged. It can only be used as in Persian. ''Do-cashmī he'' ({{Nastaliq|ھ}}) is written as in Arabic Naskh style (as a loop), in order to create the aspirate consonants and write Arabic words. {| class="wikitable" !Letter's name !Final Form !Middle Form !Initial Form !Isolated Form |- |{{Nastaliq|گول ہے}}<br />Gol he |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـہ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـہـ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ہـ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ہ}} |- |{{Nastaliq|دو چشمی ہے}}<br />Do-cashmī he |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـھ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ـھـ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|هـ}} |style="font-size: 150%" align=center|{{lang|ur|ھ}} |} === ''Ayn'' === ''Ayn'' in its initial and final position is silent in pronunciation and is replaced by the sound of its preceding or succeeding vowel. === ''Nun Ghunnah'' === Nasalized vowels are represented by ''Nun Ghunnah'' written after their non nasalized versions, for example: ''{{Nastaliq|ہَے}}'' when nasalized would become ''{{Nastaliq|ہَیں}}''. In middle form ''Nun Gunnah'' is written just like ''Nun'' and is differentiated by a diacritic called ''Maghnoona'' or ''Ulta Jazm'' which is a [[superscript]] V symbol above the {{Nastaliq|ن٘}}. Examples: {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center |'''Form''' |'''Urdu''' | '''Transcription''' |- |Orthography |style="font-size: 150%"|{{lang|ur|{{Nq|ں}}}} | {{transl|ur|ALA-LC|''ṉ''}} |- |End Form | style="font-size: 150%"|{{lang|ur|{{Nq|میں}}}} | {{transl|ur|ALA-LC|''maiṉ''}} |- |Middle Form |style="font-size: 150%"|{{lang|ur|{{Nq|کن٘ول}}}} | {{transl|ur|ALA-LC|''kaṉwal''}} |} == Hamza == In [[Urdu]] ''Hamza'' is silent in all its forms except for when it is used as ''Hamza-e-Izafat''. The main use of ''Hamza'' in [[Urdu]] is to indicate a vowel cluster. == Diacritics == Urdu uses the same subset of diacritics used in [[Arabic diacritics|Arabic]] based on Persian conventions. Urdu also uses [[Perso-Arabic Script|Persian]] names of the diacritics instead of Arabic names. Commonly used diacritics are Zabar (Arabic Fatḥah), Zer (Arabic Kasrah), Pesh (Arabic Ḍammah) which are used to clarify the pronunciation of vowels. Jazam (Arabic Sukun) is used to indicate a [[Consonant Cluster]] and Shad (Arabic Tashdid) which is used to indicate a [[Gemination]]. Other diacritics include Khari Zabar (Arabic Dagger alif), Do Zabar (Arabic Fathatan) which are found in some common [[Arabic]] loan words. Other Arabic diacritics are also sometimes used though very rarely in loan words from [[Arabic]]. Zer-e-Izafat and Hamza-e-Izafat are described in next section. Other than common diacritics, [[Urdu]] also has special diacritics, which are often found only in dictionaries for the clarification of irregular pronunciation. These diacritics include Kasrah-e-Majhool, Fathah-e-Majhool, Dammah-e-Majhool, Maghnoona, Ulta Jazam, Alif-e-Wavi and some other very rare diacritics. Among these, only Maghnoona is used commonly in dictionaries and has a unicode representation at U+0658. Other diacritics are only rarely written in printed form mainly in some advance dictionaries.<ref name="diacritics">[http://www.cle.org.pk/clt09/download/Papers/Paper20.pdf "Proposal of Inclusion of Certain Characters in Unicode"]</ref> == Iẓāfat == ''Iẓāfat'' is a syntactical construction of two nouns, where the first component is a determined noun, and the second is a determiner. [[Ezāfe|This construction]] was borrowed from Persian. A short vowel "i" is used to connect these two words. It may be written as ''zer'' ({{Nastaliq|&ensp;ِ}}) at the end of the first word, but usually is not written at all. If the first word ends in ''choṭī he'' ({{Nastaliq|ه}}) or ''ye'' ({{Nastaliq|ی}}) then ''hamzā'' ({{Nastaliq|ء}}) is used above the last letter ({{Nastaliq|ۂ}} or {{Nastaliq|ئ}}). If the first word ends in a long vowel then ''baṛī ye'' ({{Nastaliq|ے}}) with ''hamzā'' on top ({{Nastaliq|ئے}}) is written.{{sfn|Delacy|2003|p=99–100}} {| class="wikitable" !Forms||Example||Transliteration||Meaning |- | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ــِ}}|| style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|شیرِ پنجاب}}||''sher'''-i''' Panjāb''||the lion of Punjab |- | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ۂ}}|| style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|غزوهٔ هند}}||''ghazwah'''-yi''' Hind''|| the Conquest of India |- | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ئ}}|| style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|ولئ کامل}}||''walī'''-yi''' kāmil''||perfect saint |- | style="font-size: 150%" rowspan="2"|{{Nastaliq|ئے}}|| style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|روئے زمین}}||''rū'''-yi''' zamīn''|| the surface of the Earth |- | style="font-size: 150%"|{{Nastaliq|صدائے بلند}}||''ṣadā'''-yi''' buland''||a high voice |} == Computers and the Urdu alphabet == In the early days of computers, Urdu was not properly represented on any [[code page]]. One of the earliest code pages to represent Urdu was IBM Code Page 868 which dates back to 1990.<ref name="ibm">[ftp://ftp.software.ibm.com/software/globalization/gcoc/attachments/CS01248.pdf "IBM 868 code page"]</ref> Other early code pages which represented Urdu alphabets were [[Windows-1256]] and [[MacArabic encoding]] both of which date back to the mid 1990s. In [[Unicode]], Urdu is represented inside the Arabic block. Another code page for Urdu, which is used in India, is [[Perso-Arabic Script Code for Information Interchange]]. In Pakistan, the 8-bit code page which is developed by [[National Language Authority]] is called Urdu Zabta Takhti ({{Nastaliq|اردو ضابطہ تختی}}) (UZT) <ref name="uzt">[http://cle.org.pk/Publication/papers/2001/uzt1.01.pdf "Urdu Zabta Takhti"]</ref> which represents Urdu in its most complete form including some of its specialized diacritics, though UZT is not designed to coexist with the Latin alphabet. === Encoding Urdu in Unicode === Like other writing systems derived from the Arabic script, Urdu uses the 0600–06FF Unicode range.<ref name="unicode600table">https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0600.pdf</ref> Certain glyphs in this range appear visually similar (or identical when presented using particular fonts) even though the underlying encoding is different. This presents problems for information storage and retrieval. For example, the [[University of Chicago]]'s electronic copy of John Shakespear's "A Dictionary, Hindustani, and English"<ref name="shakespearDictionary">{{cite web|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/shakespear/ |title=A dictionary, Hindustani and English |publisher=Dsal.uchicago.edu |date=29 September 2009 |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> includes the word '{{Nastaliq|بهارت}}' (India). Searching for the string "{{Nastaliq|بھارت}}" returns no results, whereas querying with the (identical-looking in many fonts) string "{{Nastaliq|بهارت}}" returns the correct entry.<ref name="shakespearDictionary_bharat">{{cite web|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:4746.shakespear |title=A dictionary, Hindustani and English |publisher=Dsal.uchicago.edu |date= |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> This is because the medial form of the Urdu letter ''do chashmi he'' (U+06BE)—used to form aspirate digraphs in Urdu—is visually identical in its medial form to the Arabic letter [[ه|hāʾ]] (U+0647; phonetic value {{IPA|/h/}}). In Urdu, the {{IPA|/h/}} phoneme is represented by the character U+06C1, called ''gol he'' (round ''he''), or ''chhoti he'' (small ''he''). {|class="wikitable sortable" |+ Confusable glyphs in Urdu and Arabic script |- ! Characters in Urdu ! Characters in Arabic |- | {{nq|ہ}} (U+06C1), {{nq|ھ}} (U+06BE) || {{nq|ه}} (U+0647) |- | {{nq|ی}} (U+06CC) || {{nq|ى}} (U+0649), {{nq|ي}} (U+064A) |- | {{nq|ک}} (U+06A9) || {{nq|ك}} (U+0643) |} In 2003, the Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing (CRULP)<ref name="crulp">{{cite web|url=http://www.crulp.org/ |title=Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing |publisher=Crulp.org |date= |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref>—a research organisation affiliated with Pakistan's [[National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences]]—produced a proposal for mapping from the 1-byte [[Urdu keyboard#Fourth generation|UZT]] encoding of Urdu characters to the Unicode standard.<ref name="uztunicode">{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.tremu.gov.pk/tremu1/workingroups/pdfpresentations/UZT%20UNICODE%20MAPPING.pdf |date=* }}</ref> This proposal suggests a preferred Unicode glyph for each character in the Urdu alphabet. === Software === The ''[[Daily Jang]]'' was the first Urdu newspaper to be typeset digitally in ''Nasta’liq'' by computer. There are efforts underway to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers and on the Internet. Nowadays, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals and periodicals are composed on computers via various Urdu software programmes, the most widespread of which is [[InPage]] Desktop Publishing package. [[Microsoft]] has included Urdu language support in all new versions of Windows and both [[Windows Vista]] and [[Microsoft Office 2007]] are available in Urdu through [[Language Interface Pack]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/Browse.aspx?displaylang=ur&productID=38DF6AB1-13D4-409C-966D-CBE61F040027 |title=:مائِیکروسافٹ ڈاؤُن لوڈ مَرکَزWindows |publisher=Microsoft.com |date= |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> support. Most Linux Desktop distributions allow the easy installation of Urdu support and translations as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aasims.wordpress.com/tag/ubuntu-in-urdu/ |title=Ubuntu in Urdu « Aasim's Web Corner |publisher=Aasims.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] implemented the Urdu language keyboard across [[Mobile device]]s in its [[iOS 8]] update in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/776214/e-urdu-how-one-mans-plea-for-nastaleeq-was-heard-by-apple/|title=E-Urdu: How one man's plea for Nastaleeq was heard by Apple|date=16 October 2014|work=The Express Tribune|accessdate=29 March 2015}}</ref> == Romanization standards and systems == {{main|Roman Urdu}} There are several romanization standards for writing Urdu with the Latin alphabet, though they are not very popular because most fall short of representing the Urdu language properly. Instead of standard romanization schemes, people on Internet, mobile phones and media often use a non-standard form of romanization which tries to mimic [[English Orthography|English orthography]]. The problem with this kind of romanization is that it can only be read by native speakers, and even for them with great difficulty. Among standardized romanization schemes, the most accurate is [[ALA-LC romanization]], which is also supported by [[National Language Authority]]. Other romanization schemes are often rejected because either they are unable to represent sounds in Urdu properly, or they often do not take regard of Urdu orthography, and favor pronunciation over orthography.<ref name="roman">[http://nlpd.gov.pk/uakhbareurdu/august2011/8.html "اردو رومن نقل حرفی ۔ ایک ابتدائی تعارف"]</ref> [[Roman Urdu]] also holds significance among the Christians of Pakistan and [[North India]]. Urdu was the dominant native language among Christians of [[Karachi]] and [[Lahore]] in present-day Pakistan and [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] [[Rajasthan]] in India, during the early part of the 19th and 20th century, and is still used by Christians in these places. Pakistani and Indian Christians often used the Roman script for writing Urdu. Thus Roman Urdu was a common way of writing among Pakistani and Indian Christians in these areas up to the 1960s. The Bible Society of India publishes Roman [[Bible translations into Hindi and Urdu|Urdū Bibles]] that enjoyed sale late into the 1960s (though they are still published today). Church songbooks are also common in Roman Urdu. However, the usage of Roman Urdu is declining with the wider use of Hindi and English in these states. == See also == * [[Nasta'liq script]] * [[Persian alphabet]] * [[Urdu Wikipedia]] * [[Urdu keyboard]] * [[Urdu Braille]] * [[Urdu Informatics]] * [[Romanization of Urdu]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == * {{cite book|last1=Delacy|first1=Richard|title=Beginner's Urdu Script|date=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=007141987X|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Delacy|first1=Richard|title=Read and write Urdu script|date=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFrFSAAACAAJ|ref=harv}} * {{cite web|title=Urdu romanization|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/urdu.pdf|publisher=The Library of Congress}} * {{cite web|last1=Ishida|first1=Richard|title=Urdu script notes|url=http://rishida.net/scripts/urdu/}} == External links == {{Wikibooks|Urdu}} * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm Urdu alphabet] * [http://www.user.uni-hannover.de/nhtcapri/urdu-alphabet.html Urdu alphabet with Devanagari equivalents] * [http://users.skynet.be/hugocoolens/newurdu/newurdu.html Hugo's Urdu Alphabet Page] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120608004825/http://www.calligraphyislamic.com/ calligraphyislamic.com], a resource for Urdu calligraphy and script * [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urdu/urduscript/ Urdu Script Introduction from Columbia University] * [http://urducouncil.nic.in/welcome.html National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language] {{Urdu topics}} {{Arabic alphabets}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Urdu Alphabet}} [[Category:Hindustani orthography]] [[Category:Urdu]] [[Category:Arabic alphabets]] [[Category:Urdu alphabets]] [[Category:Arabic alphabets for South Asian languages]]'