Examine individual changes

'[[File:Lu( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)xorTemple03.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in background.|[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] with [[cartouche]]s( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°) for the name "[[Ramesses II]]", from the [[Luxor Temple]], [[New Kingdom]]]] {{History of literature by era}} '''Ancient Egyptian literature''' was written in the [[Egyptian language]] from [[ancient Egypt]]'s [[History of ancient Egypt|pharaonic period]] until the end of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman domination]]. It represents the oldest [[Text corpus|corpus]] of [[Literature of Egypt|Egyptian literature]]. Along with [[Sumerian literature]], it is considered the world's [[Ancient literature|earliest literature]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xx}}.</ref> [[Writing in ancient Egypt]]—both [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] and [[hieratic]]—first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of [[predynastic Egypt]]. By the [[Old Kingdom]] (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included [[Ancient Egyptian funerary texts|funerary texts]], [[epistle]]s and letters, [[hymns]] and poems, and commemorative [[Autobiography|autobiographical]] texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early [[( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created. This was a "media revolution" which, according to [[Richard B. Parkinson]], was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of [[scribe]]s, new cultural sensibilities about individuality, unprecedented levels of literacy, and mainstream access to written materials.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=64–66}}.</ref> However, it is possible that the overall [[literacy rate]] was less than one percent of the entire population. The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise, monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling [[pharaoh]]. However, there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)vancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts. [[Middle Egyptian]], the [[spoken language]] of the Middle Kingdom, became a [[classical language]] during the [[New Kingdom]] (16th century BC to 11th century BC), when the [[vernacular language]] known as [[Late Egyptian]] first appeared in writing. Scribes of the New Kingdom [[Wiktionary:canon|canonized]] and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian, which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts. Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature, such as "[[Sebayt|teachings]]" and [[Traditional stories|fictional tales]], remained popular in the New Kingdom, although the genre of [[Prophecy|prophetic texts]] was not revived until the [[History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic period]] (4th century BC to 1st century BC). Popular tales included the ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'' and ''[[The Eloquent Peasant]]'', while important teaching texts include the ''[[Instructions of Amenemhat]]'' and ''[[The Loyalist Teaching]]''. By the New Kingdom period, the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature, yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres. The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres, while texts of the "teaching" genre were [[pseudonym]]ous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures. Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media. This includes [[papyrus]] scrolls and packets, limestone or ceramic [[ostracon|ostraca]], wooden writing boards, [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|monumental stone edifices]] and [[Coffin Texts|coffins]]. Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material. The area of the [[Flooding of the Nile|floodplain of the Nile]] is under-represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions. On the other hand, hidden caches of literature, buried for thousands of years, have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization. ==Scripts, media, and languages==( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°) ===Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic=== {{main|Writing in ancient Egypt}} [[File:Neferetiabet.jpg|thumb|alt=A flat limestone block with a painted, carved raised-relief of woman in spotted linen cloth, seated near table with food items. Painted hieroglyphs decorate the rest of the surface.|The [[slab stela]] of the [[Old Kingdom]] Egyptian princess Neferetiabet (dated ''c''. 2590–2565 BC), from her tomb at [[Giza]], with [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] carved and painted on [[limestone]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=26}}.</ref>]] {{Ancient Egyptian culture}} By the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]] in the late 4th millennium BC, [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] and their cursive form [[hieratic]] were well-established [[Writing system|written scripts]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=7–10}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=10–12}}; {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=2}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=1–2, 6 }}.</ref> Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|p=28}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=13}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=3}}.</ref> For example, the hieroglyph for [[door bolt (s hieroglyph)|door-bolt]], pronounced ''se'', produced the ''[[s]]'' sound; when this hieroglyph was combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs, it produced a combination of sounds that could represent abstract concepts like sorrow, happiness, beauty, and evil.<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=13}}; for similar examples, see Allen (2000: 3) and Erman (2005: xxxv-xxxvi).</ref> The [[Narmer Palette]], dated ''[[Circa|c]]''. 3100 BC during the last phase of [[Predynastic Egypt]], combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King [[Narmer]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilkinson|2000|pp=23–24}}; {{Harvnb|Wilson|2004|p=11}}; {{Harvnb|Gardiner|1915|p=72}}.</ref> The Egyptians called their hieroglyphs "words of god" and reserved their use for exalted purposes, such as communicating with [[Ancient Egyptian religion|divinities and spirits of the dead]] through [[funerary texts]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=22, 47}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=10}}; {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=2}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=73}}.</ref> Each hieroglyphic word represented both a specific object and embodied the essence of that object, recognizing it as divinely made and belonging within the greater [[cosmos]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=10}}.</ref> Through acts of priestly ritual, like burning [[incense]], the priest allowed spirits and deities to read the hieroglyphs decorating the surfaces of temples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=63–64}}.</ref> In funerary texts beginning in and following the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth dynasty]], the Egyptians believed that disfiguring, and even omitting certain hieroglyphs, brought consequences, either good or bad, for a deceased tomb occupant whose spirit relied on the texts as a source of nourishment in the afterlife.<ref name="wilson 71 forman quirke 101 103">{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|p=71}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=101–103}}.</ref> Mutilating the hieroglyph of a [[venomous snake]], or other dangerous animal, removed a potential threat.<ref name="wilson 71 forman quirke 101 103"/> However, removing every instance of the hieroglyphs representing a deceased person's name would deprive [[Egyptian soul|his or her soul]] of the ability to read the funerary texts and condemn that soul to an inanimate existence.<ref name="wilson 71 forman quirke 101 103"/> [[File:AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A faded document with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink, slightly torn and fragmented on the right|[[Abbott Papyrus]], a record written in [[hieratic]] script; it describes an inspection of royal tombs in the [[Theban Necropolis]] and is dated to the 16th regnal year of [[Ramesses IX]], c. 1110 BC.]] Hieratic is a simplified, cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=xxxvii}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=8–9}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=19}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=6}}.</ref> Like hieroglyphs, hieratic was used in sacred and religious texts. By the 1st millennium BC, calligraphic hieratic became the script predominantly used in [[Ancient Egyptian funerary texts|funerary papyri]] and temple rolls.<ref name="forman quirke 1996 19"/> Whereas the writing of hieroglyphs required the utmost precision and care, cursive hieratic could be written much more quickly and was therefore more practical for [[scribal]] record-keeping.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Its primary purpose was to serve as a [[shorthand]] script for non-royal, non-monumental, and less formal writings such as private letters, legal documents, poems, tax records, [[Egyptian medicine|medical texts]], [[Egyptian mathematics|mathematical treatises]], and [[Sebayt|instructional guides]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=22–23, 91–92}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=73}}; {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=1–2}}; {{Harvnb|Spalinger|1990|p=297}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=6}}.</ref> Hieratic could be written in two different styles; one was more calligraphic and usually reserved for government records and literary manuscripts, the other was used for informal accounts and letters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=73–74}}; {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=19}}.</ref> By the mid-1st millennium BC, hieroglyphs and hieratic were still used for royal, monumental, religious, and funerary writings, while a new, even more cursive script was used for informal, day-to-day writing: [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]].<ref name="forman quirke 1996 19">{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=19}}.</ref> The final script adopted by the ancient Egyptians was the [[Coptic alphabet]], a revised version of the [[Greek alphabet]].<ref name="forman quirke 1996 17"/> Coptic became the standard in the 4th century AD when [[Christianity]] became the [[state religion]] throughout the [[Roman Empire]]; hieroglyphs were discarded as [[Idolatry|idolatrous images]] of a pagan tradition, unfit for writing the [[Biblical canon]].<ref name="forman quirke 1996 17">{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=17}}.</ref> ===Writing implements and materials=== [[File:OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A light-colored stone fragment with hieratic handwriting in black ink scrawled on its surface|An [[ostracon]] with [[hieratic]] script mentioning officials involved in the inspection and clearing of tombs during the [[Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt]], ''c''. 1070–945 BC]] Egyptian literature was produced on a variety of [[Media (communication)|media]]. Along with the [[chisel]], necessary for making inscriptions on stone, the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the [[reed pen]], a [[Phragmites|reed]] fashioned into a stem with a bruised, brush-like end.<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=17–19, 169}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=6}}.</ref> With pigments of carbon black and red [[ochre]], the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of [[papyrus]]—a thin material made from beating together strips of [[pith]] from the ''[[Cyperus papyrus]]'' plant—as well as on small ceramic or limestone [[potsherd]]s known as [[ostraca]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=19, 169}}; {{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=8–9}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxxvii, xlii}}; {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xv}}.</ref> It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items, since many are [[palimpsest]]s, manuscripts that have had their original contents [[Eraser|erased]] to make room for new written works.<ref name="wente 1990 4">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=4}}.</ref> This, along with the practice of tearing pieces off of larger papyrus documents to make smaller letters, suggests that there were seasonal shortages caused by the limited growing season of ''Cyperus papyrus''.<ref name="wente 1990 4"/> It also explains the frequent use of ostraca and limestone flakes as writing media for shorter written works.<ref name="Wente 1990 4–5">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=4–5}}.</ref> In addition to stone, ceramic ostraca, and papyrus, writing media also included wood, ivory, and plaster.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=5}}; {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xv}}; see also {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=5–6}} for a wooden writing board example.</ref> By the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman Period of Egypt]], the traditional Egyptian reed pen had been replaced by the chief writing tool of the [[Greco-Roman world]]: a shorter, thicker reed pen with a [[Nib (pen)|cut nib]].<ref name="forman quirke 1996 169">{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|p=169}}.</ref> Likewise, the original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of Greek [[lead]]-based [[ink]]s.<ref name="forman quirke 1996 169"/> The adoption of Greco-Roman writing tools influenced Egyptian [[handwriting]], as hieratic signs became more spaced, had rounder flourishes, and greater angular precision.<ref name="forman quirke 1996 169"/> ===Preservation of written material=== Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents. For example, there are many well-preserved ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants.<ref name="quirke 2004 14"/> However, it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non-religious papyri in burial chambers. Thus, the majority of well-preserved literary papyri are dated to this period.<ref name="quirke 2004 14">{{Harvnb|Quirke|2004|p=14}}.</ref> Most settlements in ancient Egypt were situated on the [[alluvium]] of the [[Flooding of the Nile|Nile floodplain]]. This moist environment was unfavorable for long-term preservation of papyrus documents. Archaeologists have discovered a larger quantity of papyrus documents in desert settlements on land elevated above the floodplain,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=2–3}}; {{Harvnb|Tait|2003|pp=9–10}}.</ref> and in settlements that lacked irrigation works, such as [[Elephantine]], [[El-Lahun]], and [[El-Hiba]].<ref name="wente 1990 2 3">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=2–3}}.</ref> [[Image:Egyptian harvest.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Two black-haired Egyptian peasants dressed in white-colored linen garb, standing in a field while collecting papyrus plants, with a motif of green vegetation at the bottom, and cut-off lower portion of another scene with peasants in a field at the top|Egyptian peasants [[Cyperus papyrus|harvesting papyrus]], from a mural painting in a [[Deir el-Medina]] tomb dated to the early [[Ramesside Period]] (i.e. [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth dynasty]])]] Writings on more permanent media have also been lost in several ways. Stones with inscriptions were frequently re-used as building materials, and ceramic ostraca require a dry environment to ensure the preservation of the ink on their surfaces.<ref name="tait 2003 9 10"/> Whereas papyrus rolls and packets were usually stored in boxes for safekeeping, ostraca were routinely discarded in waste pits; one such pit was discovered by chance at the [[Ramesside Period|Ramesside-era]] village of [[Deir el-Medina]], and has yielded the majority of known private letters on ostraca.<ref name="Wente 1990 4–5"/> Documents found at this site include letters, hymns, fictional narratives, recipes, business receipts, and [[Will (law)|wills and testaments]].<ref name="wilson 2003 91 93">{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=91–93}}.</ref> [[Penelope Wilson]] describes this archaeological find as the equivalent of sifting through a modern [[landfill]] or [[waste container]].<ref name="wilson 2003 91 93"/> She notes that the inhabitants of Deir el-Medina were incredibly literate by ancient Egyptian standards, and cautions that such finds only come "...in rarefied circumstances and in particular conditions."<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=91–93}}; see also {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=132–133}}.</ref> [[John W. Tait]] stresses, "Egyptian material survives in a very uneven fashion&nbsp;... the unevenness of survival comprises both time and space."<ref name="tait 2003 9 10"/> For instance, there is a dearth of written material from all periods from the [[Nile Delta]] but an abundance at western [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], dating from its heyday.<ref name="tait 2003 9 10">{{Harvnb|Tait|2003|pp=9–10}}.</ref> He notes that while some texts were copied numerous times, others survive from a single copy; for example, there is only one complete surviving copy of the ''[[Tale of the shipwrecked sailor]]'' from the Middle Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tait|2003|p=10}}; see also {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=298–299}}.</ref> However, ''Tale of the shipwrecked sailor'' also appears in fragments of texts on ostraca from the New Kingdom.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 121">{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=121}}.</ref> Many other literary works survive only in fragments or through incomplete copies of lost originals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=3–4}}; {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|pp=xvii-xviii}}.</ref> ===Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language=== [[File:Luxor, West Bank, Ramesseum, column top decorations, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|thumb|alt=Two stone columns supporting a roof, painted with faded colors and incised with writing of Egyptian hieroglyphs|Columns with inscribed and painted [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], from the [[hypostyle]] hall of the [[Ramesseum]] (at [[Luxor]]) built during the reign of [[Ramesses II]] (r. 1279–1213 BC)]] Although writing first appeared during the very late 4th millennium BC, it was only used to convey short names and labels; connected strings of text did not appear until about 2600 BC, at the beginning of the [[Old Kingdom]].<ref name="allen 2000 1">{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=1}}.</ref> This development marked the beginning of the first known phase of the [[Egyptian language]]: [[Old Egyptian]].<ref name="allen 2000 1"/> Old Egyptian remained a [[spoken language]] until about 2100 BC, when, during the beginning of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], it evolved into [[Middle Egyptian]].<ref name="allen 2000 1"/> While Middle Egyptian was closely related to Old Egyptian, [[Late Egyptian]] was significantly different in [[grammar|grammatical]] structure. Late Egyptian possibly appeared as a [[vernacular language]] as early as 1600 BC, but was not used as a [[written language]] until ''c''. 1300 BC during the [[Amarna Period]] of the [[New Kingdom]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=119}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxv-xxvi}}.</ref> Late Egyptian evolved into [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] by the 7th century BC, and although Demotic remained a spoken language until the 5th century AD, it was gradually replaced by [[Coptic language|Coptic]] beginning in the 1st century AD.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|Wildung|2003|p=61}}.</ref> Hieratic was used alongside hieroglyphs for writing in Old and Middle Egyptian, becoming the dominant form of writing in Late Egyptian.<ref name="allen 2000 6">{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=6}}.</ref> By the New Kingdom and throughout the rest of [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian history]], Middle Egyptian became a [[classical language]] that was usually reserved for reading and writing in hieroglyphs<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=1, 5–6}}; {{Harvnb|Wildung|2003|p=61}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxv-xxvii}}; {{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=4}}.</ref> and the spoken language for more exalted forms of literature, such as historical records, commemorative autobiographies, hymns, and funerary spells.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2000|p=5}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxv-xxvii}}; {{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=4}}.</ref> However, Middle Kingdom literature written in Middle Egyptian was also rewritten in hieratic during later periods.<ref name="wildung 2003 61">{{Harvnb|Wildung|2003|p=61}}.</ref> ==Literary functions: social, religious and educational== [[File:EgyptianScribe.jpg|thumb|alt=A painted, realistic stone statue of a black-haired, perhaps middle-aged man sitting cross-legged while holding a stone-carved depiction of a papyrus reading scroll in his lap|Seated statue of an Egyptian [[scribe]] holding a [[papyrus]] document in his lap, found in the western cemetery at [[Giza]], [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt]] (25th to 24th centuries BC)]] Throughout ancient Egyptian history, reading and writing were the main requirements for serving in public office, although government officials were assisted in their day-to-day work by an elite, [[Literacy|literate]] social group known as [[scribe]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=6–7}}; see also {{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=19–20, 96–97}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxvii-xxviii}}.</ref> As evidenced by [[Papyrus Anastasi I]] of the Ramesside Period, scribes could even be expected, according to Wilson, "...to organize the excavation of a lake and the building of a brick ramp, to establish the number of men needed to transport an [[obelisk]] and to arrange the provisioning of a military mission".<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|p=96}}.</ref> Besides government employment, scribal services in drafting letters, sales documents, and legal documents would have been frequently sought by illiterate people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=7–8}}.</ref> Literate people are thought to have comprised only 1% of the population,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=7–8}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=66–67}}.</ref> the remainder being illiterate farmers, herdsmen, artisans, and other laborers,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=23–24}}.</ref> as well as merchants who required the assistance of scribal secretaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|p=95}}.</ref> The privileged status of the scribe over illiterate manual laborers was the subject of a popular Ramesside Period instructional text, ''[[The Satire of the Trades]]'', where lowly, undesirable occupations, for example, potter, fisherman, laundry man, and soldier, were mocked and the scribal profession praised.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=96–98}}.</ref> A similar demeaning attitude towards the illiterate is expressed in the Middle Kingdom ''Teaching of Khety'', which is used to reinforce the scribes' elevated position within the social hierarchy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=66–67}}.</ref> [[File:Ägyptisches Museum Kairo 2016-03-29 Ka-aper 01.jpg|thumb|left|Wooden statue of the scribe [[Kaaper]], 5th or 4th dynasty of the [[Old Kingdom]], from [[Saqqara]], c. 2500 BC]] The scribal class was the social group responsible for maintaining, transmitting, and canonizing literary classics, and writing new compositions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|pp=119–121}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=50}}.</ref> Classic works, such as the ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'' and ''[[Instructions of Amenemhat]]'', were copied by schoolboys as pedagogical exercises in writing and to instill the required ethical and moral values that distinguished the scribal social class.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=97–98}}; see {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=53–54}}; see also {{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|pp=119–121}}.</ref> [[Wisdom texts]] of the "[[sebayt|teaching]]" genre represent the majority of pedagogical texts written on ostraca during the Middle Kingdom; narrative tales, such as ''Sinuhe'' and ''[[King Neferkare and General Sasenet]]'', were rarely copied for school exercises until the New Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=54–55}}; see also {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=104}}.</ref> [[William Kelly Simpson]] describes narrative tales such as ''Sinuhe'' and ''The shipwrecked sailor'' as "...instructions or teachings in the guise of narratives", since the main [[protagonist]]s of such stories embodied the accepted virtues of the day, such as love of home or self-reliance.<ref name="simpson 1972 5 6">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=5–6}}.</ref> There are some known instances where those outside the scribal profession were literate and had access to classical literature. Menena, a draughtsman working at Deir el-Medina during the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt]], quoted passages from the Middle Kingdom narratives ''[[Eloquent Peasant]]'' and ''[[Tale of the shipwrecked sailor]]'' in an instructional letter reprimanding his disobedient son.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 121"/> Menena's Ramesside contemporary Hori, the scribal author of the [[Satire|satirical]] letter in Papyrus Anastasi I, admonished his addressee for quoting the ''[[Instruction of Hardjedef]]'' in the unbecoming manner of a non-scribal, semi-educated person.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 121"/> [[Hans-Werner Fischer-Elfert]] further explains this perceived amateur affront to orthodox literature: <blockquote>What may be revealed by Hori's attack on the way in which some Ramesside scribes felt obliged to demonstrate their greater or lesser acquaintance with ancient literature is the conception that these venerable works were meant to be known in full and not to be misused as quarries for popular sayings mined deliberately from the past. The classics of the time were to be memorized completely and comprehended thoroughly before being cited.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=122}}.</ref></blockquote> [[File:Hieroglyphs from the tomb of Seti I.jpg|thumb|alt=A stone fragment with brightly-painted colors and raised-relief images of Egyptian hieroglyphs, written in vertical columns, set against a beige background|[[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphs]] from the [[Mortuary Temple of Seti I]], now located at the [[Great Hypostyle Hall, Karnak|Great Hypostyle Hall]] of [[Karnak]]]] There is limited but solid evidence in Egyptian literature and [[Art of ancient Egypt|art]] for the practice of oral reading of texts to audiences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=78–79}}; for pictures (with captions) of Egyptian miniature funerary models of boats with men reading papyrus texts aloud, see {{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=76–77, 83}}.</ref> The oral performance word "to recite" (''šdj'') was usually associated with [[biographies]], letters, and spells.<ref name="parkinson 2002 78 79"/> Singing (''ḥsj'') was meant for praise songs, [[love song]]s, funerary [[lament]]s, and certain spells.<ref name="parkinson 2002 78 79"/> [[Discourse]]s such as the ''[[Prophecy of Neferti]]'' suggest that compositions were meant for oral reading among elite gatherings.<ref name="parkinson 2002 78 79">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=78–79}}.</ref> In the 1st millennium BC Demotic [[short story cycle]] centered on the deeds of [[Petiese]], the stories begin with the phrase "The voice which is before Pharaoh", which indicates that an oral speaker and audience was involved in the reading of the text.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|p=93}}.</ref> A fictional audience of high government officials and members of the royal court are mentioned in some texts, but a wider, non-literate audience may have been involved.<ref name="parkinson 2002 80 81"/> For example, a funerary stela of [[Senusret I]] (r. 1971–1926 BC) explicitly mentions people who will gather and listen to a scribe who "recites" the stela inscriptions out loud.<ref name="parkinson 2002 80 81">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=80–81}}.</ref> Literature also served religious purposes. Beginning with the ''[[Pyramid Texts]]'' of the Old Kingdom, works of funerary literature written on tomb walls, and later on [[Coffin Texts|coffins]], and [[Book of the Dead|papyri]] placed within tombs, were designed to protect and nurture souls in their afterlife.<ref name="forman quirke budge">{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=51–56, 62–63, 68–72, 111–112}}; {{Harvnb|Budge|1972|pp=240–243}}.</ref> This included the use of magical spells, [[incantation]]s, and lyrical hymns.<ref name="forman quirke budge"/> Copies of non-funerary literary texts found in non-royal tombs suggest that the dead could entertain themselves in the afterlife by reading these teaching texts and narrative tales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=70}}.</ref> Although the creation of literature was predominantly a male scribal pursuit, some works are thought to have been written by women. For example, several references to women writing letters and surviving private letters sent and received by women have been found.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=1, 9, 132–133}}.</ref> However, [[Edward F. Wente]] asserts that, even with explicit references to women reading letters, it is possible that women employed others to write documents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=9}}.</ref> ==Dating, setting, and authorship== [[File:Minnakht 01.JPG|thumb|left|alt=A flat stone surface, beige in color, with incised markings of Egyptian hieroglyphs written in clearly-marked horizontal columns|The [[stela]] of Minnakht, chief of the [[scribe]]s, [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]] inscriptions, dated to the reign of [[Ay]] (''r''. 1323–1319 BC)]] [[Richard B. Parkinson]] and [[Ludwig D. Morenz]] write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as ''[[belles-lettres]]'' ("beautiful writing")—was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46, 49–50, 55–56}}; {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}; see also {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=3–6}} and {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxiv-xxv}}.</ref> Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.<ref name="morenz 2003 102"/> Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the [[oral literature]] of the Old Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46, 49–50, 55–56}}; {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}.</ref> It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.<ref name="morenz 2003 102">{{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}.</ref> Dating texts by methods of [[palaeography]], the study of handwriting, is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script.<ref name="parkinson 2002 47 48">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=47–48}}.</ref> The use of [[orthography]], the study of writing systems and symbol usage, is also problematic, since some texts' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older [[archetype]].<ref name="parkinson 2002 47 48"/> Fictional accounts were often set in remote historical settings, the use of contemporary settings in fiction being a relatively recent phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46}}; {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|pp=103–104}}.</ref> The style of a text provides little help in determining an exact date for its composition, as genre and authorial choice might be more concerned with the mood of a text than the era in which it was written.<ref name="parkinson 2002 46">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=46}}.</ref> For example, authors of the Middle Kingdom could set fictional [[wisdom texts]] in the [[golden age]] of the Old Kingdom (e.g. ''[[Instructions of Kagemni|Kagemni]]'', ''Ptahhotep'', and the prologue of ''Neferti''), or they could write fictional accounts placed in a chaotic age resembling more the problematic life of the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]] (e.g. ''[[Teaching for King Merykare|Merykare]]'' and ''The Eloquent Peasant'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=46–47}}; see also {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|pp=101–102}}.</ref> Other fictional texts are set [[List of Latin phrases: I#in illo tempore|''in illo tempore'']] (in an indeterminable era) and usually contain timeless themes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|pp=104–107}}.</ref> [[File:The Heqanakht letters.jpg|thumb|alt=A museum display of an ancient fragment of a papyrus document safeguarded by sealed thick glass, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink on its surface|One of the [[Heqanakht papyri]], a collection of hieratic [[Letter (message)|private letters]] dated to the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh dynasty]] of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]<ref name="wente 1990 54 55 58 63">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=54–55, 58–63}}.</ref>]] Parkinson writes that nearly all literary texts were [[pseudonym]]ous, and frequently falsely attributed to well-known male protagonists of earlier history, such as [[Pharaoh|kings]] and [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|viziers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=75–76}}.</ref> Only the literary genres of "teaching" and "laments/discourses" contain works attributed to historical authors; texts in genres such as "narrative tales" were never attributed to a well-known historical person.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=75–76}}; {{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=120}}.</ref> Tait asserts that during the Classical Period of Egypt, "Egyptian scribes constructed their own view of the history of the role of scribes and of the 'authorship' of texts", but during the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]], this role was instead maintained by the religious elite attached to the temples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tait|2003|pp=12–13}}.</ref> There are a few exceptions to the rule of pseudonymity. The real authors of some Ramesside Period teaching texts were acknowledged, but these cases are rare, localized, and do not typify mainstream works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=238–239}}.</ref> Those who wrote private and sometimes model letters were acknowledged as the original authors. Private letters could be used in courts of law as testimony, since a person's unique handwriting could be identified as authentic.<ref name="wente 1990 7">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=7}}.</ref> Private letters received or written by the pharaoh were sometimes inscribed in hieroglyphics on stone monuments to celebrate kingship, while kings' decrees inscribed on [[:Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas|stone stelas]] were often made public.<ref name="wente 1990 17 18">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=17–18}}.</ref> ==Literary genres and subjects== {{for|technical works outside literature proper|Medical papyri|Egyptian mathematics}} Modern Egyptologists categorize Egyptian texts into [[genre]]s, for example "[[lament]]s/[[discourse]]s" and narrative tales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|pp=122–123}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=3}}.</ref> The only genre of literature named as such by the ancient Egyptians was the "teaching" or ''[[sebayt]]'' genre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|pp=122–123}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=5–6}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=110}}.</ref> Parkinson states that the titles of a work, its opening statement, or key words found in the body of text should be used as indicators of its particular genre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=108–109}}.</ref> Only the genre of "narrative tales" employed [[prose]], yet many of the works of that genre, as well as those of other genres, were written in [[Verse (poetry)|verse]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Foster|2001|pp=xv-xvi}}.</ref> Most ancient Egyptian verses were written in [[couplet]] form, but sometimes [[Tercet|triplets]] and [[quatrain]]s were used.<ref name="foster 2001 xvi">{{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xvi}}.</ref> ===Instructions and teachings=== {{further information|Ancient Egyptian philosophy}} [[File:Loyalist Teaching-beginning.jpg|thumb|alt=An ancient, torn and fragmented papyrus document, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black and red ink on its surface|A [[New Kingdom]] copy on [[papyrus]] of the ''[[Loyalist Teaching]]'', written in [[hieratic]] script]] The "instructions" or "teaching" genre, as well as the genre of "reflective discourses", can be grouped in the larger corpus of [[wisdom literature]] found in the [[ancient Near East]].<ref name="parkinson 2002 110">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=110}}.</ref> The genre is [[didactic]] in nature and is thought to have formed part of the Middle Kingdom scribal education [[syllabus]].<ref name="parkinson 2002 110 235"/> However, teaching texts often incorporate narrative elements that can instruct as well as entertain.<ref name="parkinson 2002 110 235">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=110, 235}}.</ref> Parkinson asserts that there is evidence that teaching texts were not created primarily for use in scribal education, but for ideological purposes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=236–237}}.</ref> For example, [[Adolf Erman]] (1854–1937) writes that the fictional instruction given by [[Amenemhat I]] (r. 1991–1962 BC) to his sons "...far exceeds the bounds of school philosophy, and there is nothing whatever to do with school in a great warning his children to be loyal to the king".<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=54}}.</ref> While narrative literature, embodied in works such as ''The Eloquent Peasant'', emphasize the individual hero who challenges society and its accepted ideologies, the teaching texts instead stress the need to comply with society's accepted dogmas.<ref name="loprieno 1996 217">{{Harvnb|Loprieno|1996|p=217}}.</ref> Key words found in teaching texts include "to know" (''rḫ'') and "to teach" (''sbꜣ'').<ref name="parkinson 2002 110"/> These texts usually adopt the formulaic title structure of "the instruction of X made for Y", where "X" can be represented by an authoritative figure (such as a [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]] or [[pharaoh|king]]) providing moral guidance to his son(s).<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=6}}; see also {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=236–238}}.</ref> It is sometimes difficult to determine how many fictional addressees are involved in these teachings, since some texts switch between singular and plural when referring to their audiences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=237–238}}.</ref> Examples of the "teaching" genre include the ''[[Maxims of Ptahhotep]]'', ''[[Instructions of Kagemni]]'', ''[[Teaching for King Merykare]]'', ''[[Instructions of Amenemhat]]'', ''[[Instruction of Hardjedef]]'', ''[[Loyalist Teaching]]'', and ''[[Instructions of Amenemope]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=313–319}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=159–200, 241–268}}.</ref> Teaching texts that have survived from the Middle Kingdom were written on papyrus manuscripts.<ref name="parkinson 2002 235 236"/> No educational ostraca from the Middle Kingdom have survived.<ref name="parkinson 2002 235 236"/> The earliest schoolboy's wooden writing board, with a copy of a teaching text (i.e. ''Ptahhotep''), dates to the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]].<ref name="parkinson 2002 235 236"/> ''Ptahhotep'' and ''Kagemni'' are both found on the [[Prisse Papyrus]], which was written during the Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=313–315}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=159–177}}.</ref> The entire ''Loyalist Teaching'' survives only in manuscripts from the New Kingdom, although the entire first half is preserved on a Middle Kingdom biographical stone stela commemorating the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth dynasty]] official Sehetepibre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=318–319}}.</ref> ''Merykare'', ''Amenemhat'', and ''Hardjedef'' are genuine Middle Kingdom works, but only survive in later New Kingdom copies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=313–314, 315–317}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=180, 193}}.</ref> ''Amenemope'' is a New Kingdom compilation.<ref name="simpson 1972 241">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=241}}.</ref> ===Narrative tales and stories=== [[File:PapyrusWestcar photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg|thumb|alt=A fragmented papyrus scroll slightly torn at the edges, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink|The [[Westcar Papyrus]], although written in [[hieratic]] during the [[Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt|Fifteenth]] to [[Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt|Seventeenth]] dynasties, contains the ''[[Westcar Papyrus|Tale of the Court of King Cheops]]'', which is written in a phase of [[Middle Egyptian]] that is dated to the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth dynasty]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=295–296}}.</ref>]] The genre of "tales and stories" is probably the least represented genre from surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian.<ref name="parkinson 2002 109">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=109}}.</ref> In Late Egyptian literature, "tales and stories" comprise the majority of surviving literary works dated from the [[Ramesside Period]] of the New Kingdom into the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]].<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 120">{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=120}}.</ref> Major narrative works from the Middle Kingdom include the ''[[Westcar Papyrus|Tale of the Court of King Cheops]]'', ''[[King Neferkare and General Sasenet]]'', ''[[The Eloquent Peasant]]'', ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'', and ''[[Tale of the shipwrecked sailor]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=294–299}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=15–76}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=14–52}}.</ref> The New Kingdom corpus of tales includes the ''Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre'', ''[[Taking of Joppa]]'', ''[[Tale of the doomed prince]]'', ''[[Tale of Two Brothers]]'', and the ''[[Report of Wenamun]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=77–158}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=150–175}}.</ref> Stories from the 1st millennium BC written in Demotic include the story of the [[Famine Stela]] (set in the Old Kingdom, although written during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]) and [[short story cycle]]s of the Ptolemaic and [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman]] periods that transform well-known historical figures such as [[Khaemweset]] ([[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth Dynasty]]) and [[Inaros II|Inaros]] ([[History of Persian Egypt|First Persian Period]]) into fictional, legendary heroes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=247–249}}; for another source on the Famine Stela, see {{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|pp=94–95}}.</ref> This is contrasted with many stories written in Late Egyptian, whose authors frequently chose divinities as protagonists and mythological places as settings.<ref name="simpson 1972 5 6"/> [[File:Funerary relief of Amenemhet I from El-Lisht by John Campana.jpg|thumb|400px|left|alt=Light gray stone surface with carved and painted images of two woman, a falcon-headed god, a black-haired man with a long goatee, a jackal-headed god, and Egyptian hieroglyphs inscribed along the top|A raised-relief depiction of [[Amenemhat I]] accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son [[Senusret I]] in the ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]''.]] Parkinson defines tales as "...non-commemorative, non-functional, fictional [[narrative]]s" that usually employ the key word "narrate" (''s<u>d</u>d'').<ref name="parkinson 2002 109"/> He describes it as the most open-ended genre, since the tales often incorporate elements of other literary genres.<ref name="parkinson 2002 109"/> For example, Morenz describes the opening section of the foreign adventure tale ''Sinuhe'' as a "...funerary self-presentation" that parodies the typical [[autobiography]] found on commemorative funerary [[:Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas|stelas]].<ref name="morenz 2003 102 104">{{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|pp=102–104}}.</ref> The autobiography is for a [[courier]] whose service began under Amenemhat I.<ref name="parkinson 2002 297 298">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=297–298}}.</ref> Simpson states that the death of Amenemhat I in the report given by his son, [[coregent]], and successor [[Senusret I]] (r. 1971–1926 BC) to the army in the beginning of ''Sinuhe'' is "...excellent propaganda".<ref name="simpson 1972 57">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=57}}.</ref> Morenz describes ''The shipwrecked sailor'' as an expeditionary report and a travel-narrative myth.<ref name="morenz 2003 102 104"/> Simpson notes the literary device of the [[story within a story]] in ''The shipwrecked sailor'' may provide "...the earliest examples of a narrative [[quarry]]ing report".<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=50}}; see also {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=8}}.</ref> With the setting of a magical desert island, and a character who is a talking snake, ''The shipwrecked sailor'' may also be classified as a [[fairy tale]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=8}}.</ref> While stories like ''Sinuhe'', ''Taking of Joppa'', and the ''Doomed prince'' contain fictional portrayals of Egyptians abroad, the ''Report of Wenamun'' is most likely based on a true account of an Egyptian who traveled to [[Byblos]] in [[Phoenicia]] to obtain [[Cedrus libani|cedar]] for [[shipbuilding]] during the reign of [[Ramesses XI]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=81, 85, 87, 142}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Narrative tales and stories are most often found on papyri, but partial and sometimes complete texts are found on ostraca. For example, ''Sinuhe'' is found on five papyri composed during the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth]] and [[Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt|Thirteenth]] dynasties.<ref name="simpson 1972 57 parkinson 2002 297 298">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=57}} states that there are two Middle-Kingdom manuscripts for ''Sinuhe'', while the updated work of {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=297–298}} mentions five manuscripts.</ref> This text was later copied numerous times on ostraca during the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth]] and [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth]] dynasties, with one ostraca containing the complete text on both sides.<ref name="simpson 1972 57 parkinson 2002 297 298"/> ===Laments, discourses, dialogues, and prophecies=== The Middle Kingdom genre of "[[Prophecy|prophetic texts]]", also known as "[[lament]]s", "[[discourse]]s", "[[dialogue]]s", and "apocalyptic literature",<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=6–7}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=110, 193}}; for "apocalyptic" designation, see {{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|p=283}}.</ref> include such works as the ''[[Admonitions of Ipuwer]]'', ''[[Prophecy of Neferti]]'', and ''[[Dispute between a man and his Ba]]''. This genre had no known precedent in the Old Kingdom and no known original compositions were produced in the New Kingdom.<ref name="morenz 2003 103">{{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=103}}.</ref> However, works like ''Prophecy of Neferti'' were frequently copied during the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom,<ref name="simpson 1972 6 7">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=6–7}}.</ref> when this Middle Kingdom genre was canonized but discontinued.<ref name="parkinson 2002 232 233">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=232–233}}.</ref> Egyptian prophetic literature underwent a revival during the Greek [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] and [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period of Egypt]] with works such as the ''[[Demotic Chronicle]]'', ''[[Oracle of the Lamb]]'', ''[[Oracle of the Potter]]'', and two prophetic texts that focus on [[Nectanebo II]] (r. 360–343 BC) as a protagonist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=283–304}}; see also {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=233}}, who alludes to this genre being revived in periods after the Middle Kingdom and cites Depauw (1997: 97–9), Frankfurter (1998: 241–8), and Bresciani (1999).</ref> Along with "teaching" texts, these reflective discourses (key word ''mdt'') are grouped with the wisdom literature category of the ancient Near East.<ref name="parkinson 2002 110"/> [[File:Ba bird.svg|thumb|alt=An anthropomorphic bird with a human head in ancient Egyptian style, colored in green, yellow, white, red, brown, and black|The [[Egyptian soul#Ba|''ba'']] in bird form, one component of the [[Egyptian soul]] that is discussed in the Middle Kingdom discourse ''[[Dispute between a man and his Ba]]'']] In Middle Kingdom texts, connecting themes include a pessimistic outlook, descriptions of social and religious change, and great disorder throughout the land, taking the form of a [[syntax|syntactic]] "then-now" verse formula.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=7–8}}; {{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=110–111}}.</ref> Although these texts are usually described as laments, ''Neferti'' digresses from this model, providing a positive solution to a problematic world.<ref name="parkinson 2002 110"/> Although it survives only in later copies from the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]] onward, Parkinson asserts that, due to obvious political content, ''Neferti'' was originally written during or shortly after the reign of Amenemhat I.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46, 49–50, 303–304}}.</ref> Simpson calls it "...a blatant political pamphlet designed to support the new regime" of the Twelfth dynasty founded by Amenemhat, who usurped the throne from the [[Mentuhotep IV|Mentuhotep]] line of the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh dynasty]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=234}}.</ref> In the narrative discourse, [[Sneferu]] (r. 2613–2589 BC) of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]] summons to court the sage and lector priest Neferti. Neferti entertains the king with prophecies that the land will enter into a chaotic age, alluding to the [[First Intermediate Period]], only to be restored to its former glory by a righteous king— Ameny—whom the ancient Egyptian would readily recognize as Amenemhat I.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=197–198, 303–304}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=234}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=110}}.</ref> A similar model of a tumultuous world transformed into a golden age by a savior king was adopted for the ''Lamb'' and ''Potter'', although for their audiences living under Roman domination, the savior was yet to come.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=301–302}}.</ref> Although written during the Twelfth dynasty, ''Ipuwer'' only survives from a [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth dynasty]] papyrus. However, ''A man and his Ba'' is found on an original Twelfth dynasty papyrus, Papyrus Berlin 3024.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=308–309}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=201, 210}}.</ref> These two texts resemble other discourses in style, tone, and subject matter, although they are unique in that the fictional audiences are given very active roles in the exchange of dialogue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=111, 308–309}}.</ref> In ''Ipuwer'', a sage addresses an unnamed king and his attendants, describing the miserable state of the land, which he blames on the king's inability to uphold royal virtues. This can be seen either as a warning to kings or as a legitimization of the current dynasty, contrasting it with the supposedly turbulent period that preceded it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=308}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=210}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=92–93}}.</ref> In ''A man and his Ba'', a man recounts for an audience a conversation with his ''ba'' (a component of the [[Egyptian soul]]) on whether to continue living in despair or to seek death as an escape from misery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|p=309}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=201}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=86}}.</ref> ===Poems, songs, hymns, and afterlife texts=== [[Image:The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris.jpg|thumb|alt=Cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink with inks of various colors used to paint pictures of men and anthropomorphic deities traveling through the afterlife in vignette scenes covering the central portion of the document as well as the top right|This [[Vignette (graphic design)|vignette]] scene from the [[Book of the Dead]] of [[Hunefer]] ([[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth dynasty]]) shows his heart being weighed against the [[Ma'at#Ma'at themes found in Book of the Dead and tomb inscriptions|feather of truth]]. If his heart is lighter than the feather, he is allowed into the afterlife; if not, his heart is swallowed by [[Ammit]].]] The funerary stone [[slab stela]] was first produced during the early Old Kingdom. Usually found in [[mastaba]] tombs, they combined [[raised-relief]] artwork with inscriptions bearing the name of the deceased, their official titles (if any), and [[invocation]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|p=674}}.</ref> Funerary poems were thought to preserve a monarch's soul in death. The [[Pyramid Texts]] are the earliest surviving religious literature incorporating [[Poetry|poetic]] verse.<ref name="forman quirke 48 51 simpson 4 5 269 erman 1 2"/> These texts do not appear in tombs or pyramids originating before the reign of [[Unas]] (r. 2375–2345 BC), who had the [[Pyramid of Unas]] built at [[Saqqara]].<ref name="forman quirke 48 51 simpson 4 5 269 erman 1 2">{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=48–51}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=4–5, 269}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=1–2}}.</ref> The Pyramid Texts are chiefly concerned with the function of preserving and nurturing the soul of the sovereign in the afterlife.<ref name="forman quirke 48 51 simpson 4 5 269 erman 1 2"/> This aim eventually included safeguarding both the sovereign and his subjects in the afterlife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=116–117}}.</ref> A variety of textual traditions evolved from the original Pyramid Texts: the [[Coffin Texts]] of the Middle Kingdom,<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=65–109}}.</ref> the so-called ''[[Book of the Dead]]'', ''[[Litany of Ra]]'', and ''[[Amduat]]'' written on papyri from the New Kingdom until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization.<ref>{{Harvnb|Forman|Quirke|1996|pp=109–165}}.</ref> Poems were also written to celebrate kingship. For example, at the [[Precinct of Amun-Re]] at [[Karnak]], [[Thutmose III]] (r. 1479–1425 BC) of the Eighteenth dynasty erected a stela commemorating his military victories in which the gods bless Thutmose in poetic verse and ensure for him victories over his enemies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=285}}.</ref> In addition to stone stelas, poems have been found on wooden writing boards used by schoolboys.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=140}}.</ref> Besides the glorification of kings,<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=254–274}}.</ref> poems were written to honor various [[Ancient Egyptian deities|deities]], and even the [[Nile]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=137–146; 281–305}}.</ref> [[File:Maler der Grabkammer des Nacht 001.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A brown-skinned man in white-linen garb, seated and playing a stringed harp with both hands|A blind [[harp]]ist, from a mural of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt]], 15th century BC]] Surviving hymns and songs from the Old Kingdom include the morning greeting hymns to the gods in their respective temples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=10}}.</ref> A cycle of Middle-Kingdom songs dedicated to [[Senusret III]] (r. 1878–1839 BC) have been discovered at [[El-Lahun]].<ref name="simpson 279 erman 134"/> Erman considers these to be secular songs used to greet the pharaoh at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=134}}.</ref> while Simpson considers them to be religious in nature but affirms that the division between religious and secular songs is not very sharp.<ref name="simpson 279 erman 134">{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=279}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=134}}.</ref> The [[Harper's Song]], the lyrics found on a tombstone of the Middle Kingdom and on [[Papyrus Harris 500]] from the New Kingdom, was to be performed for dinner guests at formal banquets.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=297}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=132–133}}.</ref> During the reign of [[Akhenaten]] (r. 1353–1336 BC), the [[Great Hymn to the Aten]]—preserved in tombs of [[Amarna]], including [[Southern Tomb 25|the tomb]] of [[Ay]]—was written to the [[Aten]], the sun-disk deity given [[Atenism|exclusive patronage]] during his reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=288–289}}; {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=1}}.</ref> Simpson compares this composition's wording and sequence of ideas to those of [[Psalm 104]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=289}}.</ref> Only a single poetic hymn in the Demotic script has been preserved.<ref name="tait 2003 10">{{Harvnb|Tait|2003|p=10}}.</ref> However, there are many surviving examples of Late-Period Egyptian hymns written in hieroglyphs on temple walls.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=104}}.</ref> No Egyptian [[love song]] has been dated from before the New Kingdom, these being written in Late Egyptian, although it is speculated that they existed in previous times.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=7, 296–297}}; {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=242–243}}; see also {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=17}}.</ref> Erman compares the love songs to the [[Song of Songs]], citing the labels "sister" and "brother" that lovers used to address each other.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=242–243}}.</ref> ===Private letters, model letters, and epistles=== [[File:Heratic script limestone.jpg|thumb|alt=A stone fragment with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink|[[Hieratic]] script on an [[ostracon]] made of [[limestone]]; the script was written as an exercise by a schoolboy in Ancient Egypt. He copied four [[Letter (message)|letters]] from the vizier Khay (who was active during the reign of [[Ramesses II]]).]] The ancient Egyptian model letters and [[epistle]]s are grouped into a single literary genre. Papyrus rolls sealed with mud stamps were used for long-distance letters, while ostraca were frequently used to write shorter, non-confidential letters sent to recipients located nearby.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=2, 4–5}}.</ref> Letters of royal or official correspondence, originally written in hieratic, were sometimes given the exalted status of being inscribed on stone in hieroglyphs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=91–92}}; {{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=5–6}}.</ref> The various texts written by schoolboys on wooden writing boards include model letters.<ref name="parkinson 2002 235 236">{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=235–236}}.</ref> Private letters could be used as epistolary model letters for schoolboys to copy, including letters written by their teachers or their families.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=198}}; see also {{Harvnb|Lichtheim|2006|p=167}}.</ref> However, these models were rarely featured in educational manuscripts; instead fictional letters found in numerous manuscripts were used.<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=198, 205}}.</ref> The common epistolary formula used in these model letters was "The official A. saith to the scribe B".<ref>{{Harvnb|Erman|2005|p=205}}.</ref> The oldest-known [[Letter (message)|private letters]] on papyrus were found in a funerary temple dating to the reign of [[Djedkare-Izezi]] (r. 2414–2375 BC) of the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt|Fifth dynasty]].<ref name="wente 1990 54">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=54}}.</ref> More letters are dated to the [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|Sixth dynasty]], when the epistle subgenre began.<ref name="wente 1990 15 54">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=15, 54}}.</ref> The educational text ''Book of Kemit'', dated to the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh dynasty]], contains a list of epistolary greetings and a narrative with an ending in letter form and suitable terminology for use in commemorative [[biographies]].<ref name="wente 1990 15">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=15}}.</ref> Other letters of the early Middle Kingdom have also been found to use epistolary formulas similar to the ''Book of Kemit''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=55}}.</ref> The [[Heqanakht papyri]], written by a gentleman farmer, date to the Eleventh dynasty and represent some of the lengthiest private letters known to have been written in ancient Egypt.<ref name="wente 1990 54 55 58 63"/> During the late Middle Kingdom, greater standardization of the epistolary formula can be seen, for example in a series of model letters taken from dispatches sent to the [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna fortress]] of [[Nubia]] during the reign of [[Amenemhat III]] (r. 1860–1814 BC).<ref name="wente 1990 68">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=68}}.</ref> Epistles were also written during all three dynasties of the New Kingdom.<ref name="wente 1990 89">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=89}}.</ref> While letters to the dead had been written since the Old Kingdom, the writing of petition letters in epistolary form to deities began in the Ramesside Period, becoming very popular during the [[History of Persian Egypt|Persian]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt|Ptolemaic]] periods.<ref name="wente 1990 210">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=210}}.</ref> The epistolary ''Satirical Letter'' of [[Papyrus Anastasi I]] written during the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth dynasty]] was a pedagogical and didactic text copied on numerous ostraca by schoolboys.<ref name="wente 1990 98">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|p=98}}.</ref> Wente describes the versatility of this epistle, which contained "...proper greetings with wishes for this life and the next, the rhetoric composition, interpretation of [[aphorism]]s in wisdom literature, [[Egyptian mathematics|application of mathematics]] to [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|engineering problems]] and the calculation of supplies for an army, and the geography of [[western Asia]]".<ref name="wente 1990 98 99">{{Harvnb|Wente|1990|pp=98–99}}.</ref> Moreover, Wente calls this a "...polemical tractate" that counsels against the rote, mechanical learning of terms for places, professions, and things; for example, it is not acceptable to know just the place names of western Asia, but also important details about its [[topography]] and routes.<ref name="wente 1990 98 99"/> To enhance the teaching, the text employs sarcasm and irony.<ref name="wente 1990 98 99"/> ===Biographical and autobiographical texts=== {{further|Weni the Elder|Harkhuf}} Catherine Parke, Professor Emerita of English and Women's Studies at the [[University of Missouri]] in [[Columbia, Missouri]], writes that the earliest "commemorative inscriptions" belong to ancient Egypt and date to the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parke|2002|pp=xxi, 1–2}}.</ref> She writes: "In ancient Egypt the formulaic accounts of Pharaoh's lives praised the continuity of dynastic power. Although typically written in the first person, these pronouncements are public, general testimonials, not personal utterances."<ref name="parke 2002 1 2">{{Harvnb|Parke|2002|pp=1–2}}.</ref> She adds that as in these ancient inscriptions, the human urge to "...celebrate, commemorate, and immortalize, the impulse of life against death", is the aim of [[biographies]] written today.<ref name="parke 2002 1 2"/> [[File:Funerary Stele of Ba.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A stone stela with raised-relief images of a man seated with his son and wife, while a man stands to the right giving libations; Egyptian hieroglyphs are written in distinctly-marked horizontal columns at the bottom portion of the stela.|A [[:Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas|funerary stela]] of a man named Ba (seated, sniffing a sacred [[Lotus Flower|lotus]] while receiving libations); Ba's son Mes and wife Iny are also seated. The identity of the libation bearer is unspecified. The stela is dated to the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]] of the [[New Kingdom]] period.]] Olivier Perdu, a professor of [[Egyptology]] at the [[Collège de France]], states that biographies did not exist in ancient Egypt, and that commemorative writing should be considered [[autobiographies|autobiographical]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Perdu|1995|p=2243}}.</ref> Edward L. Greenstein, Professor of Bible at the [[Tel Aviv University]] and [[Bar-Ilan University]], disagrees with Perdu's terminology, stating that the ancient world produced no "autobiographies" in the modern sense, and these should be distinguished from 'autobiographical' texts of the ancient world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Greenstein|1995|p=2421}}.</ref> However, both Perdu and Greenstein assert that autobiographies of the [[ancient Near East]] should not be equated with the modern concept of autobiography.<ref name="koosed 2006 29">{{Harvnb|Koosed|2006|p=29}}.</ref> In her discussion of the ''[[Ecclesiastes]]'' of the [[Hebrew Bible]], Jennifer Koosed, associate professor of Religion at [[Albright College]], explains that there is no solid consensus among scholars as to whether true biographies or autobiographies existed in the ancient world.<ref name="koosed 2006 28 29">{{Harvnb|Koosed|2006|pp=28–29}}.</ref> One of the major scholarly arguments against this theory is that the concept of [[individual]]ity did not exist until the European [[Renaissance]], prompting Koosed to write "...thus autobiography is made a product of European civilization: [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] begat [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rosseau]] begat [[Henry Brooks Adams|Henry Adams]], and so on".<ref name="koosed 2006 28 29"/> Koosed asserts that the use of first-person "I" in ancient Egyptian commemorative funerary texts should not be taken literally since the supposed author is already dead. Funerary texts should be considered biographical instead of autobiographical.<ref name="koosed 2006 29"/> Koosed cautions that the term "biography" applied to such texts is problematic, since they also usually describe the deceased person's experiences of journeying through the [[Duat|afterlife]].<ref name="koosed 2006 29"/> Beginning with the funerary stelas for officials of the late [[Third dynasty of Egypt|Third dynasty]], small amounts of biographical detail were added next to the deceased men's titles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Breasted|1962|pp=5–6}}; see also {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xv}}.</ref> However, it was not until the [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|Sixth dynasty]] that narratives of the lives and careers of government officials were inscribed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Breasted|1962|pp=5–6}}; see also {{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|pp=36–37}}.</ref> Tomb biographies became more detailed during the Middle Kingdom, and included information about the deceased person's family.<ref name="breasted 1962 5 6">{{Harvnb|Breasted|1962|pp=5–6}}.</ref> The vast majority of autobiographical texts are dedicated to scribal bureaucrats, but during the New Kingdom some were dedicated to military officers and soldiers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|2006|p=11}}.</ref> Autobiographical texts of the Late Period place a greater stress upon seeking help from deities than acting righteously to succeed in life.<ref name="lichtheim 1980 5">{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=5}}.</ref> Whereas earlier autobiographical texts exclusively dealt with celebrating successful lives, Late Period autobiographical texts include laments for premature death, similar to the [[epitaph]]s of ancient Greece.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=6}}.</ref> ===Decrees, chronicles, king lists, and histories=== [[File:ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png|thumb|upright|alt=Ground-level outside view of stone walls with raised-relief carvings of human figures and hieroglyphic writing; a doorway is positioned at the center; the top left portion shows a blue sky without clouds.|The [[Annal]]s of Pharaoh [[Thutmose III]] at [[Karnak]]]] Modern historians consider that some biographical—or autobiographical—texts are important historical documents.<ref name="Gozzoli 2006 1 8">{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=1–8}}.</ref> For example, the biographical stelas of military generals in tomb chapels built under Thutmose III provide much of the information known about the wars in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Breasted|1962|pp=12–13}}.</ref> However, the [[annal]]s of Thutmose III, carved into the walls of several monuments built during his reign, such as those at Karnak, also preserve information about these campaigns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seters|1997|p=147}}.</ref> The annals of [[Ramesses II]] (r. 1279–1213 BC), recounting the [[Battle of Kadesh]] against the [[History of the Hittites|Hittites]] include, for the first time in Egyptian literature, a narrative [[epic poetry|epic poem]], distinguished from all earlier poetry, which served to celebrate and instruct.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|2006|p=6}}.</ref> Other documents useful for investigating Egyptian history are ancient [[:Category:Ancient Egyptian King lists|lists of kings]] found in terse [[chronicle]]s, such as the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt|Fifth dynasty]] [[Palermo stone]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=1–8}}; {{Harvnb|Brewer|Teeter|1999|pp=27–28}}; {{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|p=36}}.</ref> These documents legitimated the contemporary pharaoh's claim to sovereignty.<ref name="bard shubert 1999 36">{{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|p=36}}.</ref> Throughout ancient Egyptian history, royal [[decree]]s recounted the deeds of ruling pharaohs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=7}}; {{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|p=36}}.</ref> For example, the [[Nubia]]n pharaoh [[Piye]] (r. 752–721 BC), founder of the [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth dynasty]], had a stela erected and written in classical Middle Egyptian that describes with unusual nuances and vivid imagery his successful military campaigns.<ref name="lichtheim 1980 7">{{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=7}}.</ref> An Egyptian historian, known by his Greek name as [[Manetho]] (''c''. 3rd century BC), was the first to compile a [[Historiography|comprehensive history]] of Egypt.<ref name="gozzoli 2006 191 225 brewer teeter 1999 27 28 lichtheim 1980 7"/> Manetho was active during the reign of [[Ptolemy II]] (r. 283–246 BC) and used ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' by the Greek [[Herodotus]] (''c''. 484 BC–''c''. 425 BC) as his main source of inspiration for a history of Egypt written in Greek.<ref name="gozzoli 2006 191 225 brewer teeter 1999 27 28 lichtheim 1980 7">{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=8, 191–225}}; {{Harvnb|Brewer|Teeter|1999|pp=27–28}}; {{Harvnb|Lichtheim|1980|p=7}}.</ref> However, the primary sources for Manetho's work were the king list chronicles of previous Egyptian dynasties.<ref name="bard shubert 1999 36"/> ===Tomb and temple graffiti=== [[File:Graffiti Kom Ombo.JPG|thumb|alt=Surface of a stone wall with incised graffiti artwork of a dog, highlighted by angled late afternoon light|Artistic [[graffiti]] of a canine figure at the [[Temple of Kom Ombo]], built during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]]] Fischer-Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian [[graffiti]] writing as a literary genre.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 133"/> During the New Kingdom, scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred [[mortuary temple]]s and [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], usually in commemoration of these structures.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=131}}.</ref> Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere [[tourist]]s, but [[pilgrim]]s visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for communicating with the gods.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 132">{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=132}}.</ref> There is evidence from an educational ostracon found in the tomb of [[Senenmut]] ([[TT71]]) that formulaic graffiti writing was practiced in scribal schools.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 132"/> In one graffiti message, left at the mortuary temple of Thutmose III at [[Deir el-Bahri]], a modified saying from ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]]'' is incorporated into a prayer written on the temple wall.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 132 133">{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|pp=132–133}}.</ref> Scribes usually wrote their graffiti in separate clusters to distinguish their graffiti from others'.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 133">{{Harvnb|Fischer-Elfert|2003|p=133}}.</ref> This led to competition among scribes, who would sometimes denigrate the quality of graffiti inscribed by others, even ancestors from the scribal profession.<ref name="fischer elfert 2003 133"/> ==Legacy, translation and interpretation== {{See also|Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian}} After the [[Copt]]s converted to [[Christianity]] in the first centuries AD, their [[Coptic Christian]] literature became separated from the pharaonic and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] literary traditions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bard|Shubert|1999|p=76}}.</ref> Nevertheless, scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature, perhaps in oral form, influenced [[Greek literature|Greek]] and [[Arabic literature]]. Parallels are drawn between the Egyptian soldiers sneaking into [[Jaffa]] hidden in baskets to capture the city in the story ''Taking of Joppa'' and the [[Mycenae]]an Greeks sneaking into [[Troy]] inside the [[Trojan Horse]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=81}}.</ref> The ''Taking of Joppa'' has also been compared to the Arabic story of [[Ali Baba]] in ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mokhtar|1990|pp=116–117}}; {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|p=81}}.</ref> It has been conjectured that ''[[Sinbad the Sailor]]'' may have been inspired by the pharaonic ''Tale of the shipwrecked sailor''.<ref name="mokhtar 1990 116 117">{{Harvnb|Mokhtar|1990|pp=116–117}}.</ref> Some Egyptian literature was commented on by scholars of the ancient world. For example, the Jewish Roman historian [[Josephus]] (37–''c''. 100 AD) quoted and provided commentary on Manetho's historical texts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gozzoli|2006|pp=192–193, 224}}.</ref> [[File:Rosetta Stone.JPG|thumb|left|alt=A large, ancient, black-colored stone block with written inscriptions covering one side of its surface, with pieces clearly broken off with now missing text|The trilingual [[Rosetta Stone]] in the [[British Museum]]]] The most recently carved hieroglyphic inscription of ancient Egypt known today is found in a temple of [[Philae]], dated precisely to 394 AD during the reign of [[Theodosius I]] (r. 379–395 AD).<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=104–105}}; {{Harvnb|Foster|2001|pp=xiv-xv}}.</ref> In the 4th century AD, the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenized]] Egyptian [[Horapollo]] compiled a survey of almost two hundred Egyptian hieroglyphs and provided his interpretation of their meanings, although his understanding was limited and he was unaware of the phonetic uses of each hieroglyph.<ref name="wilson 2003 104 105">{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=104–105}}.</ref> This survey was apparently lost until 1415, when the Italian [[Cristoforo Buondelmonti]] acquired it at the island of [[Andros]].<ref name="wilson 2003 104 105"/> [[Athanasius Kircher]] (1601–1680) was the first in Europe to realize that [[Coptic language|Coptic]] was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian.<ref name="wilson 2003 104 105"/> In his ''[[Oedipus Aegyptiacus]]'', he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs, albeit based on symbolic inferences.<ref name="wilson 2003 104 105"/> It was not until 1799, with the [[Napoleonic Campaign in Egypt|Napoleonic discovery]] of a trilingual (i.e. hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) stela inscription on the [[Rosetta Stone]], that modern scholars were able to decipher ancient Egyptian literature.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilson|2003|pp=105–106}}.</ref> The first major effort to translate the hieroglyphs of the Rosetta Stone was made by [[Jean-François Champollion]] (1790–1832) in 1822.<ref name="foster 2001 xii xiii">{{Harvnb|Foster|2001|p=xii-xiii}}.</ref> The earliest translation efforts of Egyptian literature during the 19th century were attempts to confirm [[The Bible and history|Biblical events]].<ref name="foster 2001 xii xiii"/> Before the 1970s, scholarly consensus was that ancient Egyptian literature—although sharing similarities with modern literary categories—was not an independent discourse, uninfluenced by the ancient sociopolitical order.<ref>{{Harvnb|Loprieno|1996|pp=211–212}}.</ref> However, from the 1970s onwards, a growing number of historians and literary scholars have questioned this theory.<ref name="loprieno 1996 212 213">{{Harvnb|Loprieno|1996|pp=212–213}}.</ref> While scholars before the 1970s treated ancient Egyptian literary works as viable historical sources that accurately reflected the conditions of this ancient society, scholars now caution against this approach.<ref name="loprieno 1996 211 213">{{Harvnb|Loprieno|1996|pp=211, 213}}.</ref> Scholars are increasingly using a multifaceted [[hermeneutic]] approach to the study of individual literary works, in which not only the style and content, but also the cultural, social and historical context of the work are taken into account.<ref name="loprieno 1996 212 213"/> Individual works can then be used as [[case studies]] for reconstructing the main features of ancient Egyptian literary discourse.<ref name="loprieno 1996 212 213"/> {{clear}} ==Notes== {{reflist|20em}} ==References== {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} *{{citation |last=Allen |first=James P. |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |year=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-65312-6 }} *{{citation |last=Bard |first=Katherine A. |last2=Shubert |first2=Steven Blake |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York and London |isbn=0-415-18589-0 }} *{{citation |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |title=Ancient Records of Egypt: Vol. I, The First to the Seventeenth Dynasties, & Vol. II, the Eighteenth Dynasty |year=1962 |publisher=Russell & Russell |location=New York |isbn=0-8462-0134-8 }} *{{citation |last=Brewer |first=Douglas J. |last2=Teeter |first2=Emily |title=Egypt and the Egyptians |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-44518-3 }} *{{citation |last=Budge |first=E. 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A. Wallis Budge) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090423133312/http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exfosanc.html University of Texas Press - Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology (2001)] (The entire preface, by John L. Foster) {{Ancient Egypt topics}} {{featured article}} {{Portal bar|Ancient Egypt|Literature}} [[Category:Ancient Egyptian literature|*]]'