Examine individual changes

'{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War | partof = the [[Russian Civil War]] | image = File:Map of the Russian Civil War during the Allied Intervention.png | image_size = 250px | caption = Map of the Russian Civil War during the Allied Intervention, November 1918 | date = 1918–1925 | place = Former [[Russian Empire]], [[Mongolia (1911–24)|Mongolia]] | casus = [[Bolshevik Revolution]], [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] | territory = | result = Bolshevik victory * Allied withdrawal * Defeat and collapse of the Russian White Movement (1923) | combatant1 = {{flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[White Movement]]<br>{{flag|Czechoslovakia}} (1918–1919)<br>{{flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=United Kingdom}} (1918–1920) * {{flag|Canada|1868}} (1918–1919) * {{flag|Australia}} (1918–1919) * {{flag|British Raj|name=India}} * {{flag|Union of South Africa|name=South Africa|1912}}<ref>Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies, Vol 15, Nr 4, 1985, [http://scientiamilitaria.journals.ac.za/pub/article/viewFile/477/510 pp. 46-48]. Accessed January 24, 2016.</ref> {{flag|United States|1912}} (1918–1920)<br>{{flag|French Third Republic|name=France}} (1918–1920)<br>{{flag|Empire of Japan|name=Japan}} (1918–1925)<br>{{flag|Kingdom of Greece|name=Greece}}<br>{{flag|Estonia}}<br>{{flag|Kingdom of Serbia|name=Serbia}}<br>{{flag|Kingdom of Italy|name=Italy}}<br>{{flag|Second Polish Republic|name=Poland}}<br>{{flag|Kingdom of Romania|name=Romania}}<br> | combatant2 = {{flag|Russian SFSR|1918}}<br>{{flag|Far Eastern Republic}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Latvian SSR 1919.svg}} [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Latvian SSR]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian SSR_(1919-1929).svg}} [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg}} [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Commune of Estonia]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg}} [[Mongolian People's Party]]}} | commander1 = {{flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[Alexander Kolchak]]{{Executed}}<br>{{flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[Evgeny Miller]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[Mikhail Diterikhs]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]]<br>{{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} [[Radola Gajda]]<br>{{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} [[Jan Syrový]]<br>{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[William S. Graves]]<br>{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[George Evans Stewart]]<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside|Edmund Ironside]]<br>{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} [[Kikuzo Otani]]<br>{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} [[Yui Mitsue]]<br>{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[Henri Mathias Berthelot|Henri Bertholot]]<br>{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[Philippe Henri Joseph d'Anselme|Philippe d'Anselme]]<br>{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Greece}} [[Konstantinos Nider]]<br>{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Ernest Broșteanu]] | commander2 = {{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Vladimir Lenin]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Leon Trotsky]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Jukums Vācietis]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Sergey Kamenev]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]}}<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Fedor Raskolnikov]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Joseph Stalin]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Dmitry Zhloba]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Pavel Dybenko]]<br>{{flagdeco|Far Eastern Republic}} [[Alexander Krasnoshchyokov]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg}} [[Damdin Sükhbaatar]]{{KIA}}<br>[[File:Darker green and Black flag.svg|22px]] [[Nikifor Grigoriev]]{{KIA}} | strength1 = {{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} 50,000-70,000 troops<br>{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} 15,600 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Greece}} 23,000 troops<br>{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} 11,000 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Estonia}} 11,300 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} 70,000 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Italy}} 2,500 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Serbia}} 2,000 troops<br>{{flagdeco|Australia}} 150 troops<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} 7,500+ | strength2 = <br> | casualties1 = {{flag|Czechoslovakia}}: 4,112 killed<ref>Bradley, ''Czechoslovak Legion'', 156.</ref><br>{{flag|United States|1912}}: 424 killed.{{Ref|Willett3}}<br>{{flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=United Kingdom}}:<br>359 killed<br>453 wounded<br>143 missing or captured<ref name="parliamentary62">The Army Council. General Annual Report of the British Army 1912–1919. Parliamentary Paper 1921, XX, Cmd.1193., PartIV p.&nbsp;62–72</ref><br>{{flag|Kingdom of Greece|name=Greece}}:<ref>[https://dis.army.gr/sites/dis.army.gr/files/unmanaged/pdf/Articles_June14/Greek_French/EKSTR_MESHM_ROSIA_1919.pdf]</ref><br>179 killed<br>173 missing<br>46 dead from wounds or non-combat related causes<br>657 wounded | casualties2 = Unknown<br><br>1 landing craft captured by Romanians<ref>Siegfried Breyer, ''Soviet Warship Development: 1917–1937'', Conway Maritime Press, 1992, p. 98</ref> | notes = | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Russian Civil War}} }} '''Allied intervention''' in the [[Russian Civil War]] consisted of a series of multi-national [[military expedition]]s in 1918. The stated goals were to help the [[Czechoslovak Legion]], to secure supplies of munitions and armaments in Russian ports, and to re-establish the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]]. Overthrow of the new [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] regime was an additional, covert motivation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUHn9nCC9EoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=foglesong,+bolsheviks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj57dzhpvDfAhXDct8KHWdID40Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=they%20in%20fact%20fought%20a%20long%20undeclared%20war&f=false|title=America's Secret War against Bolshevism: U.S. Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917-1920|last=Foglesong|first=David S.|date=2014-02-01|publisher=UNC Press Books|year=|isbn=9781469611136|location=|pages=4–6|language=en|chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwi9dqQ-L80C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Trani,+first+cold+war&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi639eZo_DfAhWunuAKHUCbC1UQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Kaledin,%20the%20hetman%20of%20the%20Don%20Cossacks&f=false|title=The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S. - Soviet Relations|last=Davis|first=Donald E.|last2=Trani|first2=Eugene P.|date=2002-08-26|publisher=University of Missouri Press|year=|isbn=9780826263452|location=|pages=92–95|language=en}}</ref> After the Bolshevik government withdrew from [[World War I]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] openly backed the [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] [[White Movement|White forces]] in [[Russia]]. Allied efforts were hampered by divided objectives, [[war-weariness]] from the overall global conflict, and a lack of [[home front|domestic support]]. These factors, together with the evacuation of the [[Czechoslovak Legion]], compelled the Allied Powers to withdraw from [[North Russia Campaign|North Russia]] and [[Allied Intervention in Siberia|Siberia]] in 1920, though [[Empire of Japan|Japanese forces]] occupied parts of Siberia until 1922 and the northern half of [[Sakhalin]] until 1925.<ref name="beyer">Beyer, pp. 152–53.</ref> ==Prologue to the Allied intervention== ===Revolution=== {{Main|Russian Revolution}} In 1917, the [[Russian Empire]] was in a state of political strife, and public support for World War I and [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]] was dwindling. The country was on the brink of revolution. The [[February Revolution]] changed the course of the war; under intense political pressure, the Tsar abdicated and the [[Russian Provisional Government]] was formed, led initially by [[Georgy Lvov]] and later by [[Alexander Kerensky]]. The Provisional Government pledged to continue fighting the [[German Empire|Germans]] on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]].<ref name="beyer"/> The Allied Powers had been shipping supplies to Russia since the beginning of the war in 1914 through the ports of [[Arkhangelsk]], [[Murmansk]], and [[Vladivostok]]. In 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side. [[United States|US]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]] dropped his reservations about joining the war with the despotic Tsar as an ally, and the United States began providing economic and technical support to Kerensky's government.<ref name="beyer"/> The war became unpopular with the Russian populace. Political and social unrest increased, with the [[Marxism|Marxist]] anti-war [[Bolshevik]] Party under [[Vladimir Lenin]] gaining widespread support. Large numbers of common soldiers either mutinied or deserted the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. In the offensive of 18 June 1917, the Russian Army was defeated by the [[Germany|German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] forces as a result of a counter-attack. This led to the collapse of the Eastern Front. The demoralised Russian Army was on the verge of mutiny and most soldiers had deserted the front lines. Kerensky replaced [[Aleksei Brusilov]] with [[Lavr Kornilov]] as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Kornilov attempted to set up a military dictatorship by staging a coup in late August 1917. He had the support of the British [[military attaché]], Brigadier-General [[Alfred Knox]], and Kerensky accused Knox of producing pro-Kornilov [[propaganda]]. Kerensky also claimed Lord [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Milner]], member of the British War Cabinet, wrote him a letter expressing support for Kornilov. A British armoured car squadron commanded by [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]] and dressed in Russian uniforms participated in the [[Kornilov affair|failed coup]].<ref>''Intervention and the War'' by Richard Ullman, [[Princeton University Press]], 1961, pp. 11–13</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wbxwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285&lpg=PA285&dq=general+buchanan,+moscow,+kornilov&source=bl&ots=T2fRfbn0qd&sig=rSD01en5KTp5dY3VOgAMnrZ5FF4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiM4PPY0qjXAhWN2YMKHcLsBXIQ6AEIKTAB#v=onepage&q=general%20buchanan%2C%20moscow%2C%20kornilov&f=false Keith Neilson, ''Strategy and Supply (RLE The First World War): The Anglo-Russian Alliance'' (Routledge, 2014), p. 282-290]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4SGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113&dq=barter,+moscow,+kornilov&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjX2JDOqLjXAhUL5yYKHS6hD_YQ6AEITzAI#v=onepage&q=barter%2C%20moscow%2C%20kornilov&f=false Michael Hughes, INSIDE THE ENIGMA: British Officials in Russia, 1900–39 (Bloomsbury, 2006), p. 111-114]</ref> In 1917, the [[October Revolution]] led to the overthrow of Kerensky's provisional government, and the Bolsheviks assuming power. ===Russia exits the war=== {{Main|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk}} German troops invaded the Russian Empire and threatened to capture Moscow and impose its own regime in early 1918. Lenin wanted to cut a deal with Germany but was unable to get approval from his council until late February. Bolshevik Russia then switched sides and supported the German position. The [[Russian SFSR|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. The Allied Powers felt betrayed and turned against the new regime, aiding its "[[White movement|White]]" enemies and landing troops to prevent Russian supplies from reaching Germany.<nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[Template:Verify source|Verify source]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki><ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Service|title=Lenin: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9mbl_xbWpkC&pg=PT412|year=2000|page=342} </ref> {{Verify source}} The betrayal removed whatever reservations the Allied Powers had about overthrowing the Bolsheviks. According to [[William Henry Chamberlin]], even before Brest-Litovsk, "[[Downing Street]] contemplated a protectorate over the [[Caucasus]] and the [[Quai d'Orsay]] over [[Crimea]], [[Bessarabia]] and the [[Ukraine]]", and began negotiating deals for funding White generals to bring them into being. [[R. H. Bruce Lockhart]] and another British agent and a French official in Moscow tried to organize a coup that would overthrow the Bolshevik regime. They were dealing with double agents and were exposed and arrested.<ref>John W. Long, "Plot and counter‐plot in revolutionary Russia: Chronicling the Bruce Lockhart conspiracy, 1918." ''Intelligence and National Security'' 10#1 (1995): 122–143.</ref> === Czechoslovak Legions === {{Main|Czechoslovak Legion}} [[File:Czech Troops.jpg|thumb|250px|Czechoslovak troops in Vladivostok (1918)]] The Czechoslovak Legion was at times in control of most of the [[Trans-Siberian railway]] and all major cities in Siberia. Austro-Hungarian prisoners were of a number of various nationalities; some Czechoslovak POWs deserted to the Russian Army. Czechoslovaks had long desired to create their own independent state, and the Russians aided in establishing special Czechoslovak units (the [[Czechoslovak Legions]]) to fight the [[Central Powers]]. The signing of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] ensured that [[prisoner-of-war|prisoners-of-war]] (POW) would be repatriated. In 1917, the Bolsheviks stated that if the Czechoslovak Legions remained neutral and agreed to leave Russia, they would be granted safe passage through Siberia en route to [[French Third Republic|France]] via [[Vladivostok]] to fight with the Allied forces on the Western Front. The Czechoslovak Legions travelled via the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] to Vladivostok. However, fighting between the Legions and the Bolsheviks erupted in May 1918. === Allied concerns === [[File:Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force in Vladivostok 1919.jpg|thumb|Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force, 1919]] The Allied Powers became concerned at the collapse of the Eastern Front and the loss of their Tsarist ally to [[communism]], and there was also the question of the large quantities of supplies and equipment in Russian ports, which the Allied Powers feared might be seized by the Germans. Also worrisome to the Allied Powers was the April 1918 landing of a division of German troops in [[Finland]], increasing speculation they might attempt to capture the [[Murmansk railway|Murmansk-Petrograd railway]], and subsequently the strategic port of [[Murmansk]] and possibly [[Arkhangelsk]]. Other concerns regarded the potential destruction of the Czechoslovak Legions and the threat of [[Bolshevism]], the nature of which worried many Allied governments. Meanwhile, Allied materiel in transit quickly accumulated in the warehouses in Arkhangelsk and Murmansk. [[Estonia]] had [[Estonian War of Independence|established]] a national army with the support of [[heimosodat|Finnish]] volunteers and were defending against the [[7th Army (RSFSR)|7th Red Army]]'s attack.<ref name=maide /> Faced with these events, the British and French governments decided upon an Allied military intervention in Russia. [[File:American troops in Vladivostok 1918 HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG|thumb|American troops parading in Vladivostok, August 1918]] Severely short of troops to spare, the British and French requested that President Wilson provide American soldiers for the campaign. In July 1918, against the advice of the [[United States Department of War]], Wilson agreed to the limited participation of 5,000 [[United States Army]] troops in the campaign. This force, which became known as the "American North Russia Expeditionary Force"<ref name="E.M. Halliday, 2000 p. 44">E.M. Halliday, ''When Hell Froze Over'' (New York City, NY, ibooks, inc., 2000), p. 44</ref> (a.k.a. the [[Polar Bear Expedition]]) were sent to Arkhangelsk while another 8,000 soldiers, organised as the [[American Expeditionary Force Siberia]],<ref name="Robert L. Willett pp. 166">Robert L. Willett, ''Russian Sideshow'', pp. 166–167, 170</ref> were shipped to [[Vladivostok]] from the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippines]] and from [[Camp Fremont]] in California. That same month, the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] agreed to the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]]'s request to command and provide most of the soldiers for a combined [[British Empire]] force, which also included Australian and [[British Raj|Indian]] troops. Some of this force was the [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force]]; another part was the [[North Russia Intervention]]. A [[Royal Navy]] squadron was sent to the [[British campaign in the Baltic (1918–19)|Baltic]] under [[Rear-Admiral]] [[Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair]]. This force consisted of modern {{sclass2-|C|cruiser|1}}s and {{sclass2-|V and W|destroyer|1}}s. In December 1918, Sinclair sailed into Estonian and Latvian ports, sending in troops and supplies, and promising to attack the Bolsheviks "as far as my guns can reach". In January 1919, he was succeeded in command by Rear-Admiral [[Walter Cowan]]. The [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]], concerned about their northern border, sent the largest military force, numbering about 70,000. They desired the establishment of a [[buffer state]] in Siberia,<ref name= Humphreys25>Humphreys, ''The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s'', p. 25</ref> and the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] [[Imperial Japanese Army General Staff|General Staff]] viewed the situation in Russia as an opportunity for settling Japan's "northern problem". The Japanese government was also intensely hostile to communism. [[File:Wladiwostok Parade 1918.jpg|thumb|300px|Allied troops parading in [[Vladivostok]], 1918]] The [[Kingdom of Italy|Italians]] created the special "''Corpo di Spedizione''" with [[Alpini]] troops sent from Italy and ex-POWs of [[Italia irredenta|Italian ethnicity]] from the former Austro-Hungarian army who were recruited to the ''[[Italian Legione Redenta]]''. They were initially based in the [[Concessions of Tianjin|Italian Concession in Tientsin]] and numbered about 2,500. [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] also sent contingents in support of the intervention. ==Foreign forces throughout Russia== [[File:ApproxPositionsWWI-1919.png|thumb|300px|The positions of the Allied expeditionary forces and of the White Armies in European Russia, 1919]] Numbers of Allied soldiers who were present in the indicated regions of Russia: * 600 French and British troops landed in Arkhangelsk<ref>Evan Mawdsley, "Russian Civil War", Pegasus</ref> * A number of British troops in Vladivostok * A number of Romanian troops in [[Bessarabia]] * 23,351 Greeks, who withdrew after three months (part of [[I Army Corps (Greece)|I Army Corps]] under Maj. Gen. [[Konstantinos Nider]], comprising [[2nd Infantry Division (Greece)|2nd]] and [[13th Infantry Division (Greece)|13th]] Infantry Divisions, in the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], and around [[Odessa]] and [[Kherson]])<ref name="greece">{{cite book|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|author=Olson, John Stuart|author2=Pappas, Lee Brigance|author3=Pappas, Nicholas Charles|year=1994|pages=273}}</ref> * 15,000 French also in the [[Southern Russia Intervention]] * 13,000 Americans (in the Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok regions)<ref name="E.M. Halliday, 2000 p. 44"/><ref name="Robert L. Willett pp. 166"/> * 11,500 Estonians in [[Northwest Russia|northwestern Russia]]<ref name=maide>{{cite book|title=Ülevaade Eesti vabadussõjast 1918—1920 (Estonian War of Independence 1918—1920: Overview)|author=Jaan Maide|language=Estonian|publisher=Estonian Defence League|year=1933|location=Tallinn}}</ref> * 2,500 Italians in the Arkhangelsk region and [[Siberia]]<ref name=HistoryRussia>''A History of Russia'', 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> * 1,300 Italians in the [[Murmansk Oblast|Murmansk region]].<ref>[http://www.esercito.difesa.it/storia/Ufficio-Storico-SME/Editoria-Militare/Catalogo/Risorgimento-e-Prima-Guerra-Mondiale/Pagine/Il-corpo-di-spedizione-italiano-in-Murmania.aspx www.esercito.difesa.it]</ref> * 150 Australians (mostly in the Arkhangelsk regions)<ref>Grey, Jeffrey (October 1985). "A 'Pathetic Sideshow': Australians and the Russian Intervention, 1918–19". Journal of the Australian War Memorial. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. 7. ISSN 0729-6274</ref> * 70,000 Japanese soldiers in the Eastern region * 4,192 Canadians in Vladivostok, 600 Canadians in Arkhangelsk<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo8/no3/moffat-eng.asp|title=Forgotten Battlefields – Canadians in Siberia 1918 – 1919|work=Canadian Military Journal|last=Moffat|first=Ian C. D|accessdate=8 April 2017|publisher=Department of National Defence}}</ref> ==Campaigns== ===North Russia=== {{Main|North Russia Intervention}} [[File:Mark in Arkhangelsk RU.JPG|thumb|Captured British [[Mark I tank#Mark V series|Mark V]] tank in [[Arkhangelsk]]]] * '''British Empire''' ** [[Royal Navy]]: a flotilla of over 20 ships including the [[seaplane carrier]]s; {{HMS|Pegasus|1917|6}} and {{HMS|Nairana|1917|6}} ** [[British Army]]: [[236th Brigade (United Kingdom)|236th Infantry Brigade]], 6th Battalion [[Royal Marine Light Infantry]] (RMLI), [[Dundee Fortress Royal Engineers|548th (Dundee) Army Troops Company]], Royal Engineers, [[1st Linlithgowshire Rifle Volunteers|2/10th (Cyclist) Battalion, Royal Scots]][[Royal Scots]],<ref>The British 6th Battalion [[Royal Marines]] Light Infantry (RMLI) was scratched together from a company of the [[Royal Marine Artillery]] and companies from each of the three naval port depots. Very few of their officers had seen any land fighting. Their original purpose had been only to deploy to [[Flensburg]] to supervise a vote to decide whether northern [[Schleswig-Holstein]] should remain German or be given to [[Denmark]]. Many of the Marines were less than 19 years old; it would have been unusual to send them overseas. Others were ex-[[prisoners of war]] who had only recently returned from Germany and had no home leave. There was outrage when on short notice, the 6th Battalion was shipped to Murmansk, Russia, on the [[Arctic Ocean]], to assist in the withdrawal of British forces. Still not expecting to have to fight, the battalion was ordered forward under army command to hold certain outposts.</ref> 52nd Battalion, [[Manchester Regiment]], and elements of the [[Royal Dublin Fusiliers]]. ** [[Royce Coleman Dyer|Slavo-British Allied Legion]] (SBAL): a British-trained and led contingent composed mostly of expatriate Russian anti-Bolshevik, Finnish and Estonian volunteers (including [[Royce Coleman Dyer|Dyer's Battalion]]). ** [[Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery|Canadian Field Artillery]] (67th and 68th Batteries of the 16th Brigade, Canadian Field Artillery) ** [[Royal Air Force]]: contingent comprising [[Airco DH.4]] bombers, [[Fairey Campania]] and [[Sopwith Baby]] seaplanes along with a single [[Sopwith Camel]] fighter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rafmuseum.org/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1918_2.cfm#prof |title=British Military Aviation in 1918 – Part 2 |publisher=Rafmuseum.org |date=1918-06-06 |accessdate=2012-04-28 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120630111957/http://www.rafmuseum.org/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1918_2.cfm#prof |archivedate=2012-06-30 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Bowyer">{{cite book |title=RAF Operations 1918–1938 |last=Bowyer |first=Chaz |year=1988 |publisher=William Kimber |location=London |isbn=0-7183-0671-6 |page=38 }}</ref> * '''United States''' ** North Russia Expeditionary Force (also known as the [[Polar Bear Expedition]]): approximately 8,000 personnel from the [[US Army]],<ref>Robert L. Willett, "Russian Sideshow" (Washington, D.C., Brassey's Inc., 2003), p. 267</ref> including the: [[310th Engineers]], [[339th Infantry]], 337th Field Hospital, and [[337th Ambulance Company]]. Also the [[167th Railroad Company|167th]] and [[168th Railroad Company|168th Railroad Companies]], which were sent to Murmansk to operate the Murmansk to Petrograd line. ** [[United States Navy|US Navy]]: the cruiser {{USS|Olympia|C-6|6}} during August and September 1918 (including 53 personnel attached to British naval units) * '''France''': 2,000 [[French Army]] personnel, mainly from the ''[[Troupes coloniales|Armée coloniale]]'' (e.g. the 21st Colonial Battalion) and engineers. * '''Other countries''': 1,000 Serbian and Polish infantry attached to White Russian forces in the north (as distinct to those in Siberia forces, which included the [[Czechoslovak Legion]]); a small number of volunteers from countries such as Italy. ===Baltics and Northwestern Russia=== {{Further|Estonian War of Independence|British campaign in the Baltic (1918–1919)}} [[File:Russian civil war west.svg|thumb|Russian Civil War in the west in 1918–19]] Although the [[Estonian Army]] had attained control over its country, the opposing 7th and [[Estonian Red Riflemen|Estonian]] Red Armies were still active. The Estonian High Command decided to push their defense lines across the border into Russia in support of the White Russian Northern Corps. They went on offensive at [[Narva]], catching the Soviets by surprise and destroying their 6th Division.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 141">Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 141. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The attack was supported along the [[Gulf of Finland]]'s coast by [[British campaign in the Baltic (1918–19)|Royal Navy]] and the [[Estonian Navy]] and marines. With the front approaching, the garrison of the [[Krasnaya Gorka fort]] mutinied. But the 7th Red Army received reinforcements and counterattacked, pushing the White Russians back, until the front was stabilised with the support from the Estonian 1st Division at the [[Luga River|Luga]] and Saba Rivers.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 142. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The Estonian [[Pskov]] offensive commenced simultaneously on 13 May 1919. Its Petseri Battle Group destroyed the [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Estonian]] Red Army, captured the town on 25 May, and cleared the territory between Estonia and the [[Velikaya River]].<ref name=kork>''Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920''. Jyri Kork (Ed.). Esto, Baltimore, 1988 (Reprint from ''Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920''. Historical Committee for the War of Independence, Tallinn, 1938)</ref> A few days later, the Northern Corps forces arrived in Pskov. On 19 June 1919, the Estonian Commander-in-Chief [[Johan Laidoner]] rescinded his command over the White Russians, and they were renamed the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]]. Shortly afterward, General [[Nikolai N. Yudenich]] took command of the troops.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 141"/> The next offensive of the Northwestern Army was planned on 10 July 1919, but the armaments and supplies expected from the Allies did not arrive. Nor did the Estonians desire to proceed with the fruitless war since with the initial peace approach of April 1919 the Russian Bolshevik government already guaranteed the recognition of the independent Estonian state. So when British Gen. Gough requested on 8 August Estonians for the military assistance to Yudenich, Estonians in return asked both Yudenich and the Allies to recognise their state first. Gough's deputy, Brigadier Gen. Frank Marsh required Yudenich to immediately issue a statute that would establish the [[Government of the North-West Russian Region]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907965486|title=Historical dictionary of the Russian civil wars, 1916-1926|last=Jon.|first=Smele,|isbn=9781442252806|location=Lanham, Maryland|oclc=907965486}}</ref> encompassing Petrograd, Pskov and Novgorod Governorates that would officially guarantee ''de jure'' recognition of Estonia. On 16 August ''Times'' made the deal public that angered the Foreign Office and the War Cabinet, and caused a decline in further military aid to Yudenich.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/909398151|title=The allied intervention in Russia, 1918-1920 : the diplomacy of chaos|last=1951-|first=Moffat, Ian C. D.,|publisher=|year=|isbn=9781137435736|location=Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire|pages=242–244|oclc=909398151}}</ref> However, the Northwestern Army launched operation ''White Sword'', the last major effort to capture [[Petrograd]] on 9 October, with arms provided by Britain and France, and the operational support by the Estonian Army, Estonian Navy, and the Royal Navy.<ref name="maide" /> The Estonian and British forces made a joint land and naval attack against Krasnaya Gorka, while the Estonian 2nd Division attempted to throw the 10th Red Division across the Velikaya, and the 3rd Division attacked toward [[Pytalovo]] and [[Ostrov, Ostrovsky District, Pskov Oblast|Ostrov]]. The Northwestern Army approached to within {{convert|16|km|abbr=on|0}} of Petrograd, but the Red Army repulsed them back to the Narva River.<ref name="kork" /> Distrustful of the White Russians, the Estonian High Command disarmed and interned the remains of the Northwestern Army that retreated behind the state border.<ref name="Fletcher">{{cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=William A.|title=The British navy in the Baltic, 1918–1920: Its contribution to the independence of the Baltic nations|journal=Journal of Baltic Studies|year=1976|volume=7|issue=2|pages=134–144|doi=10.1080/01629777600000141}}</ref> ===Southern Russia and Ukraine=== {{Main|Southern Russia Intervention}} On 18 December 1918, a month after the armistice, the French occupied [[Odessa]] and [[Sevastopol]]. This began the intervention in southern Russia (later Ukraine) which was to aid and supply General [[Denikin]]'s White Army forces, the [[Volunteer Army]], fighting the Bolsheviks there. The campaign involved mainly French and Greek troops. By April 1919, they were withdrawn after an attack by [[Nikifor Grigoriev]]'s Army<ref name=Greeks>{{gr icon}} [http://www.sansimera.gr/archive/articles/show.php?id=382&feature=Campaign_at_Ukraine The Campaign in the Ukraine] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309004203/http://www.sansimera.gr/archive/articles/show.php?id=382&feature=Campaign_at_Ukraine |date=9 March 2008 }}, at sansimera.gr</ref> before the defeat of the White Army's march against Moscow. General [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel|Wrangel]] reorganized his army in the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]]; however, with the deteriorating situation, he and his soldiers fled Russia aboard Allied ships on 14 November 1920. ===Bessarabia=== {{main|Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia}} After the Bolshevik forces of the [[Rumcherod]] attacked the region of Bessarabia, the Romanian government of [[Ion I. C. Brătianu]] decided to intervene, and on {{OldStyleDate|January 26|1918|January 13}}, the 11th Infantry Division under General [[Ernest Broșteanu]] entered Chișinău. The Bolshevik troops retreated to [[Bender, Moldova|Tighina]], and after a battle retreated further beyond the [[Dniester]].<ref name="Nistor, p.284">[[Ion Nistor]], ''Istoria Basarabiei'', page 284. [[Humanitas publishing house|Humanitas]], 1991. {{ISBN|973-28-0283-9}}</ref> The battle of Tighina was one of the two significant engagements of the 1918 Bessarabian Campaign. It lasted for five days, between 20 and 25 January, and ended in a Romanian victory, albeit with significant Romanian casualties (141 dead). Romanian troops captured 800 guns.<ref>Stanescu Marin, ''Armata română şi unirea Basarabiei şi Bucovinei cu România: 1917–1918'', pp. 105–107 (in Romanian)</ref> [[File:Russud-class.jpg|thumb|''Russud''-class vessel]] The second important battle was fought at [[Vylkove|Vâlcov]], between 27 January and 3 February. The actions of Bolshevik warships (including three ''Donetsk''-class gunboats), managed to delay the Romanians for several days, but the ships had to retreat on 3 February due to no longer being able to adjust and correct their aiming, after Romanian artillery destroyed the shore-based Bolshevik artillery observation posts. Later that day, Romanian troops occupied Vâlcov. The Romanians captured the ''Russud''-class [[landing craft]] ''K-2'' as well as several more barges armed with a total of eight [[6-inch siege gun M1877|152 mm Obuchov]] guns.<ref>Stanescu Marin, ''Armata română şi unirea Basarabiei şi Bucovinei cu România: 1917–1918'', pp. 115–118 (in Romanian)</ref><ref>Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, ''Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures)'', p. 107 (in Romanian)</ref><ref>Siegfried Breyer, ''Soviet Warship Development: 1917–1937'', p. 98</ref> ===Siberia=== {{Main|Siberian Intervention}} [[File:The Illustration of The Siberian War, No. 16. The Japanese Army Occupied Vragaeschensk (Blagoveshchensk).jpg|thumb|250px|A Japanese lithograph showing troops occupying [[Blagoveschensk]]]] The joint Allied intervention began in August 1918.<ref name=Humphreys25/> The Japanese entered through Vladivostok and points along the [[China–Russia border]] with more than 70,000 troops eventually being deployed. The Japanese were joined by [[British Army|British]]<ref>[http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/uk/ops1919-39.html British Military Operations 1919–1939] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524135102/http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/uk/ops1919-39.html |date=24 May 2013 }} Graham Watson, 28 April 2002</ref> and later [[American Expeditionary Force Siberia|American]], [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force|Canadian]], [[French Army|French]], and [[Italian Legione Redenta|Italian]] troops. Elements of the [[Czechoslovak Legion]]<ref>[http://www.paperheritage.co.uk/articles/czecharmy.html Paper Heritage – 1919 Railway-related issues of the Czech Army in Siberia]</ref> which had reached Vladivostok greeted the Allied forces. The Americans deployed the [[27th Infantry Regiment (United States)|27th Infantry]] and [[31st Infantry Regiment (United States)|31st Infantry]] regiments out of the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippines]], plus elements of the [[12th Infantry Regiment (United States)|12th]], [[13th Infantry Regiment (United States)|13th]] and [[62nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|62nd Infantry]] Regiments out of [[Camp Fremont]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Robert L.|last=Willett|title=Russian Sideshow|location=Washington|publisher=Brassey's|pages=166–167|year=2003|isbn=1574884298}}</ref> The Japanese were expected to send only around 7,000 troops for the expedition, but by the end of their involvement in Siberia had deployed 70,000. The deployment of such a large force for a rescue operation made the Allied Powers wary of Japanese intentions.<ref name=Humphreys26>{{cite book|last=Humphreys|first=Leonard A.|year=1995|title=The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s|location=|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=26|isbn=0804723753}}</ref> On 5 September, the Japanese linked up with the vanguard of the Czech Legion,<ref name=Humphreys26/> a few days later the British, Italian and French contingents joined the Czechs in an effort to re-establish the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]] beyond the [[Urals]]; as a result the European Allied Powers trekked westward.<ref name=Humphreys26/> The Canadians largely remained in Vladivostok for the duration. The Japanese, with their own objectives in mind, refused to proceed west of [[Lake Baikal]].<ref name=Humphreys26/> The Americans, suspicious of Japanese intentions, also stayed behind to keep an eye on them.<ref name=Humphreys26/> By November, the Japanese occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian [[Primorsky Krai|Maritime Provinces]] and Siberia east of the city of [[Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai|Chita]].<ref name=Humphreys26/> The Allied Powers lent their support to White Russian elements from the summer of 1918.<ref name= Humphreys26/> There were tensions between the two anti-Bolshevik factions, the [[White movement|White Russian government]] led by Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]] and the [[Cossacks]] led by [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]] and [[Ivan Kalmykov]], which also hampered efforts. All Allied forces were evacuated by 1920, apart from the Japanese who stayed until 1922. ===Caucasus=== In 1917, [[Dunsterforce]], an Allied military mission of under 1,000 Australian, British, and Canadian troops (drawn from the [[Mesopotamian campaign|Mesopotamian]] and [[Western Front (World War I)|Western]] Fronts), accompanied by armoured cars, deployed from [[Hamadan]] some {{convert|350|km|abbr=on}} across [[Greater Iran|Qajar Persia]]. It was named after its commander General [[Lionel Dunsterville]]. Its mission was to gather information, train and command local forces, and prevent the spread of German propaganda.<ref>Audrey L. Altstadt [https://books.google.com/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule] Hoover Press, 1992, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9182-1}}</ref> Later on, Dunsterville was told to take and protect the [[Baku]] oil fields. The force was initially delayed by 3,000 Russian Bolshevik troops at [[Bandar-e Anzali|Enzeli]] but then proceeded by ship to the port of Baku on the [[Caspian Sea]]. This was the primary target for the advancing [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces and Dunsterforce endured a [[Battle of Baku|short, brutal siege in September 1918]] before being forced to withdraw. However, having been defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire had to withdraw its forces from the borders of Azerbaijan in the middle of November 1918. Headed by General [[William Montgomery Thomson|William Thomson]], the British troops of 5,000 soldiers arrived in Baku on 17 November, and martial law was implemented on the capital of [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] until "the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order". === Trans-Caspian Campaign === Allied military action began on 11 August 1918, when General [[Wilfrid Malleson|Malleson]] intervened in support of the [[Transcaspian Government|Ashkhabad Executive Committee]], who had ousted the [[Tashkent Soviet]] Bolsheviks from the western end of the [[Trans-Caspian Railway]] in July 1918. Malleson had been authorised to intervene with Empire and British troops, in what would be referred to as the [[Malleson Mission]]. He sent the Machine Gun Section of the [[19th Punjabi Rifles]] to [[Baýramaly]] located on the [[Trans-Caspian railway]]. After combat at [[Merv]], they were joined by the rest of the regiment. There was further action at [[Kaka, Turkmenistan|Kaka]] on 28 August 11 and 18 September. They were reinforced on 25 September by two squadrons of the [[28th Light Cavalry]]. Fighting alongside Trans-Caspian troops, they subsequently fought at [[Arman Sagad]] (between 9 and 11 October) and [[Dushak]] (14 October). By 1 November, they had re-occupied Merv and on instructions of the British government, halted their advance and took up defensive positions at Bairam Ali. The Trans-Caspian forces continued to attack the Bolsheviks to the north. After the Trans-Caspian forces were routed at [[Uch Aji]], their commander Colonel Knollys sent the 28th Cavalry to their support at [[Annenkovo]]. In January 1919, one company of the 19th Punjabi Rifles was sent to reinforce the position at Annenkovo, where a second battle took place on 16 January. The British Government decided on 21 January to withdraw the force, and the last troops left for [[Persia]] on 5 April.<ref>[http://members.fortunecity.com/behindthelines/transcas.htm Operations in Trans-Caspia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402050131/http://members.fortunecity.com/behindthelines/transcas.htm |date=2 April 2009 }}, Behind the Lines. Retrieved 23 September 2009</ref> ==Aftermath== ===Allied withdrawal=== The Allied Powers withdrew in 1920. The Japanese military stayed in the Maritime Provinces of the [[Russian Far East]] until 1922 and in northern [[Sakhalin]] until 1925, following the signing of the [[Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention]] in [[Beijing]], in which Japan agreed to withdraw its troops from Russia. In return, the Soviet Union agreed to honor the provisions of the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]].<ref name=HistoryRussia/><ref>''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 34, pp. 32-53.</ref> ===Assessment by historians=== Historical assessment of the intervention has been universally negative. [[Frederick L. Schuman]] wrote that the consequences of the expedition "were to poison East-West relations forever after, to contribute significantly to the origins of World War II and the later '[[Cold War]],' and to fix patterns of suspicion and hatred on both sides which even today threaten worse catastrophes in time to come."<ref name="two foes">Frederick L. Schuman, ''Russia Since 1917: Four Decades of Soviet Politics'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), 109.</ref> Modern historian Robert Maddox summarised, "The immediate effect of the intervention was to prolong a bloody civil war, thereby costing thousands of additional lives and wreaking enormous destruction on an already battered society."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5m23RrMeLt4C&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=robert+maddox,+russian+civil+war&source=bl&ots=e1ATvSmiWs&sig=_vHLd93fucLyfk0lnpIVkcbOCdc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi3o__987PXAhXLMSYKHXneA90Q6AEIXDAO#v=onepage&q=robert%20maddox%2C%20russian%20civil%20war&f=false James W. Loewen, ''Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong'' (The New Press, 2007), p. 17]</ref> ==See also== * [[Arthur Percy Sullivan]] * [[Australian contribution to the Allied Intervention in Russia 1918–1919]] * [[British Campaign in the Baltic 1918-19|British Campaign in the Baltic 1918–19]] * [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force]] * [[Cold War]] * [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] * [[Italian Legione Redenta]] * [[Polar Bear Expedition]] {{clear right}} ==References== # {{note|Willett3}} Robert L. Willett, "Russian Sideshow" (Washington, D.C., Brassey's Inc., 2003), p.&nbsp;267 {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Wright, Damien. "Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918-20", Solihull, UK, 2017 * Carley, Michael Jabara. "Allied Intervention and the Russian Civil War, 1917–1922," ''International History Review'' 11#4 (1989), pp.&nbsp;689–700 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40106089 in JSTOR]. Historiography * Foglesong, David S. "Policies Toward Russia and Intervention in the Russian Revolution." in Ross A. Kennedy ed., ''A Companion to Woodrow Wilson'' (2013): 386–405. * {{cite book|last=Humphreys|first=Leonard A.|year=1996|title=The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=0-8047-2375-3}} * {{cite book|last=Isitt |first=Benjamin |title=From Victoria to Vladivostok: Canada's Siberian Expedition, 1917-19 |url=http://www.isitt.ca/research/books/from-victoria-to-vladivostok |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7748-1802-5 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706184019/http://www.isitt.ca/research/books/from-victoria-to-vladivostok/ |archivedate=6 July 2011 }} * {{cite journal |last1= Isitt|first1= Benjamin|year= 2006|title= Mutiny from Victoria to Vladivostok, December 1918|url= http://www.isitt.ca/research/journal-articles/mutiny-from-victoria-to-vladivostok-december-1918-chr-article|journal=[[Canadian Historical Review]] |volume= 87|issue= 2|pages= 223–264|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706184137/http://www.isitt.ca/research/journal-articles/mutiny-from-victoria-to-vladivostok-december-1918-chr-article/ |archivedate=6 July 2011 }} * Long, John W. "American Intervention in Russia: The North Russian Expedition, 1918–19." ''Diplomatic History'' 6.1 (1982): 45–68. * Moffat, Ian C.D. ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos'' (2015) [https://books.google.com/books?id=5eu_CQAAQBA excerpt] * Moore, Perry. ''Stamping Out the Virus: Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918–1920'' (2002) * {{cite book|last=Plotke|first=AJ |year=1993|title=Imperial Spies Invade Russia|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport CT, London|isbn= 0-313-28611-6}} * Richard, Carl J. "'The Shadow of a Plan': The Rationale Behind Wilson's 1918 Siberian Intervention." ''Historian'' 49.1 (1986): 64–84. Historiography * Silverlight, John. ''The Victors' Dilemma: Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1920'' (1970) * Trani, Eugene P. "Woodrow Wilson and the decision to intervene in Russia: a reconsideration." ''Journal of Modern History'' 48.3 (1976): 440–461. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR] * Unterberger, Betty Miller. "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: The "Acid Test" of Soviet–American Relations." ''Diplomatic History'' 11.2 (1987): 71–90. * {{cite book|last=Willett|first=Robert L.|year=2003|title=Russian Sideshow: America's Undeclared War, 1918–1920|publisher=Brassey's|location=Washington D.C.|isbn= 1-57488-429-8}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Allied Intervention in the Civil war of Russia}} * {{cite book|last=Beyer|first=Rick|year=2003|title=The Greatest Stories Never Told|publisher=A&E Television Networks / The History Channel|location=|isbn= 0-06-001401-6}} {{American conflicts}} [[Category:Presidency of Woodrow Wilson]] [[Category:20th-century military history of the United States]] [[Category:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War| ]] [[Category:20th-century military history of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:History of the Royal Marines]] [[Category:Campaigns and theatres of World War I]] [[Category:Greater Romania]] [[Category:Naval battles involving Romania]] [[Category:Foreign intervention]] [[de:Russischer Bürgerkrieg#1918 – Intervention der Mittelmächte]]'