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Old page wikitext, before the edit (`old_wikitext`)	'#REDIRECT [[Augustine of Hippo]] {{R with possibilities}} [[Category:Christian theological movements]] [[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]'
New page wikitext, after the edit (`new_wikitext`)	'[[File:Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg\|thumb\|Portrait of Augustine by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], 17th century ]] '''Augustinianism''' (or '''Augustinism''') is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of the 4th-century philosopher [[Augustine of Hippo]] According to his contemporary, [[Jerome]], Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".<ref group=lower-alpha>[[Jerome]] wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei''). Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]; {{cite book \|title= Augustine the Theologian \|last=TeSelle \|first=Eugene \|year=1970 \|location= London \|page=343 \|isbn=978-0-223-97728-0}} March 2002 edition: {{ISBN\|1-57910-918-7}}.</ref>, his book ''[[The City of God]]'' is one of the most influential documents in [[medieval philosophy]] and is a cornerstone of Western thought, expounding on many profound questions of theology, such as the suffering of the righteous, the [[Problem_of_evil\|existence of evil]], the conflict between [[free will]] and divine omniscience, and the doctrine of [[original sin]]. [[Pope Benedict XVI]] cautioned that all of the [[Western Church]] teaching leads to him: {{quote\|St Augustine. This man of passion and faith, of the highest intelligence and tireless in his pastoral care, a great Saint and Doctor of the Church is often known, at least by hearsay, even by those who ignore Christianity or who are not familiar with it, because he left a very deep mark on the cultural life of the West and on the whole world. Because of his special importance St Augustine's influence was widespread. It could be said on the one hand that all the roads of Latin Christian literature led to Hippo (today Annaba, on the coast of Algeria), the place where he was Bishop from 395 to his death in 430, and, on the other, that from this city of Roman Africa, many other roads of later Christianity and of Western culture itself branched out.<ref>[http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080109.html BENEDICT XVI GENERAL AUDIENCE Paul VI Audience Hall Wednesday, 9 January 2008]</ref>}} Historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example [[Paul the Apostle\|Paul of Tarsus]], has been more influential, and [[Latins (Middle Ages)\|Westerners]] have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."<ref name="MacCulloch2010">{{cite book\|author=Diarmaid MacCulloch\|title=A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319\|year=2010\|publisher=Penguin Books \|isbn=978-0-14-102189-8\|page=319}}</ref> == Theological and philosophical thought == [[File:Gerard Seghers (attr) - The Four Doctors of the Western Church, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430).jpg\|thumb\|''The Four Doctors of the Western Church'', Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430), [[Gerard Seghers]] ]] Augustinism developed in opposition to the [[Pelagianism]] of [[Pelagius]].<ref>[https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/A/augustinism.html Augustinism]</ref> "Augustine considered the human race as a compact mass, a collective body, responsible in its unity and solidarity. Carrying out his system in all its logical consequences, he laid down the following rigid proposition as his doctrine: 'As all men have sinned in [[Adam]]; they are subject to the condemnation of [[God in Christianity\|God]] on account of this hereditary sin and the guilt thereof'"<ref>Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, 1, 299</ref><ref>Wiggers Augustinisnm and Pelagianism, p. 268</ref> According to Augustine, even the world and corporeal entities, being fruits of [[divine love]], have their value and meaning, while the some Platonists tended instead to devalue them. <ref>Tina Manferdini, ''Comunicazione ed estetica in Sant'Agostino'', p. 249, Bologna, ESD, 1995</ref> This attempt to place history and earthly existence within a heavenly perspective, where even evil finds explanation in some way, always remained at the center of its philosophical concerns. == Theodicy == === Problem of evil === {{Main\|Augustinian theodicy}} The problem of evil is the question of how to reconcile the existence of [[evil]] with an [[Omnipotence\|omnipotent]], [[Omnibenevolence\|omnibenevolent]], and [[Omniscience\|omniscient]] [[God]].<ref name="Stanford">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil The Problem of Evil]", Michael Tooley</ref><ref name="IepEvidential">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm The Evidential Problem of Evil]", Nick Trakakis</ref> Augustine develop key ideas regarding his response to suffering. In ''[[Confessions of Saint Augustine\|Confessions]]'', Augustine wrote that his previous work was dominated by [[materialism]] and that reading the works of [[Plato]] enabled him to consider the existence of a non-physical [[substance theory\|substance]]. This helped him develop a response to the problem of evil from a theological (and non-Manichean) perspective,<ref>{{cite web \| url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#OntEud \| title=Saint Augustine \|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| origyear=24 March 2000 \|date=12 November 2010 \| accessdate=9 October 2011 \| author=Mendelson, Michael}}</ref> Augustine proposed that evil could not exist within God, nor be created by God, and is instead a by-product of God's creativity.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 168</ref> He rejected the notion that evil exists in itself, proposing instead that it is a privation of (or falling away from) good, and a corruption of nature.<ref name="Menn">Menn 2002, p. 170</ref> He wrote that "evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name 'evil.'"<ref>''The City of God'', Augustine of Hippo, Book XI, Chapter 9</ref> Both moral and [[natural evil]] occurs, Augustine argued, owing to an evil use of free will,<ref name=Bennett2008>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 126</ref> which could be traced back to the original sin of [[Adam and Eve]].<ref name=Svendsen&Pierce2010>Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 49</ref> He believed that this evil will, present in the [[soul\|human soul]], was a corruption of the will given to humans by God, making suffering a just punishment for the sin of humans.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 174</ref> Because Augustine believed that all of humanity was "[[Preformationism\|seminally present in the loins of Adam]]", he argued that all of humanity inherited Adam's sin and his just punishment.<ref>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 127</ref> However, in spite of his belief that free will can be turned to evil, Augustine maintained that it is vital for humans to have free will, because they could not live well without it. He argued that evil could come from humans because, although humans contained no evil, they were also not perfectly good and hence could be corrupted.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 176</ref> == Ethics == {{Catholic philosophy}} === Divine command theory === {{Main\|Divine command theory}} Augustine offered the [[Divine command theory]], a theory which proposes that an action's status as [[Morality\|morally]] [[good]] is equivalent to whether it is commanded by [[God]].<ref>{{cite book \| title=Divine Commands and Morality \| publisher=Oxford University Press \| year=1981 \| author=Helm, Paul \| isbn=0-19-875049-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| title=Platonistic And Disenchanting Theories of Ethics \| publisher=Peter Lang \| year=2007 \| author=Chandler, Hugh \| isbn=978-0-8204-8858-5}}</ref>Augustine's theory began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good, which delivers human happiness, Augustine argued that to achieve this happiness, humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner; this requires humans to love God, which then allows them to correctly love that which is worthy of being loved. Augustine's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves, leading to human happiness and fulfilment.<ref name=IEP-2>{{cite web \| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/divine-c/#H2 \| title=Divine Command Theory \| publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| date=21 August 2006 \| accessdate=15 August 2012 \| author=Austin, Michael W.}}</ref> as an Neoplatonist, Augustine supported [[Plato\|Plato's]] view that a well-ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality. However, unlike Plato, he believed that achieving a well-ordered soul had a higher purpose: living in accordance with God's commands. His view of morality was thus heteronomous, as he believed in deference to a higher authority (God), rather than acting [[autonomy#Philosophy\|autonomously]].<ref>Connolly, Keller, Leever & White 2009, p. 24</ref> === Divine illumination === {{Main\|Divine illumination}} Augustine emphasised the role of [[divine illumination]] in our thought, saying that "The mind needs to be enlightened by light from outside itself, so that it can participate in truth, because it is not itself the nature of truth. You will light my lamp, Lord,"<ref>''Confessions'' IV.xv.25</ref> For Augustine, God does not give us certain information, but rather gives us insight into the truth of the information we received for ourselves. :If we both see that what you say is true, and we both see that what I say is true, then where do we see that? Not I in you, nor you in me, but both of us in that unalterable truth that is above our minds.<ref>''Confessions'' XII.xxv.35</ref> === Just war theory === {{Main\|Just war theory }} The [[Just war theory]] is a doctrine that ensure [[war]] is morally justifiable through a series of criteria, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. based upon [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+13%3A4 Romans 13:4] Augustine claimed that, while individuals should not resort immediately to violence, God has given the sword to government for good reason. Augustine argues that [[Christians]], as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when forced to do so by a government. Augustine asserted that this was a personal, philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html\|title=A Time For War?\|author=Robert L. Holmes\|work=ChristianityToday.com\|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref><ref>''Contra Faustum Manichaeum'' book 22 sections 69–76</ref> == Hamartiology == === Original sin === {{Main\|Original sin}} [[File:Michelangelo Buonarroti 022.jpg\|thumb\|upright=2\|[[Michelangelo]]'s painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]]] Augustine wrote that original sin is transmitted by [[concupiscence]] and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<ref>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Cross\|editor1-first=Frank Leslie\|editor1-link=Frank Leslie Cross\|editor2-last=Livingstone\|editor2-first=Elizabeth A.\|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church\|chapter=Original sin\|year=2005\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=Oxford\|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3\|edition=3rd rev.}}</ref> For Augustine, Adam's sin<ref>Augustine taught that Adam's sin was both an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') and of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth. Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit'' (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; PL 44, 795). This particular sin would not have taken place if [[Satan]] had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (''radix Mali''): ''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus'' (''Contra Julianum'', I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</ref> is transmitted by [[concupiscence]], or "hurtful desire",<ref>[http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/sindeath/3.htm "Original Sin"]. ''Biblical Apologetic Studies''. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin is transmitted by concupiscence, or "hurtful desire", sexual desire and all sensual feelings resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will.</ref><ref>William Nicholson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MeOx95oNQ9YC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=concupiscence,+or+%22hurtful+desire%22&source=bl&ots=625Trlcg97&sig=s0voWp6ENrROdPRPxKOVKAKHcSM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7Lx2U67yH42NqgatjYHwCQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=concupiscence%2C%20or%20%22hurtful%20desire%22&f=false ''A Plain But Full Exposition of the Catechism of the Church of England''], page 118. Retrieved 17 May 2014.</ref> resulting in humanity becoming a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. When Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature. Their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a [[Metaphysics\|metaphysical]], not a [[Psychology\|psychological]] sense.<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]] explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the ''libido'' (''concupiscence''), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a ''libido actualis'', i.e. sexual lust, but ''libido habitualis'', i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature: ''Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis'' (STh Iª–IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</ref> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not ''a being'' but a ''bad quality'', the [[privation of good]] or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; PL 42, 590.</ref> He admitted that sexual concupiscence (''libido'') might have been present in the perfect human nature in [[paradise]], and that only later it became disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<ref>Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente'' (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: ''Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus'', II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.{{cite book\|title=Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale\|last=Schmitt\|first=É.\|year=1983\|series =Études Augustiniennes\| location=Paris\|page=104}}</ref> In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustine's teaching that humans are utterly depraved in nature and grace is [[irresistible grace\|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[perseverance of the saints\|perseverance]].<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite book\|author=Justo L. Gonzalez\|title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)\|publisher=Abingdon Press\|date=1970–1975}}</ref> Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against [[Pelagius]] and his [[Pelagianism\|Pelagian]] disciples, [[Caelestius]] and [[Julian of Eclanum]],<ref name="Gonzalez"/> who had been inspired by [[Rufinus of Syria]], a disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]].<ref>[[Marius Mercator]] ''Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.'',2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">[[Patrologia Latina\|PL]]</abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/; {{cite book \|last= Bonner \|first= Gerald \|chapter= Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism \|title= God's Decree and Man's Destiny \|location= London \|year= 1987 \|pages= 31–47 \|isbn= 978-0-86078-203-2 \|publisher= Variorum Reprints}}</ref>{{rp\|35}} They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp\|355–356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm De gratia Christi et de peccato originali]'', I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</ref> ==See also== [[Scholasticism]] [[Thomism]] [[Neoplatonism and Christianity]] [[Boethius]] == Notes == {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist\|30em}} ==Further reading== * {{cite encyclopedia\|editor1-last=Mayer\|editor1-first=Cornelius P.\|encyclopedia=[[Augustinus-Lexikon]]\|publisher=Schwabe AG\|location=[[Basel]]}} * Miles, Margaret R. (2012). ''[http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter]'', [[Lutterworth Press]], {{ISBN\|978-0718892623}}. * {{cite book\|last=Nash\|first=Ronald H\|title=The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge\|year=1969\|publisher=University Press of Kentucky\|location=Lexington}} * {{cite book \| editor-last = Wiener \| editor-first = Philip \| title = Dictionary of the History of Ideas \| publisher = Scribner \| location = New York \| year = 1973 \| isbn = 978-0-684-13293-8\|volume=3 \| chapter = Platonism in the Renaissance \| chapterurl=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64 \| last = Nelson \| first = John Charles \| pages = 510–515 (vol. 3) \| quote=(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) }} * {{cite book\|last=O'Daly\|first=Gerard\|title=Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind\|year=1987\|publisher=University of California Press\|location=Berkeley}} * {{cite book \| last = O'Donnell \| first = James \| authorlink = James J. O'Donnell \| title = Augustine: A New Biography \| publisher = ECCO \| location = New York \| year = 2005 \| isbn = 978-0-06-053537-7 \| url = https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt }} * {{cite book\|last=Pagels\|first=Elaine\|authorlink=Elaine Pagels\|title=Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity\|publisher=Vintage Books\|year=1989\|isbn=978-0-679-72232-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai}} * {{Citation \| last =Park \| first =Jae-Eun \| url =https://www.academia.edu/4811679 \| title = Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them \| journal = The Reformed Theological Review \| volume = 72 \| issue = 2 \|year=2013 \| pages = 103–121}}. * {{cite book \|author=Plumer, Eric Antone \|title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2003 \| isbn = 978-0-19-924439-3}} * {{cite book \| title = Saint Augustine the Algerian \| author = Pollman, Karla \| publisher = Edition Ruprecht \| location = Göttingen \| year = 2007\|isbn=978-3-89744-209-2 }} * {{cite book\|title=Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation\|year=1978\|publisher=Newman Press\|location=New York}} * {{cite book\|last=Augustine\|first=Saint\|title=The Essential Augustine\|year=1974\|publisher=Hackett\|location=Indianapolis\|edition= 2nd\|editor=Vernon Joseph Bourke}} * {{cite book \| title = Augustine and the Trinity \| authorlink = Lewis Ayres \| author = Ayres, Lewis \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| location = Cambridge \| year = 2010 \| isbn = 978-0-521-83886-3 }} * {{cite book\|last=Pottier\|first=René\|title=Saint Augustin le Berbère \|publisher=Fernand Lanore\|year=2006\|isbn=978-2-85157-282-0\|language=French}} * ''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35. * {{cite book\|last=Starnes\|first=Colin\| authorlink=Colin Starnes\|title=Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX\|year=1990\|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press\|location=Waterloo, Ontario}} * {{cite book \| last = Tanquerey \| first = Adolphe \| title = The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology \| publisher = Tan Books & Publishers \| location = Rockford, Illinois \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-89555-659-2\|page=37)\| title-link = Ascetical theology }} * {{cite book \|title= S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia \|last= Trapè \|first= A. \|location= Rome\|publisher= Città Nuova \|year=1990 \| series = Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4 \| volume = I – Natura e Grazia \| page = 422 \| isbn= 978-88-311-3402-6}} * {{cite book \| last = von Heyking \| first = John \| title = Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World \| publisher = University of Missouri Press \| location = Columbia \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-8262-1349-5 }} * [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php Augustine of Hippo] at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles * [http://www.findingaugustine.org/ Bibliography on St. Augustine] Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium {{Philosophy topics}} {{Catholic philosophy footer}} [[Category:Christian theological movements]] [[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]'
Unified diff of changes made by edit (`edit_diff`)	'@@ -1,4 +1,89 @@ -#REDIRECT [[Augustine of Hippo]] {{R with possibilities}} +[[File:Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg\|thumb\|Portrait of Augustine by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], 17th century +]] +'''Augustinianism''' (or '''Augustinism''') is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of the 4th-century philosopher [[Augustine of Hippo]] + +According to his contemporary, [[Jerome]], Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".<ref group=lower-alpha>[[Jerome]] wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei''). Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]; {{cite book \|title= Augustine the Theologian \|last=TeSelle \|first=Eugene \|year=1970 \|location= London \|page=343 \|isbn=978-0-223-97728-0}} March 2002 edition: {{ISBN\|1-57910-918-7}}.</ref>, his book ''[[The City of God]]'' is one of the most influential documents in [[medieval philosophy]] and is a cornerstone of Western thought, expounding on many profound questions of theology, such as the suffering of the righteous, the [[Problem_of_evil\|existence of evil]], the conflict between [[free will]] and divine omniscience, and the doctrine of [[original sin]]. + +[[Pope Benedict XVI]] cautioned that all of the [[Western Church]] teaching leads to him: +{{quote\|St Augustine. This man of passion and faith, of the highest intelligence and tireless in his pastoral care, a great Saint and Doctor of the Church is often known, at least by hearsay, even by those who ignore Christianity or who are not familiar with it, because he left a very deep mark on the cultural life of the West and on the whole world. Because of his special importance St Augustine's influence was widespread. It could be said on the one hand that all the roads of Latin Christian literature led to Hippo (today Annaba, on the coast of Algeria), the place where he was Bishop from 395 to his death in 430, and, on the other, that from this city of Roman Africa, many other roads of later Christianity and of Western culture itself branched out.<ref>[http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080109.html BENEDICT XVI GENERAL AUDIENCE Paul VI Audience Hall Wednesday, 9 January 2008]</ref>}} + +Historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example [[Paul the Apostle\|Paul of Tarsus]], has been more influential, and [[Latins (Middle Ages)\|Westerners]] have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."<ref name="MacCulloch2010">{{cite book\|author=Diarmaid MacCulloch\|title=A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319\|year=2010\|publisher=Penguin Books \|isbn=978-0-14-102189-8\|page=319}}</ref> +== Theological and philosophical thought == +[[File:Gerard Seghers (attr) - The Four Doctors of the Western Church, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430).jpg\|thumb\|''The Four Doctors of the Western Church'', Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430), [[Gerard Seghers]] ]] +Augustinism developed in opposition to the [[Pelagianism]] of [[Pelagius]].<ref>[https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/A/augustinism.html Augustinism]</ref> "Augustine considered the human race as a compact mass, a collective body, responsible in its unity and solidarity. Carrying out his system in all its logical consequences, he laid down the following rigid proposition as his doctrine: 'As all men have sinned in [[Adam]]; they are subject to the condemnation of [[God in Christianity\|God]] on account of this hereditary sin and the guilt thereof'"<ref>Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, 1, 299</ref><ref>Wiggers Augustinisnm and Pelagianism, p. 268</ref> + +According to Augustine, even the world and corporeal entities, being fruits of [[divine love]], have their value and meaning, while the some Platonists tended instead to devalue them. <ref>Tina Manferdini, ''Comunicazione ed estetica in Sant'Agostino'', p. 249, Bologna, ESD, 1995</ref> This attempt to place history and earthly existence within a heavenly perspective, where even evil finds explanation in some way, always remained at the center of its philosophical concerns. +== Theodicy == +=== Problem of evil === +{{Main\|Augustinian theodicy}} +The problem of evil is the question of how to reconcile the existence of [[evil]] with an [[Omnipotence\|omnipotent]], [[Omnibenevolence\|omnibenevolent]], and [[Omniscience\|omniscient]] [[God]].<ref name="Stanford">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil The Problem of Evil]", Michael Tooley</ref><ref name="IepEvidential">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm The Evidential Problem of Evil]", Nick Trakakis</ref> + +Augustine develop key ideas regarding his response to suffering. In ''[[Confessions of Saint Augustine\|Confessions]]'', Augustine wrote that his previous work was dominated by [[materialism]] and that reading the works of [[Plato]] enabled him to consider the existence of a non-physical [[substance theory\|substance]]. This helped him develop a response to the problem of evil from a theological (and non-Manichean) perspective,<ref>{{cite web \| url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#OntEud \| title=Saint Augustine \|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| origyear=24 March 2000 \|date=12 November 2010 \| accessdate=9 October 2011 \| author=Mendelson, Michael}}</ref> + +Augustine proposed that evil could not exist within God, nor be created by God, and is instead a by-product of God's creativity.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 168</ref> He rejected the notion that evil exists in itself, proposing instead that it is a privation of (or falling away from) good, and a corruption of nature.<ref name="Menn">Menn 2002, p. 170</ref> He wrote that "evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name 'evil.'"<ref>''The City of God'', Augustine of Hippo, Book XI, Chapter 9</ref> Both moral and [[natural evil]] occurs, Augustine argued, owing to an evil use of free will,<ref name=Bennett2008>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 126</ref> which could be traced back to the original sin of [[Adam and Eve]].<ref name=Svendsen&Pierce2010>Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 49</ref> He believed that this evil will, present in the [[soul\|human soul]], was a corruption of the will given to humans by God, making suffering a just punishment for the sin of humans.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 174</ref> Because Augustine believed that all of humanity was "[[Preformationism\|seminally present in the loins of Adam]]", he argued that all of humanity inherited Adam's sin and his just punishment.<ref>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 127</ref> However, in spite of his belief that free will can be turned to evil, Augustine maintained that it is vital for humans to have free will, because they could not live well without it. He argued that evil could come from humans because, although humans contained no evil, they were also not perfectly good and hence could be corrupted.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 176</ref> + +== Ethics == +{{Catholic philosophy}} +=== Divine command theory === +{{Main\|Divine command theory}} +Augustine offered the [[Divine command theory]], a theory which proposes that an action's status as [[Morality\|morally]] [[good]] is equivalent to whether it is commanded by [[God]].<ref>{{cite book \| title=Divine Commands and Morality \| publisher=Oxford University Press \| year=1981 \| author=Helm, Paul \| isbn=0-19-875049-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| title=Platonistic And Disenchanting Theories of Ethics \| publisher=Peter Lang \| year=2007 \| author=Chandler, Hugh \| isbn=978-0-8204-8858-5}}</ref>Augustine's theory began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good, which delivers human happiness, Augustine argued that to achieve this happiness, humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner; this requires humans to love God, which then allows them to correctly love that which is worthy of being loved. Augustine's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves, leading to human happiness and fulfilment.<ref name=IEP-2>{{cite web \| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/divine-c/#H2 \| title=Divine Command Theory \| publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| date=21 August 2006 \| accessdate=15 August 2012 \| author=Austin, Michael W.}}</ref> + +as an Neoplatonist, Augustine supported [[Plato\|Plato's]] view that a well-ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality. However, unlike Plato, he believed that achieving a well-ordered soul had a higher purpose: living in accordance with God's commands. His view of morality was thus heteronomous, as he believed in deference to a higher authority (God), rather than acting [[autonomy#Philosophy\|autonomously]].<ref>Connolly, Keller, Leever & White 2009, p. 24</ref> +=== Divine illumination === +{{Main\|Divine illumination}} +Augustine emphasised the role of [[divine illumination]] in our thought, saying that "The mind needs to be enlightened by light from outside itself, so that it can participate in truth, because it is not itself the nature of truth. You will light my lamp, Lord,"<ref>''Confessions'' IV.xv.25</ref> + +For Augustine, God does not give us certain information, but rather gives us insight into the truth of the information we received for ourselves. + +:If we both see that what you say is true, and we both see that what I say is true, then where do we see that? Not I in you, nor you in me, but both of us in that unalterable truth that is above our minds.<ref>''Confessions'' XII.xxv.35</ref> +=== Just war theory === +{{Main\|Just war theory }} +The [[Just war theory]] is a doctrine that ensure [[war]] is morally justifiable through a series of criteria, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. based upon [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+13%3A4 Romans 13:4] Augustine claimed that, while individuals should not resort immediately to violence, God has given the sword to government for good reason. Augustine argues that [[Christians]], as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when forced to do so by a government. Augustine asserted that this was a personal, philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html\|title=A Time For War?\|author=Robert L. Holmes\|work=ChristianityToday.com\|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref><ref>''Contra Faustum Manichaeum'' book 22 sections 69–76</ref> + +== Hamartiology == +=== Original sin === +{{Main\|Original sin}} +[[File:Michelangelo Buonarroti 022.jpg\|thumb\|upright=2\|[[Michelangelo]]'s painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]]] +Augustine wrote that original sin is transmitted by [[concupiscence]] and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<ref>{{cite book +\|editor1-last=Cross\|editor1-first=Frank Leslie\|editor1-link=Frank Leslie Cross\|editor2-last=Livingstone\|editor2-first=Elizabeth A.\|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church\|chapter=Original sin\|year=2005\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=Oxford\|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3\|edition=3rd rev.}}</ref> For Augustine, Adam's sin<ref>Augustine taught that Adam's sin was both an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') and of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth. Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit'' (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; PL 44, 795). This particular sin would not have taken place if [[Satan]] had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (''radix Mali''): ''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus'' (''Contra Julianum'', I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</ref> is transmitted by [[concupiscence]], or "hurtful desire",<ref>[http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/sindeath/3.htm "Original Sin"]. ''Biblical Apologetic Studies''. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin is transmitted by concupiscence, or "hurtful desire", sexual desire and all sensual feelings resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will.</ref><ref>William Nicholson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MeOx95oNQ9YC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=concupiscence,+or+%22hurtful+desire%22&source=bl&ots=625Trlcg97&sig=s0voWp6ENrROdPRPxKOVKAKHcSM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7Lx2U67yH42NqgatjYHwCQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=concupiscence%2C%20or%20%22hurtful%20desire%22&f=false ''A Plain But Full Exposition of the Catechism of the Church of England''], page 118. Retrieved 17 May 2014.</ref> resulting in humanity becoming a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. When Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature. Their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a [[Metaphysics\|metaphysical]], not a [[Psychology\|psychological]] sense.<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]] explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the ''libido'' (''concupiscence''), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a ''libido actualis'', i.e. sexual lust, but ''libido habitualis'', i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature: ''Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis'' (STh Iª–IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</ref> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not ''a being'' but a ''bad quality'', the [[privation of good]] or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; PL 42, 590.</ref> He admitted that sexual concupiscence (''libido'') might have been present in the perfect human nature in [[paradise]], and that only later it became disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<ref>Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente'' (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: ''Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus'', II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.{{cite book\|title=Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale\|last=Schmitt\|first=É.\|year=1983\|series =Études Augustiniennes\| location=Paris\|page=104}}</ref> In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustine's teaching that humans are utterly depraved in nature and grace is [[irresistible grace\|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[perseverance of the saints\|perseverance]].<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite book\|author=Justo L. Gonzalez\|title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)\|publisher=Abingdon Press\|date=1970–1975}}</ref> + +Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against [[Pelagius]] and his [[Pelagianism\|Pelagian]] disciples, [[Caelestius]] and [[Julian of Eclanum]],<ref name="Gonzalez"/> who had been inspired by [[Rufinus of Syria]], a disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]].<ref>[[Marius Mercator]] ''Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.'',2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">[[Patrologia Latina\|PL]]</abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/; {{cite book \|last= Bonner \|first= Gerald \|chapter= Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism \|title= God's Decree and Man's Destiny \|location= London \|year= 1987 \|pages= 31–47 \|isbn= 978-0-86078-203-2 \|publisher= Variorum Reprints}}</ref>{{rp\|35}} They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp\|355–356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm De gratia Christi et de peccato originali]'', I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</ref> +==See also== +[[Scholasticism]] +[[Thomism]] +[[Neoplatonism and Christianity]] +[[Boethius]] +== Notes == +{{notelist}} + +==References== +{{Reflist\|30em}} + +==Further reading== +* {{cite encyclopedia\|editor1-last=Mayer\|editor1-first=Cornelius P.\|encyclopedia=[[Augustinus-Lexikon]]\|publisher=Schwabe AG\|location=[[Basel]]}} +* Miles, Margaret R. (2012). ''[http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter]'', [[Lutterworth Press]], {{ISBN\|978-0718892623}}. +* {{cite book\|last=Nash\|first=Ronald H\|title=The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge\|year=1969\|publisher=University Press of Kentucky\|location=Lexington}} +* {{cite book \| editor-last = Wiener \| editor-first = Philip \| title = Dictionary of the History of Ideas \| publisher = Scribner \| location = New York \| year = 1973 \| isbn = 978-0-684-13293-8\|volume=3 \| chapter = Platonism in the Renaissance \| chapterurl=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64 \| last = Nelson \| first = John Charles \| pages = 510–515 (vol. 3) \| quote=(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) }} +* {{cite book\|last=O'Daly\|first=Gerard\|title=Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind\|year=1987\|publisher=University of California Press\|location=Berkeley}} +* {{cite book \| last = O'Donnell \| first = James \| authorlink = James J. O'Donnell \| title = Augustine: A New Biography \| publisher = ECCO \| location = New York \| year = 2005 \| isbn = 978-0-06-053537-7 \| url = https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt }} +* {{cite book\|last=Pagels\|first=Elaine\|authorlink=Elaine Pagels\|title=Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity\|publisher=Vintage Books\|year=1989\|isbn=978-0-679-72232-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai}} +* {{Citation \| last =Park \| first =Jae-Eun \| url =https://www.academia.edu/4811679 \| title = Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them \| journal = The Reformed Theological Review \| volume = 72 \| issue = 2 \|year=2013 \| pages = 103–121}}. +* {{cite book \|author=Plumer, Eric Antone \|title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2003 \| isbn = 978-0-19-924439-3}} +* {{cite book \| title = Saint Augustine the Algerian \| author = Pollman, Karla \| publisher = Edition Ruprecht \| location = Göttingen \| year = 2007\|isbn=978-3-89744-209-2 }} +* {{cite book\|title=Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation\|year=1978\|publisher=Newman Press\|location=New York}} +* {{cite book\|last=Augustine\|first=Saint\|title=The Essential Augustine\|year=1974\|publisher=Hackett\|location=Indianapolis\|edition= 2nd\|editor=Vernon Joseph Bourke}} +* {{cite book \| title = Augustine and the Trinity \| authorlink = Lewis Ayres \| author = Ayres, Lewis \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| location = Cambridge \| year = 2010 \| isbn = 978-0-521-83886-3 }} +* {{cite book\|last=Pottier\|first=René\|title=Saint Augustin le Berbère \|publisher=Fernand Lanore\|year=2006\|isbn=978-2-85157-282-0\|language=French}} +* ''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35. +* {{cite book\|last=Starnes\|first=Colin\| authorlink=Colin Starnes\|title=Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX\|year=1990\|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press\|location=Waterloo, Ontario}} +* {{cite book \| last = Tanquerey \| first = Adolphe \| title = The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology \| publisher = Tan Books & Publishers \| location = Rockford, Illinois \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-89555-659-2\|page=37)\| title-link = Ascetical theology }} +* {{cite book \|title= S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia \|last= Trapè \|first= A. \|location= Rome\|publisher= Città Nuova \|year=1990 \| series = Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4 \| volume = I – Natura e Grazia \| page = 422 \| isbn= 978-88-311-3402-6}} +* {{cite book \| last = von Heyking \| first = John \| title = Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World \| publisher = University of Missouri Press \| location = Columbia \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-8262-1349-5 }} +* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php Augustine of Hippo] at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles +* [http://www.findingaugustine.org/ Bibliography on St. Augustine] Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium + +{{Philosophy topics}} +{{Catholic philosophy footer}} [[Category:Christian theological movements]] [[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]] '
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Lines added in edit (`added_lines`)	[ 0 => '[[File:Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg\|thumb\|Portrait of Augustine by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], 17th century', 1 => ']]', 2 => ''''Augustinianism''' (or '''Augustinism''') is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of the 4th-century philosopher [[Augustine of Hippo]]', 3 => '', 4 => 'According to his contemporary, [[Jerome]], Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".<ref group=lower-alpha>[[Jerome]] wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei''). Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]; {{cite book \|title= Augustine the Theologian \|last=TeSelle \|first=Eugene \|year=1970 \|location= London \|page=343 \|isbn=978-0-223-97728-0}} March 2002 edition: {{ISBN\|1-57910-918-7}}.</ref>, his book ''[[The City of God]]'' is one of the most influential documents in [[medieval philosophy]] and is a cornerstone of Western thought, expounding on many profound questions of theology, such as the suffering of the righteous, the [[Problem_of_evil\|existence of evil]], the conflict between [[free will]] and divine omniscience, and the doctrine of [[original sin]].', 5 => '', 6 => '[[Pope Benedict XVI]] cautioned that all of the [[Western Church]] teaching leads to him:', 7 => '{{quote\|St Augustine. This man of passion and faith, of the highest intelligence and tireless in his pastoral care, a great Saint and Doctor of the Church is often known, at least by hearsay, even by those who ignore Christianity or who are not familiar with it, because he left a very deep mark on the cultural life of the West and on the whole world. Because of his special importance St Augustine's influence was widespread. It could be said on the one hand that all the roads of Latin Christian literature led to Hippo (today Annaba, on the coast of Algeria), the place where he was Bishop from 395 to his death in 430, and, on the other, that from this city of Roman Africa, many other roads of later Christianity and of Western culture itself branched out.<ref>[http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080109.html BENEDICT XVI GENERAL AUDIENCE Paul VI Audience Hall Wednesday, 9 January 2008]</ref>}}', 8 => '', 9 => 'Historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example [[Paul the Apostle\|Paul of Tarsus]], has been more influential, and [[Latins (Middle Ages)\|Westerners]] have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."<ref name="MacCulloch2010">{{cite book\|author=Diarmaid MacCulloch\|title=A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319\|year=2010\|publisher=Penguin Books \|isbn=978-0-14-102189-8\|page=319}}</ref>', 10 => '== Theological and philosophical thought ==', 11 => '[[File:Gerard Seghers (attr) - The Four Doctors of the Western Church, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430).jpg\|thumb\|''The Four Doctors of the Western Church'', Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430), [[Gerard Seghers]] ]]', 12 => 'Augustinism developed in opposition to the [[Pelagianism]] of [[Pelagius]].<ref>[https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/A/augustinism.html Augustinism]</ref> "Augustine considered the human race as a compact mass, a collective body, responsible in its unity and solidarity. Carrying out his system in all its logical consequences, he laid down the following rigid proposition as his doctrine: 'As all men have sinned in [[Adam]]; they are subject to the condemnation of [[God in Christianity\|God]] on account of this hereditary sin and the guilt thereof'"<ref>Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, 1, 299</ref><ref>Wiggers Augustinisnm and Pelagianism, p. 268</ref>', 13 => '', 14 => 'According to Augustine, even the world and corporeal entities, being fruits of [[divine love]], have their value and meaning, while the some Platonists tended instead to devalue them. <ref>Tina Manferdini, ''Comunicazione ed estetica in Sant'Agostino'', p. 249, Bologna, ESD, 1995</ref> This attempt to place history and earthly existence within a heavenly perspective, where even evil finds explanation in some way, always remained at the center of its philosophical concerns.', 15 => '== Theodicy ==', 16 => '=== Problem of evil ===', 17 => '{{Main\|Augustinian theodicy}}', 18 => 'The problem of evil is the question of how to reconcile the existence of [[evil]] with an [[Omnipotence\|omnipotent]], [[Omnibenevolence\|omnibenevolent]], and [[Omniscience\|omniscient]] [[God]].<ref name="Stanford">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil The Problem of Evil]", Michael Tooley</ref><ref name="IepEvidential">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm The Evidential Problem of Evil]", Nick Trakakis</ref> ', 19 => '', 20 => 'Augustine develop key ideas regarding his response to suffering. In ''[[Confessions of Saint Augustine\|Confessions]]'', Augustine wrote that his previous work was dominated by [[materialism]] and that reading the works of [[Plato]] enabled him to consider the existence of a non-physical [[substance theory\|substance]]. This helped him develop a response to the problem of evil from a theological (and non-Manichean) perspective,<ref>{{cite web \| url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#OntEud \| title=Saint Augustine \|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| origyear=24 March 2000 \|date=12 November 2010 \| accessdate=9 October 2011 \| author=Mendelson, Michael}}</ref> ', 21 => '', 22 => 'Augustine proposed that evil could not exist within God, nor be created by God, and is instead a by-product of God's creativity.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 168</ref> He rejected the notion that evil exists in itself, proposing instead that it is a privation of (or falling away from) good, and a corruption of nature.<ref name="Menn">Menn 2002, p. 170</ref> He wrote that "evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name 'evil.'"<ref>''The City of God'', Augustine of Hippo, Book XI, Chapter 9</ref> Both moral and [[natural evil]] occurs, Augustine argued, owing to an evil use of free will,<ref name=Bennett2008>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 126</ref> which could be traced back to the original sin of [[Adam and Eve]].<ref name=Svendsen&Pierce2010>Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 49</ref> He believed that this evil will, present in the [[soul\|human soul]], was a corruption of the will given to humans by God, making suffering a just punishment for the sin of humans.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 174</ref> Because Augustine believed that all of humanity was "[[Preformationism\|seminally present in the loins of Adam]]", he argued that all of humanity inherited Adam's sin and his just punishment.<ref>Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 127</ref> However, in spite of his belief that free will can be turned to evil, Augustine maintained that it is vital for humans to have free will, because they could not live well without it. He argued that evil could come from humans because, although humans contained no evil, they were also not perfectly good and hence could be corrupted.<ref>Menn 2002, p. 176</ref>', 23 => '', 24 => '== Ethics ==', 25 => '{{Catholic philosophy}}', 26 => '=== Divine command theory ===', 27 => '{{Main\|Divine command theory}}', 28 => 'Augustine offered the [[Divine command theory]], a theory which proposes that an action's status as [[Morality\|morally]] [[good]] is equivalent to whether it is commanded by [[God]].<ref>{{cite book \| title=Divine Commands and Morality \| publisher=Oxford University Press \| year=1981 \| author=Helm, Paul \| isbn=0-19-875049-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| title=Platonistic And Disenchanting Theories of Ethics \| publisher=Peter Lang \| year=2007 \| author=Chandler, Hugh \| isbn=978-0-8204-8858-5}}</ref>Augustine's theory began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good, which delivers human happiness, Augustine argued that to achieve this happiness, humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner; this requires humans to love God, which then allows them to correctly love that which is worthy of being loved. Augustine's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves, leading to human happiness and fulfilment.<ref name=IEP-2>{{cite web \| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/divine-c/#H2 \| title=Divine Command Theory \| publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| date=21 August 2006 \| accessdate=15 August 2012 \| author=Austin, Michael W.}}</ref>', 29 => '', 30 => 'as an Neoplatonist, Augustine supported [[Plato\|Plato's]] view that a well-ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality. However, unlike Plato, he believed that achieving a well-ordered soul had a higher purpose: living in accordance with God's commands. His view of morality was thus heteronomous, as he believed in deference to a higher authority (God), rather than acting [[autonomy#Philosophy\|autonomously]].<ref>Connolly, Keller, Leever & White 2009, p. 24</ref>', 31 => '=== Divine illumination ===', 32 => '{{Main\|Divine illumination}}', 33 => 'Augustine emphasised the role of [[divine illumination]] in our thought, saying that "The mind needs to be enlightened by light from outside itself, so that it can participate in truth, because it is not itself the nature of truth. You will light my lamp, Lord,"<ref>''Confessions'' IV.xv.25</ref>', 34 => '', 35 => 'For Augustine, God does not give us certain information, but rather gives us insight into the truth of the information we received for ourselves.', 36 => '', 37 => ':If we both see that what you say is true, and we both see that what I say is true, then where do we see that? Not I in you, nor you in me, but both of us in that unalterable truth that is above our minds.<ref>''Confessions'' XII.xxv.35</ref>', 38 => '=== Just war theory ===', 39 => '{{Main\|Just war theory }}', 40 => 'The [[Just war theory]] is a doctrine that ensure [[war]] is morally justifiable through a series of criteria, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. based upon [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+13%3A4 Romans 13:4] Augustine claimed that, while individuals should not resort immediately to violence, God has given the sword to government for good reason. Augustine argues that [[Christians]], as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when forced to do so by a government. Augustine asserted that this was a personal, philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html\|title=A Time For War?\|author=Robert L. Holmes\|work=ChristianityToday.com\|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref><ref>''Contra Faustum Manichaeum'' book 22 sections 69–76</ref>', 41 => '', 42 => '== Hamartiology ==', 43 => '=== Original sin ===', 44 => '{{Main\|Original sin}}', 45 => '[[File:Michelangelo Buonarroti 022.jpg\|thumb\|upright=2\|[[Michelangelo]]'s painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]]]', 46 => 'Augustine wrote that original sin is transmitted by [[concupiscence]] and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<ref>{{cite book', 47 => '\|editor1-last=Cross\|editor1-first=Frank Leslie\|editor1-link=Frank Leslie Cross\|editor2-last=Livingstone\|editor2-first=Elizabeth A.\|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church\|chapter=Original sin\|year=2005\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=Oxford\|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3\|edition=3rd rev.}}</ref> For Augustine, Adam's sin<ref>Augustine taught that Adam's sin was both an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') and of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth. Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit'' (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; PL 44, 795). This particular sin would not have taken place if [[Satan]] had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (''radix Mali''): ''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus'' (''Contra Julianum'', I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</ref> is transmitted by [[concupiscence]], or "hurtful desire",<ref>[http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/sindeath/3.htm "Original Sin"]. ''Biblical Apologetic Studies''. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin is transmitted by concupiscence, or "hurtful desire", sexual desire and all sensual feelings resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will.</ref><ref>William Nicholson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MeOx95oNQ9YC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=concupiscence,+or+%22hurtful+desire%22&source=bl&ots=625Trlcg97&sig=s0voWp6ENrROdPRPxKOVKAKHcSM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7Lx2U67yH42NqgatjYHwCQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=concupiscence%2C%20or%20%22hurtful%20desire%22&f=false ''A Plain But Full Exposition of the Catechism of the Church of England''], page 118. Retrieved 17 May 2014.</ref> resulting in humanity becoming a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. When Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature. Their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a [[Metaphysics\|metaphysical]], not a [[Psychology\|psychological]] sense.<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]] explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the ''libido'' (''concupiscence''), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a ''libido actualis'', i.e. sexual lust, but ''libido habitualis'', i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature: ''Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis'' (STh Iª–IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</ref> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not ''a being'' but a ''bad quality'', the [[privation of good]] or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; PL 42, 590.</ref> He admitted that sexual concupiscence (''libido'') might have been present in the perfect human nature in [[paradise]], and that only later it became disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<ref>Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente'' (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: ''Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus'', II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.{{cite book\|title=Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale\|last=Schmitt\|first=É.\|year=1983\|series =Études Augustiniennes\| location=Paris\|page=104}}</ref> In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustine's teaching that humans are utterly depraved in nature and grace is [[irresistible grace\|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[perseverance of the saints\|perseverance]].<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite book\|author=Justo L. Gonzalez\|title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)\|publisher=Abingdon Press\|date=1970–1975}}</ref>', 48 => '', 49 => 'Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against [[Pelagius]] and his [[Pelagianism\|Pelagian]] disciples, [[Caelestius]] and [[Julian of Eclanum]],<ref name="Gonzalez"/> who had been inspired by [[Rufinus of Syria]], a disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]].<ref>[[Marius Mercator]] ''Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.'',2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">[[Patrologia Latina\|PL]]</abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/; {{cite book \|last= Bonner \|first= Gerald \|chapter= Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism \|title= God's Decree and Man's Destiny \|location= London \|year= 1987 \|pages= 31–47 \|isbn= 978-0-86078-203-2 \|publisher= Variorum Reprints}}</ref>{{rp\|35}} They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp\|355–356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm De gratia Christi et de peccato originali]'', I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</ref>', 50 => '==See also==', 51 => '[[Scholasticism]]', 52 => '[[Thomism]]', 53 => '[[Neoplatonism and Christianity]]', 54 => '[[Boethius]]', 55 => '== Notes ==', 56 => '{{notelist}}', 57 => '', 58 => '==References==', 59 => '{{Reflist\|30em}}', 60 => '', 61 => '==Further reading==', 62 => '* {{cite encyclopedia\|editor1-last=Mayer\|editor1-first=Cornelius P.\|encyclopedia=[[Augustinus-Lexikon]]\|publisher=Schwabe AG\|location=[[Basel]]}}', 63 => '* Miles, Margaret R. (2012). ''[http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter]'', [[Lutterworth Press]], {{ISBN\|978-0718892623}}.', 64 => '* {{cite book\|last=Nash\|first=Ronald H\|title=The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge\|year=1969\|publisher=University Press of Kentucky\|location=Lexington}}', 65 => '* {{cite book \| editor-last = Wiener \| editor-first = Philip \| title = Dictionary of the History of Ideas \| publisher = Scribner \| location = New York \| year = 1973 \| isbn = 978-0-684-13293-8\|volume=3 \| chapter = Platonism in the Renaissance \| chapterurl=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64 \| last = Nelson \| first = John Charles \| pages = 510–515 (vol. 3) \| quote=(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) }}', 66 => '* {{cite book\|last=O'Daly\|first=Gerard\|title=Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind\|year=1987\|publisher=University of California Press\|location=Berkeley}}', 67 => '* {{cite book \| last = O'Donnell \| first = James \| authorlink = James J. O'Donnell \| title = Augustine: A New Biography \| publisher = ECCO \| location = New York \| year = 2005 \| isbn = 978-0-06-053537-7 \| url = https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt }}', 68 => '* {{cite book\|last=Pagels\|first=Elaine\|authorlink=Elaine Pagels\|title=Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity\|publisher=Vintage Books\|year=1989\|isbn=978-0-679-72232-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai}}', 69 => '* {{Citation \| last =Park \| first =Jae-Eun \| url =https://www.academia.edu/4811679 \| title = Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them \| journal = The Reformed Theological Review \| volume = 72 \| issue = 2 \|year=2013 \| pages = 103–121}}.', 70 => '* {{cite book \|author=Plumer, Eric Antone \|title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2003 \| isbn = 978-0-19-924439-3}}', 71 => '* {{cite book \| title = Saint Augustine the Algerian \| author = Pollman, Karla \| publisher = Edition Ruprecht \| location = Göttingen \| year = 2007\|isbn=978-3-89744-209-2 }}', 72 => '* {{cite book\|title=Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation\|year=1978\|publisher=Newman Press\|location=New York}}', 73 => '* {{cite book\|last=Augustine\|first=Saint\|title=The Essential Augustine\|year=1974\|publisher=Hackett\|location=Indianapolis\|edition= 2nd\|editor=Vernon Joseph Bourke}}', 74 => '* {{cite book \| title = Augustine and the Trinity \| authorlink = Lewis Ayres \| author = Ayres, Lewis \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| location = Cambridge \| year = 2010 \| isbn = 978-0-521-83886-3 }}', 75 => '* {{cite book\|last=Pottier\|first=René\|title=Saint Augustin le Berbère \|publisher=Fernand Lanore\|year=2006\|isbn=978-2-85157-282-0\|language=French}}', 76 => '* ''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35.', 77 => '* {{cite book\|last=Starnes\|first=Colin\| authorlink=Colin Starnes\|title=Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX\|year=1990\|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press\|location=Waterloo, Ontario}}', 78 => '* {{cite book \| last = Tanquerey \| first = Adolphe \| title = The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology \| publisher = Tan Books & Publishers \| location = Rockford, Illinois \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-89555-659-2\|page=37)\| title-link = Ascetical theology }}', 79 => '* {{cite book \|title= S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia \|last= Trapè \|first= A. \|location= Rome\|publisher= Città Nuova \|year=1990 \| series = Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4 \| volume = I – Natura e Grazia \| page = 422 \| isbn= 978-88-311-3402-6}}', 80 => '* {{cite book \| last = von Heyking \| first = John \| title = Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World \| publisher = University of Missouri Press \| location = Columbia \| year = 2001 \| isbn = 978-0-8262-1349-5 }}', 81 => '* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php Augustine of Hippo] at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles', 82 => '* [http://www.findingaugustine.org/ Bibliography on St. Augustine] Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium', 83 => '', 84 => '{{Philosophy topics}}', 85 => '{{Catholic philosophy footer}}' ]
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (`new_html`)	'<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/220px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/330px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/440px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3135" data-file-height="4000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Portrait of Augustine by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippe_de_Champaigne" title="Philippe de Champaigne">Philippe de Champaigne</a>, 17th century</div></div></div> <p><b>Augustinianism</b> (or <b>Augustinism</b>) is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of the 4th-century philosopher <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> </p><p>According to his contemporary, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></sup>, his book <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God">The City of God</a></i> is one of the most influential documents in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a> and is a cornerstone of Western thought, expounding on many profound questions of theology, such as the suffering of the righteous, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">existence of evil</a>, the conflict between <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> and divine omniscience, and the doctrine of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. </p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> cautioned that all of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Church">Western Church</a> teaching leads to him: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047036">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>St Augustine. This man of passion and faith, of the highest intelligence and tireless in his pastoral care, a great Saint and Doctor of the Church is often known, at least by hearsay, even by those who ignore Christianity or who are not familiar with it, because he left a very deep mark on the cultural life of the West and on the whole world. Because of his special importance St Augustine's influence was widespread. It could be said on the one hand that all the roads of Latin Christian literature led to Hippo (today Annaba, on the coast of Algeria), the place where he was Bishop from 395 to his death in 430, and, on the other, that from this city of Roman Africa, many other roads of later Christianity and of Western culture itself branched out.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCulloch" title="Diarmaid MacCulloch">Diarmaid MacCulloch</a> has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul of Tarsus</a>, has been more influential, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latins_(Middle_Ages)" title="Latins (Middle Ages)">Westerners</a> have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."<sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch2010_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch2010-3">[2]</a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Theological_and_philosophical_thought"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Theological and philosophical thought</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Theodicy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Theodicy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Problem_of_evil"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Problem of evil</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Divine_command_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Divine command theory</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Divine_illumination"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Divine illumination</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Just_war_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Just war theory</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Hamartiology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Hamartiology</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Original_sin"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Original sin</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Theological_and_philosophical_thought">Theological and philosophical thought</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=1" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Theological and philosophical thought">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gerard_Seghers_(attr)_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354%E2%80%93430).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg/220px-Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg/330px-Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg/440px-Gerard_Seghers_%28attr%29_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2C_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_%28354%E2%80%93430%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="803" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gerard_Seghers_(attr)_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354%E2%80%93430).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i>The Four Doctors of the Western Church</i>, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerard_Seghers" title="Gerard Seghers">Gerard Seghers</a></div></div></div> <p>Augustinism developed in opposition to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pelagius" title="Pelagius">Pelagius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup> "Augustine considered the human race as a compact mass, a collective body, responsible in its unity and solidarity. Carrying out his system in all its logical consequences, he laid down the following rigid proposition as his doctrine: 'As all men have sinned in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a>; they are subject to the condemnation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> on account of this hereditary sin and the guilt thereof'"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></sup> </p><p>According to Augustine, even the world and corporeal entities, being fruits of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_love" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine love">divine love</a>, have their value and meaning, while the some Platonists tended instead to devalue them. <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></sup> This attempt to place history and earthly existence within a heavenly perspective, where even evil finds explanation in some way, always remained at the center of its philosophical concerns. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Theodicy">Theodicy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=2" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Theodicy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Problem_of_evil">Problem of evil</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=3" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Problem of evil">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></div> <p>The problem of evil is the question of how to reconcile the existence of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> with an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotent</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">omnibenevolent</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscient</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-8">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IepEvidential_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-9">[8]</a></sup> </p><p>Augustine develop key ideas regarding his response to suffering. In <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confessions_of_Saint_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessions of Saint Augustine">Confessions</a></i>, Augustine wrote that his previous work was dominated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> and that reading the works of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> enabled him to consider the existence of a non-physical <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>. This helped him develop a response to the problem of evil from a theological (and non-Manichean) perspective,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup> </p><p>Augustine proposed that evil could not exist within God, nor be created by God, and is instead a by-product of God's creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup> He rejected the notion that evil exists in itself, proposing instead that it is a privation of (or falling away from) good, and a corruption of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Menn_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menn-12">[11]</a></sup> He wrote that "evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name 'evil.'"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup> Both moral and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">natural evil</a> occurs, Augustine argued, owing to an evil use of free will,<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett2008_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett2008-14">[13]</a></sup> which could be traced back to the original sin of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Svendsen&Pierce2010_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Svendsen&Pierce2010-15">[14]</a></sup> He believed that this evil will, present in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">human soul</a>, was a corruption of the will given to humans by God, making suffering a just punishment for the sin of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup> Because Augustine believed that all of humanity was "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Preformationism" title="Preformationism">seminally present in the loins of Adam</a>", he argued that all of humanity inherited Adam's sin and his just punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup> However, in spite of his belief that free will can be turned to evil, Augustine maintained that it is vital for humans to have free will, because they could not live well without it. He argued that evil could come from humans because, although humans contained no evil, they were also not perfectly good and hence could be corrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics">Ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=4" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0.4em 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg" class="image"><img alt="Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/25px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="34" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/38px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/50px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="1105" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Catholic_philosophers" title="Category:Catholic philosophers">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/81px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="124" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/122px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/162px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="743" /><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/81px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="124" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/122px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/162px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="479" /><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/93px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="124" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/140px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/186px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /><div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background-color:gold"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background-color:gold"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background-color:gold"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Antiquity</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Medieval</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Symeon the New Theologian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giacomo_da_Viterbo" title="Giacomo da Viterbo">James of Viterbo</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gregory_of_Rimini" title="Gregory of Rimini">Gregory of Rimini</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Renaissance and Modern</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Baltasar Gracián</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus of Rotterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan" title="Thomas Cajetan">Thomas Cajetan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Luis de Molina</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francis_de_Sales" title="Francis de Sales">Francis de Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Domingo de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta" title="Martín de Azpilcueta">Martín de Azpilcueta</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Mercado" title="Tomás de Mercado">Tomás de Mercado</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">François Fénelon</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori" title="Alphonsus Liguori">Alphonsus Liguori</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Giovanni Botero</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Contemporary</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Mortimer J. Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Barron" title="Robert Barron">Robert Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Hans Urs von Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yves_Congar" title="Yves Congar">Yves Congar</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reginald_Garrigou-Lagrange" title="Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange">Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Étienne Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">René Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romano_Guardini" title="Romano Guardini">Romano Guardini</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dietrich_von_Hildebrand" title="Dietrich von Hildebrand">Dietrich von Hildebrand</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Faustina_Kowalska" title="Faustina Kowalska">Faustina Kowalska</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Peter Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugues_Felicit%C3%A9_Robert_de_Lamennais" title="Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais">Felicité de Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bernard_Lonergan" title="Bernard Lonergan">Bernard Lonergan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Jacques Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9-Joseph_Mercier" title="Désiré-Joseph Mercier">Désiré Mercier</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Merton" title="Thomas Merton">Thomas Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Henry Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erich_Przywara" title="Erich Przywara">Erich Przywara</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Karl Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Antonio Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Edith Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Eleonore Stump</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="image"><img alt="046CupolaSPietro.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a> </p> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Socrates.png" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Catholic_philosophy&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Divine_command_theory">Divine command theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=5" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Divine command theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></div> <p>Augustine offered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a>, a theory which proposes that an action's status as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morally</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> is equivalent to whether it is commanded by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup>Augustine's theory began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good, which delivers human happiness, Augustine argued that to achieve this happiness, humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner; this requires humans to love God, which then allows them to correctly love that which is worthy of being loved. Augustine's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves, leading to human happiness and fulfilment.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP-2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-2-21">[20]</a></sup> </p><p>as an Neoplatonist, Augustine supported <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato's</a> view that a well-ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality. However, unlike Plato, he believed that achieving a well-ordered soul had a higher purpose: living in accordance with God's commands. His view of morality was thus heteronomous, as he believed in deference to a higher authority (God), rather than acting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomy#Philosophy" title="Autonomy">autonomously</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Divine_illumination">Divine illumination</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=6" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Divine illumination">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a></div> <p>Augustine emphasised the role of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">divine illumination</a> in our thought, saying that "The mind needs to be enlightened by light from outside itself, so that it can participate in truth, because it is not itself the nature of truth. You will light my lamp, Lord,"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> </p><p>For Augustine, God does not give us certain information, but rather gives us insight into the truth of the information we received for ourselves. </p> <dl><dd>If we both see that what you say is true, and we both see that what I say is true, then where do we see that? Not I in you, nor you in me, but both of us in that unalterable truth that is above our minds.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup></dd></dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Just_war_theory">Just war theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=7" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Just war theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></div> <p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a> is a doctrine that ensure <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> is morally justifiable through a series of criteria, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just. based upon <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+13%3A4">Romans 13:4</a> Augustine claimed that, while individuals should not resort immediately to violence, God has given the sword to government for good reason. Augustine argues that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when forced to do so by a government. Augustine asserted that this was a personal, philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=8" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Hamartiology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Original_sin">Original sin</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=9" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Original sin">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:442px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg/440px-Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="198" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg/660px-Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg/880px-Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="1846" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Michelangelo_Buonarroti_022.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>'s painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a></div></div></div> <p>Augustine wrote that original sin is transmitted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Concupiscence" title="Concupiscence">concupiscence</a> and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup> For Augustine, Adam's sin<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup> is transmitted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Concupiscence" title="Concupiscence">concupiscence</a>, or "hurtful desire",<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup> resulting in humanity becoming a <i>massa damnata</i> (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will. When Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature. Their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a>, not a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> sense.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not <i>a being</i> but a <i>bad quality</i>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privation_of_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Privation of good">privation of good</a> or a wound.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> He admitted that sexual concupiscence (<i>libido</i>) might have been present in the perfect human nature in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a>, and that only later it became disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustine's teaching that humans are utterly depraved in nature and grace is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">irresistible</a>, results in conversion, and leads to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perseverance_of_the_saints" title="Perseverance of the saints">perseverance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez-34">[33]</a></sup> </p><p>Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pelagius" title="Pelagius">Pelagius</a> and his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagian</a> disciples, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caelestius" title="Caelestius">Caelestius</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julian_of_Eclanum" title="Julian of Eclanum">Julian of Eclanum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez-34">[33]</a></sup> who had been inspired by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rufinus_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Rufinus of Syria">Rufinus of Syria</a>, a disciple of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodore_of_Mopsuestia" title="Theodore of Mopsuestia">Theodore of Mopsuestia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>35</span></sup> They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonner_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonner-36">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>355–356</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=10" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Neoplatonism and Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=11" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (<i>conditor antiquae rursum fidei</i>). Cf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm">Epistola 195</a>; <cite class="citation book">TeSelle, Eugene (1970). <i>Augustine the Theologian</i>. London. p. 343. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-223-97728-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-223-97728-0"><bdi>978-0-223-97728-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine+the+Theologian&rft.place=London&rft.pages=343&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-223-97728-0&rft.aulast=TeSelle&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style> March 2002 edition: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57910-918-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-57910-918-7">1-57910-918-7</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=12" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080109.html">BENEDICT XVI GENERAL AUDIENCE Paul VI Audience Hall Wednesday, 9 January 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacCulloch2010-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch2010_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Diarmaid MacCulloch (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319"><i>A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years</i></a>. Penguin Books. p. 319. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102189-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102189-8"><bdi>978-0-14-102189-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity%3A+The+First+Three+Thousand+Years&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-14-102189-8&rft.au=Diarmaid+MacCulloch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du1eTZKpJVS4C%26pg%3DPT319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/A/augustinism.html">Augustinism</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, 1, 299</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiggers Augustinisnm and Pelagianism, p. 268</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tina Manferdini, <i>Comunicazione ed estetica in Sant'Agostino</i>, p. 249, Bologna, ESD, 1995</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil">The Problem of Evil</a>", Michael Tooley</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IepEvidential-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">The Evidential Problem of Evil</a>", Nick Trakakis</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Mendelson, Michael (12 November 2010) [24 March 2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#OntEud">"Saint Augustine"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Saint+Augustine&rft.date=2010-11-12&rft.au=Mendelson%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faugustine%2F%23OntEud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menn 2002, p. 168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Menn-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Menn_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menn 2002, p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The City of God</i>, Augustine of Hippo, Book XI, Chapter 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bennett2008-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bennett2008_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Svendsen&Pierce2010-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Svendsen&Pierce2010_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menn 2002, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menn 2002, p. 176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Helm, Paul (1981). <i>Divine Commands and Morality</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-875049-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-875049-8"><bdi>0-19-875049-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divine+Commands+and+Morality&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-19-875049-8&rft.au=Helm%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chandler, Hugh (2007). <i>Platonistic And Disenchanting Theories of Ethics</i>. Peter Lang. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8858-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8858-5"><bdi>978-0-8204-8858-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Platonistic+And+Disenchanting+Theories+of+Ethics&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-8858-5&rft.au=Chandler%2C+Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEP-2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IEP-2_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Austin, Michael W. (21 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/divine-c/#H2">"Divine Command Theory"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Divine+Command+Theory&rft.pub=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2006-08-21&rft.au=Austin%2C+Michael+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fdivine-c%2F%23H2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connolly, Keller, Leever & White 2009, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confessions</i> IV.xv.25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confessions</i> XII.xxv.35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Robert L. Holmes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html">"A Time For War?"</a>. <i>ChristianityToday.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ChristianityToday.com&rft.atitle=A+Time+For+War%3F&rft.au=Robert+L.+Holmes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianitytoday.com%2Fct%2F2001%2Fseptemberweb-only%2F9-17-55.0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Contra Faustum Manichaeum</i> book 22 sections 69–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frank_Leslie_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Leslie Cross">Cross, Frank Leslie</a>; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (2005). "Original sin". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i> (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280290-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Original+sin&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd+rev.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280290-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine taught that Adam's sin was both an act of foolishness (<i>insipientia</i>) and of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth. Augustine wrote to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julian_of_Eclanum" title="Julian of Eclanum">Julian of Eclanum</a>: <i>Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit</i> (<i>Contra Julianum</i>, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795). This particular sin would not have taken place if <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (<i>radix Mali</i>): <i>Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus</i> (<i>Contra Julianum</i>, I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/sindeath/3.htm">"Original Sin"</a>. <i>Biblical Apologetic Studies</i>. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) taught that Adam's sin is transmitted by concupiscence, or "hurtful desire", sexual desire and all sensual feelings resulting in humanity becoming a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd), with much enfeebled, though not destroyed, freedom of will.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Nicholson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MeOx95oNQ9YC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=concupiscence,+or+%22hurtful+desire%22&source=bl&ots=625Trlcg97&sig=s0voWp6ENrROdPRPxKOVKAKHcSM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7Lx2U67yH42NqgatjYHwCQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=concupiscence%2C%20or%20%22hurtful%20desire%22&f=false"><i>A Plain But Full Exposition of the Catechism of the Church of England</i></a>, page 118. Retrieved 17 May 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the <i>libido</i> (<i>concupiscence</i>), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a <i>libido actualis</i>, i.e. sexual lust, but <i>libido habitualis</i>, i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature: <i>Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis</i> (STh Iª–IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor</i>. (<i>De nuptiis et concupiscentia</i>, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. <i>Contra Julianum</i>, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; <i>Contra Secundinum Manichaeum</i>, 15; PL 42, 590.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine wrote to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julian_of_Eclanum" title="Julian of Eclanum">Julian of Eclanum</a>: <i>Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente</i> (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: <i>Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus</i>, II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.<cite class="citation book">Schmitt, É. (1983). <i>Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale</i>. Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+mariage+chr%C3%A9tien+dans+l%27oeuvre+de+Saint+Augustin.+Une+th%C3%A9ologie+baptismale+de+la+vie+conjugale&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=%C3%89tudes+Augustiniennes&rft.pages=104&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=%C3%89.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonzalez-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Justo L. Gonzalez (1970–1975). <i>A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)</i>. Abingdon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christian+Thought%3A+Volume+2+%28From+Augustine+to+the+eve+of+the+Reformation%29&rft.pub=Abingdon+Press&rft.date=1970%2F1975&rft.au=Justo+L.+Gonzalez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marius_Mercator" title="Marius Mercator">Marius Mercator</a> <i>Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.</i>,2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">PL</a></abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/; <cite class="citation book">Bonner, Gerald (1987). "Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism". <i>God's Decree and Man's Destiny</i>. London: Variorum Reprints. pp. 31–47. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-203-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-203-2"><bdi>978-0-86078-203-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rufinus+of+Syria+and+African+Pelagianism&rft.btitle=God%27s+Decree+and+Man%27s+Destiny&rft.place=London&rft.pages=31-47&rft.pub=Variorum+Reprints&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-203-2&rft.aulast=Bonner&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonner-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bonner_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Bonner</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>). </span></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine of Hippo, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm">De gratia Christi et de peccato originali</a></i>, I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Augustinianism&action=edit&section=13" class="mw-redirect" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Mayer, Cornelius P. (ed.). <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustinus-Lexikon" title="Augustinus-Lexikon">Augustinus-Lexikon</a></i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>: Schwabe AG.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Basel&rft.pub=Schwabe+AG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">\|title=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Miles, Margaret R. (2012). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6">Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lutterworth_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutterworth Press">Lutterworth Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0718892623" title="Special:BookSources/978-0718892623">978-0718892623</a>.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Nash, Ronald H (1969). <i>The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge</i>. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Light+of+the+Mind%3A+St+Augustine%27s+Theory+of+Knowledge&rft.place=Lexington&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Nelson, John Charles (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64">"Platonism in the Renaissance"</a>. In Wiener, Philip (ed.). <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>3</b>. New York: Scribner. pp. 510–515 (vol. 3). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-13293-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-13293-8"><bdi>978-0-684-13293-8</bdi></a>. <q>(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Platonism+in+the+Renaissance&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=510-515+%28vol.+3%29&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-684-13293-8&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=John+Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxtf.lib.virginia.edu%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3DDicHist%2FuvaBook%2Ftei%2FDicHist3.xml%3Bchunk.id%3Ddv3-64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">O'Daly, Gerard (1987). <i>Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine%27s+Philosophy+of+the+Mind&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=O%27Daly&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_J._O%27Donnell" title="James J. O'Donnell">O'Donnell, James</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt"><i>Augustine: A New Biography</i></a>. New York: ECCO. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053537-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053537-7"><bdi>978-0-06-053537-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine%3A+A+New+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=ECCO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-06-053537-7&rft.aulast=O%27Donnell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faugustine00jame_qqt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elaine_Pagels" title="Elaine Pagels">Pagels, Elaine</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai"><i>Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity</i></a>. Vintage Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-72232-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-72232-8"><bdi>978-0-679-72232-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam%2C+Eve%2C+and+the+Serpent%3A+Sex+and+Politics+in+Early+Christianity&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-679-72232-8&rft.aulast=Pagels&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadameveserpent00elai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPark2013" class="citation">Park, Jae-Eun (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4811679">"Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them"</a>, <i>The Reformed Theological Review</i>, <b>72</b> (2): 103–121</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Reformed+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Lacking+Love+or+Conveying+Love%3F+The+Fundamental+Roots+of+the+Donatists+and+Augustine%27s+Nuanced+Treatment+of+Them&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-121&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Park&rft.aufirst=Jae-Eun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4811679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/>.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Plumer, Eric Antone (2003). <i>Augustine's Commentary on Galatians</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924439-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924439-3"><bdi>978-0-19-924439-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine%27s+Commentary+on+Galatians&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924439-3&rft.au=Plumer%2C+Eric+Antone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Pollman, Karla (2007). <i>Saint Augustine the Algerian</i>. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89744-209-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89744-209-2"><bdi>978-3-89744-209-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saint+Augustine+the+Algerian&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Edition+Ruprecht&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-89744-209-2&rft.au=Pollman%2C+Karla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book"><i>Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation</i>. New York: Newman Press. 1978.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Christian+Writers%3A+The+Works+of+the+Fathers+in+Translation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Newman+Press&rft.date=1978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Augustine, Saint (1974). Vernon Joseph Bourke (ed.). <i>The Essential Augustine</i> (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Augustine&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Augustine&rft.aufirst=Saint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lewis_Ayres" title="Lewis Ayres">Ayres, Lewis</a> (2010). <i>Augustine and the Trinity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83886-3"><bdi>978-0-521-83886-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine+and+the+Trinity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83886-3&rft.au=Ayres%2C+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Pottier, René (2006). <i>Saint Augustin le Berbère</i> (in French). Fernand Lanore. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85157-282-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85157-282-0"><bdi>978-2-85157-282-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saint+Augustin+le+Berb%C3%A8re&rft.pub=Fernand+Lanore&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-2-85157-282-0&rft.aulast=Pottier&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><i>Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament</i> (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35.</li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colin_Starnes" title="Colin Starnes">Starnes, Colin</a> (1990). <i>Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX</i>. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine%27s+Conversion%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Arguments+of+Confessions+I%E2%80%93IX&rft.place=Waterloo%2C+Ontario&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Starnes&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Tanquerey, Adolphe (2001). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ascetical_theology" title="Ascetical theology"><i>The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology</i></a>. Rockford, Illinois: Tan Books & Publishers. p. 37). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89555-659-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89555-659-2"><bdi>978-0-89555-659-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spiritual+Life%3A+A+Treatise+on+Ascetical+and+Mystical+Theology&rft.place=Rockford%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=37%29&rft.pub=Tan+Books+%26+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-89555-659-2&rft.aulast=Tanquerey&rft.aufirst=Adolphe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Trapè, A. (1990). <i>S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia</i>. Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4. I – Natura e Grazia. Rome: Città Nuova. p. 422. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-311-3402-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-311-3402-6"><bdi>978-88-311-3402-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S.+Agostino%3A+Introduzione+alla+Dottrina+della+Grazia&rft.place=Rome&rft.series=Collana+di+Studi+Agostiniani+4&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Citt%C3%A0+Nuova&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-88-311-3402-6&rft.aulast=Trap%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><cite class="citation book">von Heyking, John (2001). <i>Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World</i>. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-1349-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-1349-5"><bdi>978-0-8262-1349-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustine+and+Politics+as+Longing+in+the+World&rft.place=Columbia&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8262-1349-5&rft.aulast=von+Heyking&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAugustinianism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php">Augustine of Hippo</a> at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findingaugustine.org/">Bibliography on St. Augustine</a> Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium</li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none 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academic disciplines">Branches</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosmology_(philosophy)" title="Cosmology (philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" title="Philosophy of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Philosophy of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Schools_of_thought" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy#Historical_overview" title="Philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a> </span></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo"> Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Skeptical_movement" title="Skeptical movement">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Historicism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theory_of_art#Institutional" title="Theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_regionRelated_listsMiscellaneous" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li>By region</li><li>Related lists</li><li>Miscellaneous</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers" title="List of Russian philosophers">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="Portal" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="Category" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="Wikipedia book" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Wikipedia book" width="16" height="16" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book:Philosophy" title="Book:Philosophy">Book</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Catholic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="View this template" style="background-color:gold;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background-color:gold;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background-color:gold;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Catholic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/70px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="96" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/105px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/140px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1366" /><br /><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/70px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="107" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/105px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/140px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="479" /><br /><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/70px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="93" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/105px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/140px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">Universals</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Platonic_realism" title="Platonic realism">Augustinian realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scotistic_realism" title="Scotistic realism">Scotistic realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Theological intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voluntarism_(philosophy)" title="Voluntarism (philosophy)">Theological voluntarism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Occam</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Luis</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Scheler</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Mortimer</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Wojtyla</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Ratzinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actus_purus" title="Actus purus">Actus purus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actus_Essendi" title="Actus Essendi">Actus Essendi</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actus_primus" title="Actus primus">Actus primus</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque viae</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Formal_distinction" title="Formal distinction">Formal distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Univocity_of_being" title="Univocity of being">Univocity</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/How_many_angels_can_dance_on_the_head_of_a_pin%3F" title="How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?">Head of a pin</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustinian_values" title="Augustinian values">Augustinian values</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stratification_of_emotional_life_(Scheler)" title="Stratification of emotional life (Scheler)">Stratification of emotional life</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">Disputation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">Evil demon</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aevum" title="Aevum">Aevum</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Cartesian dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peripatetic_axiom" title="Peripatetic axiom">Peripatetic axiom</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Memento_mori#In_Europe_from_the_Medieval_era_to_the_Victorian_era" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ressentiment_(Scheler)" title="Ressentiment (Scheler)">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rota_Fortunae" title="Rota Fortunae">Rota Fortunae</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_truth" title="Double truth">Double truth</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological argument</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark argument</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dehellenization" title="Dehellenization">Dehellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Differentia" title="Differentia">Differentia</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homo_unius_libri" title="Homo unius libri">Homo unius libri</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Infused_righteousness" title="Infused righteousness">Infused righteousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctor of the Church</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="image"><img alt="046CupolaSPietro.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Socrates.png" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw1314 Cached time: 20191024153500 Cache expiry: 2592000 Dynamic content: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1] CPU time usage: 0.668 seconds Real time usage: 0.817 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 2647/1000000 Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000 Post‐expand include size: 221713/2097152 bytes Template argument 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