Examine individual changes

'{{Pp-move-indef}}{{fixbunching|beg}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = '' Republik Indonesia'' |conventional_long_name = Republic of Indonesia |common_name = Indonesia |image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg |image_coat = Garuda Pancasila, Coat Arms of Indonesia.svg |symbol_type = Coat of arms |image_map = Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg |map_caption = <!-- {{map caption|location_color=green|region=[[ASEAN]]|region_color=dark grey|legend=Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg}} --> |national_motto = ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>([[Old Javanese language|Old Javanese]])<br />Unity in Diversity</small><br />'''[[Ideology|National ideology]]:''' [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm US Library of Congress]; Vickers (2005), page 117.</ref> |national_anthem = ''[[Indonesia Raya]]'' |official_languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] |languages_type = [[Official script]]s |languages = [[Latin alphabet]] |capital = [[Jakarta]] |demonym = [[Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesian]] |latd=6 |latm=10.5 |latNS=S |longd=106 |longm=49.7 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |government_type = [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Indonesia|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] |leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]] |leader_name2 = [[Boediono]] |area_rank = 16th |area_magnitude = 1_E+12 |area_km2 = 1,919,440 |area_sq_mi = 735,355 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_label = [[Land area|Land]] |area_label2 = [[Water area|Water (%)]] |area_data2 = 4.85 |percent_water = |population_estimate = 229,965,000<ref name=unpop>{{cite paper | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1| version=2008 revision | format=.PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | date=2009 | accessdate= 2009-03-12}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_estimate_rank = 4th |population_census = 206,264,595 |population_census_year = 2000 |population_density_km2 = 119.8 |population_density_sq_mi = 312.7 |population_density_rank = 84th |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $909.729 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=15&pr.y=12 |title=Indonesia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2009-10-01}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = 16th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,980<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 121st |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal = $511.765 billion<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = 19th |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,239<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 116th |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.734<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G|publisher=The United Nations|accessdate=2009-10-05}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 111th |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span> |Gini = 34.3 |Gini_year = 2002 |sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |sovereignty_note = from the [[Netherlands]] |established_event2 = [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|Declared]] |established_date2 = 17 August 1945 |established_event3 = [[Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference|Acknowledged]] |established_date3 = 27 December 1949 |currency = [[Indonesian rupiah|Rupiah]] |currency_code = IDR |time_zone = various |utc_offset = +7 to +9 |time_zone_DST = not observed |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.id]] |calling_code = [[+62]] |website = [http://www.indonesia.go.id/id/index.php www.indonesia.go.id/id/] |footnotes = }} {{fixbunching|end}} The '''Republic of Indonesia''' ({{pron-en|ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə}} or {{IPA-en|ˌɪndəˈniːʒə|}}) ({{lang-id|Republik Indonesia}}) is a country in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. Indonesia comprises [[List of islands of Indonesia|17,508 islands]]. With a population of around 230 million people, it is the world's fourth [[List of countries by population|most populous]] country, and has the world's largest [[List of Muslim majority countries|population of Muslims]]. Indonesia is a [[republic]], with an elected legislature and [[President of Indonesia|president]]. The nation's capital city is [[Jakarta]]. The country shares land borders with [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]], and [[Malaysia]]. Other neighboring countries include [[Singapore]], [[Philippines]], [[Australia-Indonesia border|Australia]], and the [[India]]n territory of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when [[Srivijaya]] and then later [[Majapahit]] traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually adopted Indian cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries [[Common Era|CE]], and [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought [[Islam]], and [[Europe]]an powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the [[Spice Islands]] of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] during the [[Age of Discovery]]. Following three and a half centuries of [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonialism]], Indonesia secured [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|its independence]] after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, [[Post-Suharto era|a democratization process]], and periods of rapid economic change. Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by [[Indonesian language|a national language]], ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, ''"[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]"'' ("Unity in Diversity" ''literally,'' "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of [[biodiversity]]. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.<ref name=economist1/> ==Etymology== The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the Latin ''Indus'', meaning "India", and the Greek ''nesos'', meaning "island".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |isbn=962-593-078-7}}</ref> The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.<ref name="indoety">{{id icon}} {{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=2004-08-16 |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> In 1850, George Earl, an English [[ethnology|ethnologist]], proposed the terms ''Indunesians'' — and, his preference, ''Malayunesians'' — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |page=119}}</ref> In the same publication, a student of Earl's, [[James Richardson Logan]], used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=4:252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> However, Dutch academics writing in [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies]] publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. Instead, they used the terms ''Malay Archipelago'' (''Maleische Archipel''); the ''Netherlands East Indies'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), popularly ''Indië''; ''the East'' (''de Oost''); and even ''Insulinde''.<ref>(This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel [[Max Havelaar]] (1859), written by [[Multatuli]], critical of Dutch colonialism). {{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186}}</ref> From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Jusuf M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186}}</ref> [[Adolf Bastian]], of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name ''Indonesisch Pers-bureau'' in 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> ==History== {{main|History of Indonesia}} [[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|left|As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as [[Africa]]. Picture: a ship carved on [[Borobudur]], circa 800 CE.]] Fossilized remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355 |first1=G G}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=15 August 1983 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |accessdate=|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 |pmc=384173 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |coauthors=P.Y. Sondaar, |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=9 December 1994 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |accessdate=}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309 |id=}}</ref> [[Austronesian people]], who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000&nbsp;BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native [[Melanesia|Melanesian peoples]] to the far eastern regions.<ref>Taylor (2003), pages 5–7</ref> Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]] as early as the eighth century BCE,<ref> {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia |publisher=Yale University Press |date= |location=New Haven and London |pages=8–9 |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref><!--BCE is correct, not CE!--> allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia |publisher=Yale University Press |date= |location=New Haven and London |pages=15–18 |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.<ref>Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), pages 18–20, 60, 133–134</ref> [[File:Koeh-097.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[nutmeg]] plant is native to Indonesia's [[Banda Islands]]. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.]] From the seventh century CE, the powerful [[Srivijaya]] naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.<ref>Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3</ref> Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist [[Sailendra]] and Hindu [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] dynasties thrived and declined in inland [[Java]], leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's [[Borobudur]] and Mataram's [[Prambanan]]. The Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under [[Gajah Mada]], its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The next great empire |author=Peter Lewis |journal=Futures |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=1982 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref> Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the [[The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)|earliest evidence of Islamized populations]] in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern [[Sumatra]].<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14</ref> Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in [[Java]] and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14</ref> [[The Portuguese in Indonesia|The first Europeans arrived]] in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by [[Francisco Serrão]], sought to monopolize the sources of [[nutmeg]], [[clove]]s, and [[cubeb|cubeb pepper]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp24">{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C|title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition |publisher=MacMillan |year=1993 |location=London |pages=22–24 |url= |isbn= 0-333-57689-6}}</ref> Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the [[Dutch East Indies]] as a nationalized colony.<ref name="RICKLEFSp24">Ricklefs (1991), page 24</ref> For most of [[History of Indonesia#Colonial era|the colonial period]], Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.<ref name="DUTCH_BOUNDARIES">Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as [[Prince Diponegoro]] in central Java, [[Imam Bonjol]] in central Sumatra and [[Pattimura]] in [[Maluku]], and a bloody [[Aceh War|thirty-year war in Aceh]] weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the [[Indonesian National Revolution|National Revolution]], Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.</ref> The [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of Indonesia|subsequent occupation]] during [[World War II]]<ref>A later [[UN]] report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour (known as [[romusha]]) during the Japanese occupation. Cited in: Dower, John W. ''War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War'' (1986; Pantheon; ISBN 0-394-75172-8)</ref> ended Dutch rule,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves |journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies |volume=31 |issue=3 |author=Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman |pages=349–355 |year=1998 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/eighteenth-century_studies/v031/31.3oostindie.html |doi=10.1353/ecs.1998.0021}}; {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |title =History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition |publisher=MacMillan |year=1993 |location=London |pages= |url= |doi= |isbn=0-333-57689-6}}</ref> and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029) Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942-50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942-45"].</ref> Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, [[Sukarno]], an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indonesia |author=H. J. Van Mook |authorlink=Hubertus Johannes van Mook |journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs |year=1949 |volume=25 |issue=3 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28194907%2925%3A3%3C274%3AI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P |pages=274–285}}; {{cite journal |title=Independence the Issue |journal=Far Eastern Survey |author=Charles Bidien |volume=14 |issue=24 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S|pages=345–348 |date=5 December 1945 |doi=10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062 |year=1945}}; {{cite book | last =Taylor | first =Jean Gelman | title =Indonesia: Peoples and History | publisher =Yale University Press | year =2003 | location = | page =325 | isbn = 0-300-10518-5 }}; Reid (1973), page 30</ref> The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an [[Indonesian National Revolution|armed and diplomatic struggle]] ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence<ref>{{cite journal |title=Independence the Issue |journal=Far Eastern Survey |author=Charles Bidien |volume=14 |issue=24 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S|pages=345–348 |date=5 December 1945 |doi=10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062 |year=1945}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-inde.htm |title=Indonesian War of Independence" |accessdate=2006-12-11 |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |work=Military}}</ref> (with the exception of [[Netherlands New Guinea|The Dutch territory of West New Guinea]], which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 [[New York Agreement]], and the [[United Nations|UN]]-mandated [[Act of Free Choice]] of 1969).<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/ Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"]. National Security Archive, Suite 701, Gelman Library, The George Washington University.</ref> [[File:Soekarno.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Soekarno]], Indonesia's founding president]] Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of [[Military of Indonesia|the Military]] and the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280</ref> [[Transition to the New Order|An attempted coup]] on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led [[Indonesian killings of 1965–66|a violent anti-communist purge]], during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.<ref>Friend (2003), pages 107–109; {{cite video | people =Chris Hilton (writer and director) | title =Shadowplay | medium =Television documentary | publisher =Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions |date = 2001 }}; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290</ref> Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=John Roosa and Joseph Nevins |date=5 November 2005 |url=http://www.counterpunch.org/roosa11052005.html|title=40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia |accessdate=2006-11-12 |journal=[[CounterPunch]]}}; {{cite journal |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966 |author=Robert Cribb |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |year=2002 |pages=550–563 |doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref> The head of the military, [[Suharto|General Suharto]], out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order administration]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=General Suharto's New Order |author=John D. Legge |journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs |volume=44 |issue=1 |year=1968 |pages=40–47 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196801%2944%3A1%3C40%3AGSNO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I}}</ref> was supported by the US government,<ref>US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, October 5, 1965. [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xxvi/4445.htm]; Adrian Vickers, ''A History of Modern Indonesia.'' Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, ''Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations,'' London: Blackwell, p. 70</ref> and encouraged [[foreign direct investment]] in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-521-54262-6}}; {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2}}; {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition |publisher=MacMillan |year=1991 |isbn=0-333-57689-X}}</ref> However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition. In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian Financial Crisis|Asian Financial Crisis]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Delhaise | first =Philippe F. | title =Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems | publisher =Willey | year =1998 | pages =123 | isbn = 0-471-83450-5}}</ref> This increased popular discontent with the New Order<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case |author=Jonathan Pincus and Rizal Ramli |journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=723–734 |url=http://cje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/22/6/723|year=1998|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}} </ref> and led to [[Fall of Suharto|popular protests]]. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.<ref> {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/latest_news/97848.stm |title=President Suharto resigns |publisher=BBC |date=21 May 1998 |accessdate=2006-11-12}}</ref> In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|a twenty-five-year military occupation]] that was marked by international condemnation of often brutal repression of the East Timorese.<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[The George Washington University]], Washington, DC |date=6 December 2001 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=2006-09-17}}; {{cite web |title=International Religious Freedom Report |work=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=2002-10-17 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13873.htm |accessdate=2006-09-29}} </ref> Since Suharto's resignation, [[Reformation (Indonesia)|a strengthening of democratic processes]] has included a regional autonomy program, and the first [[Indonesian presidential election, 2004|direct presidential election in 2004]]. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Robert W. Hefner |year=2000 |url=http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol3No1/east_timor.htm |title=Religious Ironies in East Timor |volume=3 |issue=1 |accessdate=2006-12-12 |journal=Religion in the News}}</ref> A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in [[Aceh]] was achieved in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |title=Aceh rebels sign peace agreement |publisher=BBC |date=15 August 2005 |accessdate=2006-12-12 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4151980.stm}}</ref> ==Government and politics== {{main|Politics of Indonesia}} Indonesia is a [[republic]] with a [[presidential system]]. As a [[unitary state]], power is concentrated in the central government. Following the [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998|resignation of President Suharto]] in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the [[Constitution of Indonesia|1945 Constitution of Indonesia]]<ref>In 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001</ref> have revamped the [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Judiciary|judicial]], and [[Legislature|legislative]] branches.<ref name="Harijanti2006">{{cite journal |title=Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |author=Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=138–150 |doi=10.1093/icon/moi055}}</ref> The president of Indonesia is the [[head of state]], [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]], and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The [[Indonesian presidential election, 2004|2004 presidential election]] was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=[[Carter Center|The Carter Center]] |year=2004 |title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.<ref>_ (2002), ''The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution'', Chapter III – The Executive Power, Art. 7.</ref> [[File:Indonesia DPR session.jpg|thumb|right|A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta]] The highest representative body at national level is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.<ref>{{id icon}} {{cite book |title=Ketetapan MPR-RI Nomor II/MPR/2000 tentang Perubahan Kedua Peraturan Tata Tertib Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia |author=People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) |authorlink=People's Consultative Assembly |url=http://www.mpr.go.id/pdf/ketetapan/putusan%20MPRRI%202000.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2006-11-07}}</ref> The MPR comprises two houses; the [[People's Representative Council]] (DPR), with 560 members, and the [[Regional Representative Council]] (DPD), with 132 members.<ref name="USSTATE">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Indonesia |work=U.S. Library of Congress |publisher=U.S. Department of State|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2748.htm |accessdate=2009-11-26}}</ref> The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by [[proportional representation]].<ref name="Harijanti2006"/> Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.<ref>Reforms include total control of [[statute]]s production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected ([[Reserved political positions|reserved seats]] for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006)</ref> The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.<ref>Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected [[non-partisan]] members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation. {{cite book |title=Third Amendment to the 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia |url=http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |format=PDF|author=People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) |authorlink=People's Consultative Assembly |accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.<ref name="USCONGRESS">{{cite web| title=Country Profile: Indonesia| publisher=[[Library of Congress|U.S Library of Congress]]| month=December | year=2004| url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Indonesia.pdf | format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-09}}</ref> ==Foreign relations and military== {{main|Foreign relations of Indonesia|Indonesian National Armed Forces}} In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|tensions with Malaysia]], [[Foreign relations of Indonesia|Indonesia's foreign relations]] since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia - Foreign Policy |work=U.S. Library of Congress |publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm |accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref> Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in [[Asia]], and is a founding member of [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] and the [[East Asia Summit]].<ref name="USSTATE"/> The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.<ref name="USCONGRESS"/> Indonesia has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1950,<ref>Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|in response]] to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966.</ref> and was a founder of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) and the [[Organisation of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC).<ref name="USSTATE"/> Indonesia is signatory to the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] agreement, the [[Cairns Group]], and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], and has historically been a member of [[OPEC]], although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian]] and [[development aid]] since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.<ref name="USSTATE"/> [[File:021018 bali bombing.jpg|right|thumb|National flags at the site of the [[2002 Bali bombings|2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali]]]] The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant [[Islamism]] and [[Al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Chris Wilson|title=Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism |work=Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group |publisher=Parliament of Australia |date=11 October 2001|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/CIB/2001-02/02cib06.htm |accessdate=2006-10-15}}; {{cite web |author=Reyko Huang |title=Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War |work=Terrorism Project |publisher=Center for Defense Information |date=23 May 2002 |url=http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/priority.cfm}}</ref> [[2002 Bali bombings|The deadliest]] killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the [[Bali]] resort town of [[Kuta]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite news |title=Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings |work=AAP |publisher=The Age Newspaper |date=10 December 2006 |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/war-on-terror/services-to-honour-victims-of-2002-bali-bombing/2005/10/12/1128796537208.html }}</ref> The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's [[Tourism in Indonesia|tourism industry]] and foreign investment prospects.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Travel Warning: Indonesia |publisher=US Embassy, Jakarta |date=10 May 2005 |url=http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/news/trv_warning02.html |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]] (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).<ref>{{cite news | last =Chew | first =Amy |title = Indonesia military regains ground | publisher =CNN Asia | date =2002-07-07 | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/07/05/indonesia.sutarto/index.html | accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref> The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.<ref>{{cite news | last =Witular | first =Rendi A. | title =Susilo Approves Additional Military Funding | publisher =The Jakarta Post | date =2005-05-19 | url =http://www.etan.org/et2005/may/22/19susilo.htm | accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref> One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.<ref>Friend (2003), pages 473–475, 484</ref> Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.<ref>Friend (2003), pages 270–273, 477–480; {{cite news | title =Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh | work =BBC News | publisher =BBC | date =29 December 2005 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm | accessdate =2007-05-20 }}</ref> Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the [[Free Aceh Movement|Free Aceh Movement (GAM)]] and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.<ref>{{cite web | title =Indonesia agrees Aceh peace deal | work =BBC News | publisher =BBC | date =17 July 2005 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4690293.stm | accessdate =2007-05-20}}; {{cite web | title =Indonesia starts Aceh withdrawal | work =BBC News | publisher =BBC | date =18 September 2005 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4257944.stm | accessdate =2007-05-20 }}</ref> In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and [[Human rights in western New Guinea|human rights abuses]], since the presidency of [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]].<ref>{{cite news |last=''Lateline'' TV Current Affairs |title=Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts |work=TV Program transcript, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) |date=20 April 2006|url=http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2006/s1620483.htm}}; {{cite journal |last=International Crisis Group|title=Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions |journal=Update Briefing |issue= 53 |page=1 |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=5 September 2006|url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2006-09-17}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== {{main|Provinces of Indonesia|Administrative divisions of Indonesia}} [[File:Indonesia provinces english.png|right|thumb|Provinces of Indonesia]] Administratively, Indonesia consists of [[Provinces of Indonesia|33 provinces]], five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (''[[Regencies of Indonesia|kabupaten]]'') and cities (''[[Cities of Indonesia|kota]]''), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (''[[Subdistricts of Indonesia|kecamatan]]''), and again into [[Village (Indonesia)|village groupings]] (either ''desa'' or ''kelurahan''). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected ''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'' (village chief). The provinces of [[Aceh]], [[Jakarta]], [[Yogyakarta (special region)|Yogyakarta]], [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], and [[West Papua (Indonesian province)|West Papua]] have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.<ref>The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the [[Sultan of Yogyakarta]] and [[Pakualaman|Paku Alam]], respectively, much like a [[sultanate]]. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. [[People's Representative Council]] (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; {{PDFlink|[http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/archive/Law5_1974.pdf Indonesia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the Region]|146&nbsp;KB}} (''translated version''). [[President of Indonesia|The President of Republic of Indonesia]] (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91</ref> [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.<ref>As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete. {{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=2004-11-18 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta|publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=2004-11-18 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> Jakarta is the country's special capital region. '''Indonesian provinces and their capitals - listed by region''' <small><br />(Indonesian name in parentheses if different from English)</small> <small><br /><nowiki>†</nowiki> indicates provinces with Special Status</small> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''[[Sumatra]]''' * [[Aceh]]^† (''Nanggröe Aceh Darussalam'') – [[Banda Aceh]] * [[North Sumatra]] (''Sumatera Utara'') – [[Medan]] * [[West Sumatra]] (''Sumatera Barat'') – [[Padang, Indonesia|Padang]] * [[Riau]] – [[Pekanbaru]] * [[Riau Islands]] (''Kepulauan Riau'') – [[Tanjung Pinang]] * [[Jambi]] – [[Jambi (city)]] * [[South Sumatra]] (''Sumatera Selatan'') – [[Palembang]] * [[Bangka-Belitung]] (''Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung'') – [[Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] – [[Bengkulu (city)]] * [[Lampung]] – [[Bandar Lampung]] '''[[Java]]''' * [[Jakarta]]^† – Jakarta * [[Banten]] – [[Serang]] * [[West Java]] (''Jawa Barat'') – [[Bandung]] * [[Central Java]] (''Jawa Tengah'') – [[Semarang]] * [[Yogyakarta Special Region]]^† – [[Yogyakarta (city)]] * [[East Java]] (''Jawa Timur'') – [[Surabaya]] '''[[Lesser Sunda Islands]]''' * [[Bali]] – [[Denpasar]] * [[West Nusa Tenggara]] (''Nusa Tenggara Barat'') – [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]] * [[East Nusa Tenggara]] (''Nusa Tenggara Timur'') – [[Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''[[Kalimantan]]''' * [[West Kalimantan]] (''Kalimantan Barat'') – [[Pontianak, Indonesia|Pontianak]] * [[Central Kalimantan]] (''Kalimantan Tengah'') – [[Palangkaraya]] * [[South Kalimantan]] (''Kalimantan Selatan'') – [[Banjarmasin]] * [[East Kalimantan]] (''Kalimantan Timur'') – [[Samarinda]] '''[[Sulawesi]]''' * [[North Sulawesi]] (''Sulawesi Utara'') – [[Manado]] * [[Gorontalo (province)|Gorontalo]] – [[Gorontalo (city)]] * [[Central Sulawesi]] (''Sulawesi Tengah'') – [[Palu]] * [[West Sulawesi]] (''Sulawesi Barat'') – [[Mamuju]] * [[South Sulawesi]] (''Sulawesi Selatan'') – [[Makassar]] * [[South East Sulawesi]] (''Sulawesi Tenggara'') – [[Kendari]] '''[[Maluku Islands]]''' * [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]] – [[Ambon, Maluku|Ambon]] * [[North Maluku]] (''Maluku Utara'') – [[Ternate]] '''[[Western New Guinea]]''' * [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]]^† (''Papua Barat'') – [[Manokwari]] * [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]]^† – [[Jayapura]] {{col-end}} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Indonesia}} [[File:Indonesia 2002 CIA map.png|thumb|right|Map of Indonesia]] Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=2006-10-05 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=April 2006}}; {{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indonesia Regions | publisher =Indonesia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref> These are scattered over both sides of the [[equator]]. The five largest islands are [[Java]], [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]] (the Indonesian part of [[Borneo]]), [[New Guinea]] (shared with Papua New Guinea), and [[Sulawesi]]. Indonesia shares land borders with [[Malaysia]] on the islands of [[Borneo]] and [[Sebatik]], [[Papua New Guinea]] on the island of [[New Guinea]], and [[East Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]]. Indonesia also shares borders with [[Singapore]], Malaysia, and the [[Philippines]] to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The capital, [[Jakarta]], is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Medan]], and [[Semarang]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indonesia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =139, 181, 251, 435 | isbn=1-74059-154-2 }}</ref> At 1,919,440&nbsp;square kilometers (741,050&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.<ref name="ciarank">{{cite web |last=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Rank Order Area |work=The World Factbook |publisher=US [[CIA]], Washington, DC |date=2006-10-17 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |accessdate=2006-11-03}}</ref> Its average population density is 134&nbsp;people per square kilometer (347&nbsp;per sq&nbsp;mi), 79th in the world,<ref>{{cite web |title=Population density - Persons per&nbsp;km² 2006 |work=CIA world factbook |publisher=Photius Coutsoukis |year=2006 |url=http://www.photius.com/rankings/geography/population_density_2006_1.html |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref> although Java, the world's most populous island,<ref name="JOSHUA">{{cite web | last = Calder | first = Joshua | title = Most Populous Islands | publisher = World Island Information | date = 3 May 2006 | url = http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm | accessdate = 2006-09-26 }}</ref> has a population density of 940&nbsp;people per square kilometer (2,435&nbsp;per sq&nbsp;mi). At {{convert|4884|m|ft|abbr=off}}, [[Puncak Jaya]] in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and [[Lake Toba]] in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145&nbsp;square kilometers (442&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the [[Mahakam]] and [[Barito]]; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Indonesia |work=Encarta |publisher=Microsoft |year=2006 |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html#s4 |accessdate=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwrIjXxw|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> [[File:Mahameru-volcano.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Mount Semeru]] and [[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.]] Indonesia's location on the edges of the [[Pacific plate|Pacific]], [[Eurasian plate|Eurasian]], and [[Australian plate|Australian]] [[tectonic plate]]s makes it the site of numerous [[List of volcanoes in Indonesia|volcanoes]] and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least [[List of volcanoes in Indonesia|150 active volcanoes]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=06&rpage=list| title=Volcanoes of Indonesia| publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]| accessdate=2007-03-25| work=Global Volcanism Program}}</ref> including [[Krakatoa]] and [[Mount Tambora|Tambora]], both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the [[Lake Toba|Toba]] [[supervolcano]], approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a [[Toba catastrophe theory|global catastrophe]]. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the [[2004 tsunami]] that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,<ref>{{cite web| title =The Human Toll | work =UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery | publisher =[[United Nations]] | url =http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp | archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20070519133441/http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp | archivedate =2007-05-19 | accessdate =2007-03-25 }}</ref> and the [[May 2006 Java earthquake|Yogyakarta earthquake]] in 2006. However, [[volcanic ash]] is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=95–97 |id=}}</ref> {{anchor|Climate}} Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a [[tropical climate]], with two distinct [[monsoon]]al [[Wet season|wet]] and [[Dry season|dry]] seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175&nbsp;millimeters (70–125&nbsp;in), and up to 6,100&nbsp;millimeters (240&nbsp;in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily [[temperature range]] of Jakarta is {{convert|26|–|30|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web | title =About Jakarta And Depok |work =University of Indonesia |publisher =University of Indonesia |url =http://www.ui.ac.id/english/menu_statis.php?id=c6&hal=c_about_jkt |accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref> ==Biota and environment== {{main|Fauna of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia|Environment of Indonesia}} [[File:Man of the woods.JPG|thumb|The [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] [[Sumatran Orangutan]], a great ape [[Endemism|endemic]] to Indonesia.]] Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of [[biodiversity]] (after [[Brazil]]),<ref name="LESTER">{{cite book |last =Lester | first =Brown, R | title =State of the World 1997: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (14th edition) | publisher =W. W. Norton & Company | year = and 1997 | location =New York | page =7 | isbn=0393040089 }}</ref> and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and [[Australasia]]n species.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People |publisher=Islam Online |date=2003-05-22 |url=http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml |accessdate=2006-10-06}}</ref> Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the [[Sunda Shelf]] (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the [[Sumatran tiger|tiger]], [[rhinoceros]], [[orangutan]], [[Asian Elephant|elephant]], and [[leopard]], were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Globalis-Indonesia |publisher=Global Virtual University |work=Globalis, an interactive world map |url=http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/country.cfm?Country=ID |accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T. |coauthors=Henderson, G., Mustafa, M. |title=The Ecology of Sulawesi |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |isbn=962-593-075-2}}; {{cite book |last=Monk, |first=K.A. |coauthors=Fretes, Y., Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. |title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |isbn=962-593-076-0}}</ref> Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a [[Fauna of New Guinea|unique fauna and flora]] closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia |publisher=InterKnowledge Corp. |url=http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm |accessdate=2006-10-06}}</ref> Indonesia is second only to Australia in its degree of [[endemism]], with 26% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.<ref>[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html Lambertini, A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Indonesia's 80,000&nbsp;kilometers (50,000&nbsp;mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal [[ecosystem]]s, including beaches, [[sand dune]]s, [[Estuary|estuaries]], [[mangroves]], [[coral reef]]s, [[sea grass]] beds, [[Mudflat|coastal mudflats]], tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.<ref name="EcoSeas1"/> The British naturalist, [[Alfred Wallace]], described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.<ref name="Severin">{{cite book |last=Severin |first=Tim |title=The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace |publisher=Abacus Travel |year=1997 |location=Great Britain |isbn=0-349-11040-9}}</ref> Known as the [[Wallace Line]], it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep [[Lombok Strait]], between [[Lombok]] and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, ''[[The Malay Archipelago]]'', Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=A.R. |title=The Malay Archipelago |publisher=Periplus Editions |date=2000 (originally 1869) |isbn=962-593-645-9}}</ref> The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed [[Wallacea]].<ref name="Severin"/> Indonesia's high population and rapid [[industrialization]] present serious [[Environmental issues in Indonesia|environmental issues]], which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.<ref name="forestprob">{{cite paper |author=Jason R. Miller |title=Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population |publisher=TED Case Studies |date=1997-01-30 |url=http://www.american.edu/TED/orang.htm |accessdate=2007-08-14}}</ref> Issues include [[Deforestation in Indonesia | large-scale deforestation]] (much of it [[Illegal logging|illegal]]) and related wildfires causing [[Haze#Haze in Southeast Asia|heavy smog]] over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid [[urbanization]] and [[economic development]], including [[air pollution]], [[traffic congestion]], garbage management, and reliable water and [[Wastewater|waste water]] services.<ref name="forestprob"/> Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{cite web |last=Higgins |first=Andrew |title=A climate threat, rising from the soil | publisher=The Washington Post | url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/18/AR2009111804162.html |accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> [[Habitat destruction]] threatens the survival of indigenous and [[Endemism|endemic]] species, including 140 species of [[mammals]] identified by the [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN) as [[Threatened species|threatened]], and 15 identified as critically [[Endangered species|endangered]], including the [[Sumatran Orangutan]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Massicot |first=Paul |title=Animal Info - Indonesia |publisher=Animal Info - Information on Endangered Mammals |url=http://www.animalinfo.org/country/indones.htm |accessdate=2007-08-14}}</ref> ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Indonesia}} [[File:KerbauJawa.jpg|right|thumb|Using [[Domestic buffalo|water buffalo]] to plough [[rice fields]] in [[Java]]. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.]] Indonesia is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the [[G-20 major economies]].<ref>[http://www.g20.org/about_what_is_g20.aspx What is the G-20], www.g20.org. Retrieved 2009-10-6</ref> Indonesia's estimated [[gross domestic product|gross domestic product (nominal)]] for 2008 was US$511.7 billion with estimated nominal [[per capita GDP]] was US$2,246, and per capita GDP PPP was US$3,979 ([[international dollar|international dollars]]).<ref>http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=11&c=536&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIE%2CLP&grp=0&a=</ref> The [[Service Sector|services sector]] is the economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by [[Industrial sector|industry]] (40.7%) and [[agriculture]] (14.0%).<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Statistics and its Development in Indonesia |work=Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18–20 February 2004 |publisher=Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific |page=19 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |accessdate=2008-12-29}}</ref> However, agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia at a Glance |work=Indonesia Development Indicators and Data |publisher=[[World Bank]] |date=13 August 2006 |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/idn_aag.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-12-29}}</ref> Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include [[palm oil]], [[rice]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[spices]], and [[rubber]]. Indonesia's main export markets (2005) are [[Japan]] (22.3%), the [[United States]] (13.9%), [[China]] (9.1%), and [[Singapore]] (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a [[trade surplus]] with [[export]] revenues of US$83.64 billion and [[import]] expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, [[natural gas]], [[tin]], [[copper]], and [[gold]]. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.<ref name="indoCIA"/> [[File:Jakarta4.JPG|left|thumb|[[Jakarta]], the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center]] In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe [[poverty]] and [[hunger]].<ref>By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual [[inflation]], shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible [[Investment#Economics|investment]]. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57</ref> Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought [[Berkeley Mafia|a degree of discipline]] to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the [[Indonesian rupiah|currency]], rescheduled [[foreign debt]], and attracted foreign aid and investment.<ref name="SCHWARZ">Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57</ref> Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of [[OPEC]], and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates.<ref>averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57</ref> Following further reforms in the late 1980s,<ref> Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57).</ref> foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented [[Secondary sector of industry|manufacturing sector]], and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.<ref>Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57; {{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia: Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[The World Bank]] |month=September | year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[Asian financial crisis|East Asian financial crisis]] of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the [[Rupiah]] dropped from about Rp. 2,600 to a low point of 14,000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%.<ref name="CountryBrief">{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[The World Bank]] |month=September | year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |accessdate=}}</ref> The Rupiah has since stabilised in the Rp. 8,000 to 10,000 range,<ref>http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory</ref> and a slow but significant economic recovery has ensued. However, political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have slowed the recovery.<ref name=economist1>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064}}; [http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8001604 (subsequent correction)]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Guerin |first=G. | title=Don't count on a Suharto accounting |journal=Asia Tims Online |publisher=Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong |date=23 May 2006 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HE23Ae01.html |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Transparency International]] ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{cite web |title =[[Corruption Perceptions Index]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2007 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |accessdate = 2007-09-28}}</ref> The rank dropped to 111st out of 180 in 2009 <ref>{{cite web |title =[[Corruption Perceptions Index]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2009 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table |accessdate = 2010-01-27}}</ref>GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecast to increase further.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Forecast |work=Country Briefings |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=3 October 2006 |url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |accessdate=}}</ref> This growth rate, however, was not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064}} [http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8001604 (subsequent correction)]; {{cite news | author=Ridwan Max Sijabat|title =Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape| publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]]| date=23 March 2007| url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp}}</ref> and stagnant wages growth and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels. As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population was living below the [[Poverty threshold|poverty line]], defined by the Indonesian government as [[purchasing power parity]] of US$1.55 per day (household income). According to the 2006 estimates, nearly half of the population was living on less than US$2 per day.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor - Overview |publisher=[[World Bank]] |year=2006 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> In recent years, the strongest growth rates since the Suharto years have helped the unemployment rate decline to 8.46% in 2008,<ref>{{cite press release |title=Indonesia: BPS-STATISTICS INDONESIA STRATEGIC DATA |publisher=BPS-Statistic Indonesia |year=2009 |accessdate=November 2008 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/eng/download_file/data_strategis.pdf}}; {{cite press release |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |title=Beberapa Indikator Penting Mengenai Indonesia |date=2 December 2008 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf|format=PDF |language=[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] |accessdate=2008-03-18}}</ref> and in comparison to its neighbours, Indonesia has been less affected by the recent [[global recession]].<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/car072809b.htm International Monetary Fund]</ref> ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Indonesia|Languages of Indonesia|Religion in Indonesia}} The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million,<ref name="bps2000">{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |date=30 June 2000 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and ''Statistics Indonesia'' estimate a population of 222 million for 2006.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=1 September 2006 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf|format=PDF |language=[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] |accessdate=2006-09-26}}</ref> 130 million people live on the island of [[Java]], the world's most populous island.<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=3 May 2006 |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=2006-09-26}}</ref> Despite a fairly effective [[family planning]] program that has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 254 million by 2020 and 288 million by 2050.<ref>[World Population Prospects (2008) http://esa.un.org/unpp/ United Nations]</ref> [[File:Joyce.png|right|thumb|upright|An ethnic [[Minangkabau]] woman in traditional dress. There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia.]] Most Indonesians are descended from [[Austronesian]]-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto Austronesian (PAn), which likely originated on Taiwan. The other major grouping are [[Melanesia]]ns, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.<ref>Taylor (2003), pages 5–7, {{cite book | last = Dawson| first = B.| coauthors = Gillow, J.| title = The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia | publisher = Thames and Hudson Ltd | year = 1994 | location = London | page = 7 | isbn = 0-500-34132-X }}; {{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indonesia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =139, 181, 251, 435 | isbn=1-74059-154-2 }}</ref> There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Expat Web Site Association |title=An Overview of Indonesia |work=Living in Indonesia, A Site for Expatriates |url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/overview.html |accessdate=2006-10-05}}; {{cite web |last=Merdekawaty |first=E. |title="Bahasa Indonesia" and languages of Indonesia |work=UNIBZ - Introduction to Linguistics |publisher=Free University of Bozen |date=2006-07-06 |url=http://www.languagestudies.unibz.it/Bahasa%20Indonesia_Merdekawaty.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> The largest ethnic group is the [[Javanese people|Javanese]], who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kingsbury |first=Damien |title=Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia |publisher=Routledge |page=131 |isbn=0-415-29737-0 |year=2003}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], ethnic [[Malay (ethnic group)|Malays]], and [[Madurese people|Madurese]] are the largest non-Javanese groups.<ref>Small but significant populations of [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]], Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in [[urban area]]s.</ref> A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.<ref name="RICKLEFS_256">Ricklefs (1991), page 256</ref> Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.<ref> Domestic migration (including the official [[Transmigrasi]] program) are a cause of violence such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local [[Dayak people|Dayak]] community in [[West Kalimantan]], and conflicts in [[Maluku]], [[Sulawesi Tengah|Central Sulawesi]], and parts of [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] and [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] {{cite paper |author=T.N. Pudjiastuti |title=Migration & Conflict in Indonesia |publisher=International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris |year=2002 |url=http://www.iussp.org/Bangkok2002/S15Pudjiastuti.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2006-09-17}}; {{cite web|title=Kalimantan The Conflict|work=Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research |url=http://www.preventconflict.org/portal/main/maps_kalimantan_conflict.php |accessdate=2007-01-07 |publisher=Conflict Prevention Initiative, Harvard University}}; {{cite conference|author=J.W. Ajawaila; M.J. Papilaya; Tonny D. Pariela; F. Nahusona; G. Leasa; T. Soumokil; James Lalaun and W. R. Sihasale |title=Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon |publisher=Fica-Net |year=1999 |location=Ambon, Indonesia |url=http://www.fica.org/h/ambon/idRusuh1.html |accessdate=2006-09-29| booktitle=Report on Church and Human Rights Persecution in Indonesia}}; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies {{PDFlink|[http://sulawesi.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/lib/pdf/MRidwanAlimuddin.pdf Bugis Sailors]|124&nbsp;KB}}</ref> [[Chinese Indonesian]]s are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than 1% of the population.<ref>{{cite book | last = | first = | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies| title =Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape| date = | year =2003 | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled,<ref>Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80–81; Friend (2003), pages 85–87, 164–165, 233–237</ref> which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.<ref>{{cite web |author=M. F. Swasono |title=Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia |work=Integration of endogenous cultural dimension into development |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi |year=1997 |url=http://ignca.nic.in/cd_05008.htm |accessdate=2006-09-17}}; {{cite web |first=S. Long |title=The Overseas Chinese |publisher=Prospect Magazine |date=9 April 1998 |url=http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=4212 |accessdate=2006-09-17}} The [[Jakarta Riots of May 1998|riots in Jakarta in 1998]]—much of which were aimed at the Chinese—were, in part, expressions of this resentment. {{cite web |author=M. Ocorandi |title=An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians |publisher=Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission |date=28 May 1998 |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54b/083.html |accessdate=2006-09-26}}; {{cite web |author=F.H. Winarta |title=Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Belum Menjadi Kenyataan Menjelang HUT Kemerdekaan RI Ke-59 |publisher=Komisi Hukum Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Law Commission, Republic of Indonesia), Jakarta |month=August | year=2004 |url=http://ignca.nic.in/cd_05008.htm |language=[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]}}</ref> [[File:Istiqlal Mosque Monas.jpg|The [[Istiqlal Mosque]] and [[Jakarta Cathedral]] in Central [[Jakarta]]. Indonesia has the world's largest population of Muslims|thumb|left]] The official national language, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], is universally taught in schools, and consequently is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was constructed from a [[lingua franca]] that was in wide use throughout the region, and is thus closely related to [[Malay language|Malay]] which is an official language in Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the [[official language]] on the proclamation of independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the [[Languages of Indonesia|several hundred local languages]] (''bahasa daerah''), often as their [[first language]]. Of these, [[Javanese language|Javanese]] is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.<ref name=indoCIA>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]|title=Indonesia |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html |year=2009|accessdate=January 27, 2010}}</ref> On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] and [[Austronesian languages]],<ref>http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDP</ref> in a region of about 2.7 million people. A significant fraction of the people who attended school before independence can speak Dutch to some extent.<ref>[http://taalunieversum.org/en/dutch_worldwide/ taalunieversum]</ref> Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,<ref>{{cite web |title=The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia |work=US-ASEAN |url=http://www.us-asean.org/Indonesia/constitution.htm |accessdate=2006-10-02}}</ref> the government officially recognizes only six religions: [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], [[Protestantism]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Confucianism]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=8 |month=August | year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate= 2006-10-02}}</ref> Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority nation]], with 86.1% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 [[census]].<ref name="indoCIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indonesia - The World Factbook}}</ref> 8.7% of the population is [[Christianity|Christian]],<ref>of which roughly two-thirds are [[Protestant]]</ref> 3% are Hindu, and 1.8% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are [[Balinese people|Balinese]],<ref name="OEYBALI">{{citation |last=Oey |first=Eric |title=Bali |place=Singapore |publisher=Periplus Editions |year=1997 |edition=3rd |id=ISBN 962-593-028-0}}</ref> and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia - Buddhism |publisher=U.S. Library of Congress |url= http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/40.htm |accessdate=2006-10-15}}</ref> Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in [[culture of Indonesia|Indonesian culture]]. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.<ref name="csi">{{cite web |title=Indonesia - Islam |publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/37.htm |accessdate=2006-10-15}}</ref> Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp. 25, 26, 28 ; {{cite web | title =1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade Empires | publisher = Sejarah Indonesia | url =http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah02.shtml | accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch [[Calvinist]] and [[Lutheran]] missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22; {{cite book | last = Goh | first = Robbie B.H. | title = Christianity in Southeast Asia | publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | page = 80 | isbn = 9812302972 | year = 2005 }}</ref> A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese ''[[abangan]]'', Balinese Hindus, and [[Dayak people|Dayak]] Christians—practice a less [[Orthodoxy|orthodox]], [[Syncretism|syncretic]] form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.<ref>Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, ''Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life'', PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15–18, ISBN 979-605-406-X; {{cite press release |title =Indonesia Annual International Religious Freedom Report 2003 |publisher =Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Embassy of the United States |date =2003-12-18 |location =Jakarta, Indonesia |url =http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/press_rel/religious_report2003.html |accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}</ref> ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Indonesia}} [[File:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|upright|A [[Wayang|Wayang kulit]] shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience]] Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with [[Cultural identity|cultural differences]] developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, [[Arab]]ic, Chinese,European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do ''[[Wayang|wayang kulit]]'' (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as [[batik]], [[ikat]] and [[songket]] are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on [[Indonesian architecture]] have traditionally been [[Indian architecture|Indian]]; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.<ref>{{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indonesia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =103 | isbn = 1-74059-154-2 }}</ref> The most popular sports are [[badminton]] and [[football (soccer)|football]]. [[Indonesia national badminton team|Indonesian teams]] have won the [[Thomas Cup]] (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-five times that it has been held since 1949, as well as Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the [[Uber Cup]], the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in [[1994 Uber Cup|1994]] and [[1996 Uber Cup|1996]]. [[Liga Indonesia]] is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include ''[[sepak takraw]]'', and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, ''caci'' in [[Flores]], and ''[[pasola]]'' in [[Sumba]]. ''[[Pencak Silat]]'' is an Indonesian martial art. [[File:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|left|A selection of [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesian food]], including ''Soto Ayam'' (chicken soup), ''sate kerang'' ([[satay|shellfish kebabs]]), ''telor pindang'' (preserved eggs), ''perkedel'' (fritter), and ''es teh manis'' (sweet iced tea)<!-- "teh" is the Indonesian word for tea - this is not a misspelling of "the" -->]] [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesian cuisine]] varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, [[Middle East]]ern, and Indian precedents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Witton |first=Patrick |title=World Food: Indonesia |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2002 |location=Melbourne |isbn=1-74059-009-0}}</ref> Rice is the main [[staple food]] and is served with [[side dish]]es of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), [[coconut milk]], fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.<ref>Compared to the infused flavors of [[Vietnamese food|Vietnamese]] and [[Thai food]], flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial. {{cite book |last=Brissendon |first=Rosemary |title=South East Asian Food |publisher=Hardie Grant Books |year=2003 |location=Melbourne|isbn=1-74066-013-7}}</ref> Indonesian traditional music includes ''[[gamelan]]'' and ''[[kroncong|keroncong]]''. ''[[Dangdut]]'' is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The [[Cinema of Indonesia|Indonesian film industry's]] popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,<ref name="kompasmovies">{{cite news |last=Kristianto |first=JB |title=Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia |language=Indonesian |publisher=Kompas |date=2005-07-02 |url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.<ref>{{id icon}} {{cite web |title=Kondisi Perfilman di Indonesia (The State of The Film Industry in Indonesia) |work=Panton |url=http://www.geocities.com/Paris/7229/film.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.<ref name="kompasmovies"/> The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author [[Multatuli]], who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans [[Muhammad Yamin]] and [[Hamka]], who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;<ref>Taylor (2003), pages 299–301</ref> and proletarian writer [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], Indonesia's most famous novelist.<ref>Vickers (2005) pages 3 to 7; Friend (2003), pages 74, 180</ref> Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted [[oral tradition]]s, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.<ref name="UNESCO Jakarta, Indonesia">{{cite web |last= Czermak|first= Karen|authorlink= |coauthors= Philippe DeLanghe, Wei Weng|title="Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage in Indonesia"|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|format=PDF |accessdate= 2007-07-04}}</ref> [[Media of Indonesia|Media]] freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President [[Suharto]]'s rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shannon L. |first=Smith |coauthors=Lloyd Grayson J. |title=Indonesia Today: Challenges of History |publisher=Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2001 |location=Melbourne, Australia |isbn=0-7425-1761-6}}</ref> The [[Television|TV]] market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public [[TVRI]]. Private [[radio station]]s carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,<ref>{{cite web | title =Internet World Stats | work =Asia Internet Usage, Population Statistics and Information | publisher =Miniwatts Marketing Group | year =2006 | url =http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#id | accessdate =2007-08-13 }}</ref> Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009.<ref>Internet World Stats http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Indonesia|Garuda Pancasila, Coat Arms of Indonesia.svg}} {{Indonesia topics}} ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * {{cite book |last=Friend |first=T. |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-674-01137-6}} * {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition |publisher=MacMillan |year=1991 |isbn=0-333-57689-X}} * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2}} * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}} * {{cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-521-54262-6}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks}} ; Government * [http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/ Government of Indonesia] * [http://www.setneg.go.id/ Minister of The State Secretary] {{id icon}} * [http://www.antara.co.id/en/ Antara – National News Agency] * [http://www.bps.go.id/ Statistics Center] * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-i/indonesia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] ; General information * {{CIA World Factbook link|id|Indonesia}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/indonesia.htm Indonesia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Indonesia}} * {{wikiatlas|Indonesia}} * {{wikitravel}} {{Indonesia topics|state=collapsed}} {{Countries and territories of Southeast Asia|state=expanded}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Indonesia| ]] [[Category:Southeast Asian countries]] [[Category:Association of Southeast Asian Nations member states]] [[Category:G20 nations]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]] [[Category:Organisation of the Islamic Conference members]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Liberal democracies]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1949]] [[Category:Malay-speaking countries and territories]] {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|id}} {{Link FA|ms}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[ace:Indônèsia]] [[af:Indonesië]] [[als:Indonesien]] [[ar:إندونيسيا]] [[an:Indonesia]] [[roa-rup:Indonezia]] [[frp:Endonèsie]] [[as:ইন্দোনেশিয়া]] [[ast:Indonesia]] [[az:İndoneziya]] [[bn:ইন্দোনেশিয়া]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-nî]] [[map-bms:Indonesia]] [[ba:Индонезия]] [[be:Інданезія]] [[be-x-old:Інданэзія]] [[bcl:Indonesya]] [[bo:ཨིན་རྡུ་ནི་ཤིས་ཡ།]] [[bs:Indonezija]] [[br:Indonezia]] [[bg:Индонезия]] [[ca:Indonèsia]] [[cv:Индонези]] [[ceb:Indonesia]] [[cs:Indonésie]] [[cy:Indonesia]] [[da:Indonesien]] [[de:Indonesien]] [[dv:އިންޑޮނޭޝިޔާ]] [[nv:Indoníízha]] [[et:Indoneesia]] [[el:Ινδονησία]] [[es:Indonesia]] [[eo:Indonezio]] [[ext:Indonésia]] [[eu:Indonesia]] [[fa:اندونزی]] [[hif:Indonesia]] [[fr:Indonésie]] [[fy:Yndoneezje]] [[ga:An Indinéis]] [[gv:Yn Indoneesh]] [[gd:An Innd-Innse]] [[gl:Indonesia]] [[gan:印度尼西亞]] [[gu:ઈંડોનેશિયા]] [[hak:Yin-thu-nì-sî-â]] [[ko:인도네시아]] [[haw:‘Inidonesia]] [[hy:Ինդոնեզիա]] [[hi:इंडोनेशिया]] [[hsb:Indoneska]] [[hr:Indonezija]] [[io:Indonezia]] [[ilo:Indonesia]] [[bpy:ইন্দোনেশিয়া]] [[id:Indonesia]] [[ia:Indonesia]] [[ie:Indonesia]] [[os:Индонези]] [[is:Indónesía]] [[it:Indonesia]] [[he:אינדונזיה]] [[jv:Indonésia]] [[kn:ಇಂಡೋನೇಷ್ಯಾ]] [[pam:Indonesia]] [[ka:ინდონეზია]] [[csb:Jindonezjô]] [[kk:Индонезия Республикасы]] [[kw:Indonesi]] [[ky:Индонезия]] [[sw:Indonesia]] [[kv:Индонезия]] [[ht:Endonezi]] [[ku:Îndonêziya]] [[la:Indonesia]] [[lv:Indonēzija]] [[lb:Indonesien]] [[lt:Indonezija]] [[lij:Indonexia]] [[li:Indonesië]] [[ln:Indoneziá]] [[jbo:bidgu'e]] [[lmo:Indunesia]] [[hu:Indonézia]] [[mk:Индонезија]] [[mg:Indonezia]] [[ml:ഇന്തോനേഷ്യ]] [[mi:Initonīhia]] [[mr:इंडोनेशिया]] [[arz:اندونيسيا]] [[mzn:اندونزی]] [[ms:Indonesia]] [[mn:Индонез]] [[my:အင်ဒိုနီးရှားနိုင်ငံ]] [[nah:Indonesia]] [[na:Indonesia]] [[nl:Indonesië]] [[nds-nl:Indonezie]] [[new:इण्डोनेसिया]] [[ja:インドネシア]] [[nap:Indonesia]] [[pih:Endonesya]] [[no:Indonesia]] [[nn:Indonesia]] [[nov:Indonesia]] [[oc:Indonesia]] [[pnb:انڈونیشیا]] [[pap:Indonesia]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌូនេស៊ី]] [[pms:Indonesia]] [[tpi:Indonisia]] [[nds:Indonesien]] [[pl:Indonezja]] [[pt:Indonésia]] [[crh:İndoneziya]] [[ro:Indonezia]] [[rm:Indonesia]] [[qu:Indunisya]] [[ru:Индонезия]] [[sah:Индонезия]] [[se:Indonesia]] [[sa:इन्दोनेशिया]] [[stq:Indonesien]] [[sq:Indonezia]] [[scn:Indunesia]] [[simple:Indonesia]] [[sk:Indonézia]] [[cu:Їндонисі́ꙗ]] [[sl:Indonezija]] [[szl:Indůnezyjo]] [[so:Indonesia]] [[sr:Индонезија]] [[sh:Indonezija]] [[su:Républik Indonésia]] [[fi:Indonesia]] [[sv:Indonesien]] [[tl:Indonesya]] [[ta:இந்தோனேசியா]] [[tt:Индонезия]] [[te:ఇండోనేషియా]] [[tet:Indonézia]] [[th:ประเทศอินโดนีเซีย]] [[tg:Индонезия]] [[tr:Endonezya]] [[tk:Indoneziýa]] [[udm:Индонезия]] [[bug:Indonesia]] [[uk:Індонезія]] [[ur:انڈونیشیا]] [[ug:ھىندونېزىيە]] [[vec:Indonexia]] [[vi:Indonesia]] [[vo:Lindäna-Seänuäns]] [[zh-classical:印度尼西亞]] [[war:Indonesia]] [[wo:Endoneesi]] [[wuu:印度尼西亚]] [[yi:אינדאנעזיע]] [[yo:Indonésíà]] [[zh-yue:印尼]] [[diq:İndonezya]] [[bat-smg:Induonezėjė]] [[zh:印度尼西亚]]'