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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{About|an Indian musical instrument||veena (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Instrument
|name=
|image= Veena.png
|image_capt=Veena
|background=string
|classification= [[String instruments]]
|related= [[Pandura]], [[Surbahar]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Chitra veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]], [[Kantele]]
}}
The '''veena''' ([[IAST]]: vīṇā) comprises a family of [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>
The North Indian design, used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a stick zither.<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>
The South Indian veena design, used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical Carnatic music.<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the Hindu goddess of arts and learning. [[Hindustani classical music]].<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>
[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]
[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]
==Etymology and history==
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''veena'' ({{lang|sa|वीणा}}) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], [[Samaveda]] and other Vedic literature such as the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' and ''[[Taittiriya Samhita]]''.<ref name=mmw1005>Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html वीणा], Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</ref>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}} In the ancient texts, [[Narada]] is credited with inventing the ''Tampura'', and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<ref name=mmw1005/><ref name="Miner2004p26">{{cite book|author=Allyn Miner|title=Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nPHTCS8vfUC&pg=PA26|year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1493-6|pages=26–27}}</ref> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the ''Rigveda'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the [[Upanishads]] (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called ''vana'', a term that evolved to become ''veena''. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument ''vana''; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<ref name="Kasliwal2004">{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=70–72, 102–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=17–22}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}
The ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the ''veena''.<ref name="Liu2016p131">{{cite book|author=A Madhavan|editor=Siyuan Liu|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|pages=131–132}}</ref> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,{{Sfn|Lidova|2014}} begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a ''sareer veena'', or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of ''gandharva'' music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<ref name="Liu2016p131"/> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of ''veena'', is also found in more ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], such as in verse 3.2.5 of the ''Aitareya [[Aranyaka]]'', verse 8.9 of the ''Shankhayana Aranyaka'' and others.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}<ref name="Baumer1988p135">{{cite book|author1=Bettina Bäumer|author2=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135 |year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1402-8|pages=135–136 }}</ref> The ancient epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".{{Sfn|Dalal|2014|pp=272–273}}
[[File:Saraswati by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|The Hindu goddess [[Saraswati]] with a veena instrument. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from [[Buddhist]] archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<ref name=ludvik227>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvík|title=Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227|year=2007|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-15814-6|pages=227–229}}</ref>]]
The ''Natya Shastra'' describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=114–116}} and then explains how the instrument should be played.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=98–104}} The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the ''Natya Shastra'' was complete. The ancient veena, according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to a [[harp]]. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<ref name=ludvik227/>
The [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for veena is ''[[Yazh|yaaḻ]]'' ({{lang|ta|யாழ்}}) (often written ''yaazh'' or ''yaal''). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in ''[[Tirumurai]]'', dated from the 6th to the 11th century. A person who plays a veena is called a ''vainika''.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
===The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique===
One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period was an instrument of the [[harp]] type, and more precisely of the [[List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11|arched harp]]. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on [[Samudragupta]]'s gold coins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html|title="The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta"}}</ref> The Veena Cave at [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
==Construction==
[[File:A Mohan Veena, string musical instruments of India.jpg|thumb|left|140px|A [[Mohan veena]]]]
At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<ref name=britveena/> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}} The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/><ref name=sanyal24/> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a [[swan]] and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}}
The melody strings are tuned in ''c' g c G'' (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<ref name=alainrudra/>), from which ''sarani'' (chanterelle) is frequently used.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} The drone strings are tuned in ''c" g' c''' (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<ref name=alainrudra/>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic ''[[tanam]]s'' of [[Indian classical music]] and to express harmony with clapped ''[[tala (music)|tala]]'' of the piece.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
The main string is called ''Nāyakī Tār'' (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=79}} The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a plectrum. The ''bola'' alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are ''da, ga, ra'' on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=153–164}} The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform ''Dhruva'' from fixed and ''Cala'' with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=111–113}}
One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in ''Sangita Cudamani'' by Govinda.{{Sfn| Gautam|1993|p=9}}
==Types==
[[File:1 type of Veena, cithare sur tube "Bin" at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.jpg|thumb|A Rudra veena, now at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.]]
Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.{{Sfn|Martinez|2001|pp=127–128}} Some significant ones are:
* '''[[Rudra veena]]''' is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<ref name=alainrudra/><ref name=kasliwal116/> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god [[Shiva]]{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<ref name=kasliwal116>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=116–124}}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<ref name=alainrudra>[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</ref>
* '''[[Saraswati veena]]''' is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called [[Kerala]], where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<ref>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=117–118, 123}}</ref>
* '''[[Vichitra veena]]''' and '''Chitra veena''' or '''[[gottuvadhyam]]''' do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}}
* '''[[Sitar]]''' is a Persian word meaning three strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}} Legends state that Amir Khusro of [[Delhi Sultanate]] renamed the [[Tritantri veena]] to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=65}} The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=66}}
* '''Saradiya veena''', now called '''[[Sarod]]'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=176}}
* '''Pinaki veena''', related to '''[[Sarangi]]'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=177}}
* '''Kachapi veena''', now called '''Kachua sitar'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}}
* Others such as '''[[Shatatantri veena]]''' ('''[[Santoor]]'''), '''Gayatri veena''' (with one string only) and [[Saptatantri veena]]
*[[Chitra veena]]
*[[Ranjan veena]]
*[[Sagar veena]]
*[[Triveni veena]]
==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[[Pandura]]
*[[Surbahar]]
*[[Sarod]]
*[[Sitar]]
*[[Sursingar]]
*[[Tambouras]]
*[[Tanpura|Tambura]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Guy |last=Beck|year=1993 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound|location=Columbia |publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-87249-855-6}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Vimalakānta Rôya|last=Caudhurī|title=The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQWLa--IHjIC |year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1708-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 | publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 |ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book | last=Daniélou | first=Alain | authorlink=Alain Daniélou | title=Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs | publisher=C. Johnson | place=London | year=1949|oclc= 851080}}
*{{cite book|title= Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music| first=M.R.|last = Gautam| publisher= Munshiram Manoharlal | year = 1993|isbn = 81-215-0442-2|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book | last=Kaufmann | first=Walter | authorlink=Walter Kaufmann (composer) | title=The Ragas of North India | publisher=Oxford & Indiana University Press | isbn=978-0-253-34780-0 | year=1968 | oclc=11369 | url=https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf }}
*{{cite book |first=Ananda|last=Lal |title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ| year=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
*{{cite journal|first=Natalia|last=Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=José Luiz|last=Martinez|title=Semiosis in Hindustani Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1801-9}}
*{{citation |ref={{sfnref|Nettl et al.|1998}}| first1=Bruno|last1=Nettl | author2= Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter|author4=Timothy Rice|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Don Michael |last= Randel|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|edition=fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC |year=2003|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01163-2}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first1=Neil| last1= Sorrell|first2=Ram |last2= Narayan|title=Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts |year=1977 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 233639306}}, [http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf Table of Contents]
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-81-87586-35-7}}
*{{cite book |first1=Annette|last1=Wilke|first2=Oliver|last2= Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Veenas}}
*[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO
*[https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble Music of India Ensemble: Veena], Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA
{{Indian musical instruments}}
{{Lute}}
[[Category:Chordophones]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Indian musical instruments]]
[[Category:Sacred musical instruments]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | 'Veena is an instrument which was played by Saraswati ji but now it is played by Basant which means a season
==Etymology and history==
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''veena'' ({{lang|sa|वीणा}}) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], [[Samaveda]] and other Vedic literature such as the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' and ''[[Taittiriya Samhita]]''.<ref name=mmw1005>Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html वीणा], Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</ref>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}} In the ancient texts, [[Narada]] is credited with inventing the ''Tampura'', and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<ref name=mmw1005/><ref name="Miner2004p26">{{cite book|author=Allyn Miner|title=Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nPHTCS8vfUC&pg=PA26|year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1493-6|pages=26–27}}</ref> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the ''Rigveda'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the [[Upanishads]] (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called ''vana'', a term that evolved to become ''veena''. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument ''vana''; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<ref name="Kasliwal2004">{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=70–72, 102–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=17–22}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}
The ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the ''veena''.<ref name="Liu2016p131">{{cite book|author=A Madhavan|editor=Siyuan Liu|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|pages=131–132}}</ref> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,{{Sfn|Lidova|2014}} begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a ''sareer veena'', or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of ''gandharva'' music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<ref name="Liu2016p131"/> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of ''veena'', is also found in more ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], such as in verse 3.2.5 of the ''Aitareya [[Aranyaka]]'', verse 8.9 of the ''Shankhayana Aranyaka'' and others.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}<ref name="Baumer1988p135">{{cite book|author1=Bettina Bäumer|author2=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135 |year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1402-8|pages=135–136 }}</ref> The ancient epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".{{Sfn|Dalal|2014|pp=272–273}}
[[File:Saraswati by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|The Hindu goddess [[Saraswati]] with a veena instrument. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from [[Buddhist]] archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<ref name=ludvik227>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvík|title=Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227|year=2007|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-15814-6|pages=227–229}}</ref>]]
The ''Natya Shastra'' describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=114–116}} and then explains how the instrument should be played.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=98–104}} The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the ''Natya Shastra'' was complete. The ancient veena, according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to a [[harp]]. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<ref name=ludvik227/>
The [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for veena is ''[[Yazh|yaaḻ]]'' ({{lang|ta|யாழ்}}) (often written ''yaazh'' or ''yaal''). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in ''[[Tirumurai]]'', dated from the 6th to the 11th century. A person who plays a veena is called a ''vainika''.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
===The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique===
One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period was an instrument of the [[harp]] type, and more precisely of the [[List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11|arched harp]]. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on [[Samudragupta]]'s gold coins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html|title="The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta"}}</ref> The Veena Cave at [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
==Construction==
[[File:A Mohan Veena, string musical instruments of India.jpg|thumb|left|140px|A [[Mohan veena]]]]
At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<ref name=britveena/> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}} The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/><ref name=sanyal24/> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a [[swan]] and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}}
The melody strings are tuned in ''c' g c G'' (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<ref name=alainrudra/>), from which ''sarani'' (chanterelle) is frequently used.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} The drone strings are tuned in ''c" g' c''' (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<ref name=alainrudra/>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic ''[[tanam]]s'' of [[Indian classical music]] and to express harmony with clapped ''[[tala (music)|tala]]'' of the piece.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
The main string is called ''Nāyakī Tār'' (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=79}} The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a plectrum. The ''bola'' alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are ''da, ga, ra'' on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=153–164}} The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform ''Dhruva'' from fixed and ''Cala'' with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=111–113}}
One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in ''Sangita Cudamani'' by Govinda.{{Sfn| Gautam|1993|p=9}}
==Types==
[[File:1 type of Veena, cithare sur tube "Bin" at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.jpg|thumb|A Rudra veena, now at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.]]
Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.{{Sfn|Martinez|2001|pp=127–128}} Some significant ones are:
* '''[[Rudra veena]]''' is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<ref name=alainrudra/><ref name=kasliwal116/> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god [[Shiva]]{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<ref name=kasliwal116>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=116–124}}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<ref name=alainrudra>[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</ref>
* '''[[Saraswati veena]]''' is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called [[Kerala]], where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<ref>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=117–118, 123}}</ref>
* '''[[Vichitra veena]]''' and '''Chitra veena''' or '''[[gottuvadhyam]]''' do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}}
* '''[[Sitar]]''' is a Persian word meaning three strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}} Legends state that Amir Khusro of [[Delhi Sultanate]] renamed the [[Tritantri veena]] to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=65}} The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=66}}
* '''Saradiya veena''', now called '''[[Sarod]]'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=176}}
* '''Pinaki veena''', related to '''[[Sarangi]]'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=177}}
* '''Kachapi veena''', now called '''Kachua sitar'''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}}
* Others such as '''[[Shatatantri veena]]''' ('''[[Santoor]]'''), '''Gayatri veena''' (with one string only) and [[Saptatantri veena]]
*[[Chitra veena]]
*[[Ranjan veena]]
*[[Sagar veena]]
*[[Triveni veena]]
==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[[Pandura]]
*[[Surbahar]]
*[[Sarod]]
*[[Sitar]]
*[[Sursingar]]
*[[Tambouras]]
*[[Tanpura|Tambura]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Guy |last=Beck|year=1993 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound|location=Columbia |publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-87249-855-6}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Vimalakānta Rôya|last=Caudhurī|title=The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQWLa--IHjIC |year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1708-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 | publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 |ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book | last=Daniélou | first=Alain | authorlink=Alain Daniélou | title=Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs | publisher=C. Johnson | place=London | year=1949|oclc= 851080}}
*{{cite book|title= Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music| first=M.R.|last = Gautam| publisher= Munshiram Manoharlal | year = 1993|isbn = 81-215-0442-2|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book | last=Kaufmann | first=Walter | authorlink=Walter Kaufmann (composer) | title=The Ragas of North India | publisher=Oxford & Indiana University Press | isbn=978-0-253-34780-0 | year=1968 | oclc=11369 | url=https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf }}
*{{cite book |first=Ananda|last=Lal |title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ| year=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
*{{cite journal|first=Natalia|last=Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=José Luiz|last=Martinez|title=Semiosis in Hindustani Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1801-9}}
*{{citation |ref={{sfnref|Nettl et al.|1998}}| first1=Bruno|last1=Nettl | author2= Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter|author4=Timothy Rice|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Don Michael |last= Randel|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|edition=fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC |year=2003|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01163-2}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first1=Neil| last1= Sorrell|first2=Ram |last2= Narayan|title=Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts |year=1977 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 233639306}}, [http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf Table of Contents]
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-81-87586-35-7}}
*{{cite book |first1=Annette|last1=Wilke|first2=Oliver|last2= Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Veenas}}
*[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO
*[https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble Music of India Ensemble: Veena], Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA
{{Indian musical instruments}}
{{Lute}}
[[Category:Chordophones]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Indian musical instruments]]
[[Category:Sacred musical instruments]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,21 +1,3 @@
-{{About|an Indian musical instrument||veena (disambiguation)}}
-{{Infobox Instrument
-|name=
-|image= Veena.png
-|image_capt=Veena
-|background=string
-|classification= [[String instruments]]
-|related= [[Pandura]], [[Surbahar]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Chitra veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]], [[Kantele]]
-}}
-The '''veena''' ([[IAST]]: vīṇā) comprises a family of [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>
-
-The North Indian design, used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a stick zither.<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>
-
-The South Indian veena design, used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical Carnatic music.<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
-
-As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the Hindu goddess of arts and learning. [[Hindustani classical music]].<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>
-
-[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]
-[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]
+Veena is an instrument which was played by Saraswati ji but now it is played by Basant which means a season
==Etymology and history==
' |
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0 => '{{About|an Indian musical instrument||veena (disambiguation)}}',
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6 => '|classification= [[String instruments]]',
7 => '|related= [[Pandura]], [[Surbahar]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Chitra veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]], [[Kantele]]',
8 => '}}',
9 => 'The '''veena''' ([[IAST]]: vīṇā) comprises a family of [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>',
10 => '',
11 => 'The North Indian design, used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a stick zither.<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>',
12 => '',
13 => 'The South Indian veena design, used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical Carnatic music.<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}',
14 => '',
15 => 'As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the Hindu goddess of arts and learning. [[Hindustani classical music]].<ref name=hastvina/><ref name=britveena/>',
16 => '',
17 => '[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]',
18 => '[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]'
] |
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</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology_and_history"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology and history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_early_Gupta_veena:_depiction_and_playing_technique"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Construction"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Construction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology_and_history">Etymology and history</span></h2>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i>veena</i> (<span lang="sa" title="Sanskrit language text">वीणा</span>) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> and other Vedic literature such as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taittiriya_Samhita" class="mw-redirect" title="Taittiriya Samhita">Taittiriya Samhita</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw1005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw1005-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-2">[2]</a></sup> In the ancient texts, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narada" title="Narada">Narada</a> is credited with inventing the <i>Tampura</i>, and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw1005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw1005-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-3">[3]</a></sup> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the <i>Rigveda</i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i> (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called <i>vana</i>, a term that evolved to become <i>veena</i>. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument <i>vana</i>; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasliwal2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasliwal2004-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></i> by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the <i>veena</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2016p131_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2016p131-7">[7]</a></sup> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELidova2014_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELidova2014-8">[8]</a></sup> begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a <i>sareer veena</i>, or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of <i>gandharva</i> music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2016p131_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2016p131-7">[7]</a></sup> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of <i>veena</i>, is also found in more ancient texts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, such as in verse 3.2.5 of the <i>Aitareya <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></i>, verse 8.9 of the <i>Shankhayana Aranyaka</i> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baumer1988p135_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumer1988p135-9">[9]</a></sup> The ancient epic <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Saraswati_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/220px-Saraswati_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Hindu goddess <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a> with a veena instrument. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<sup id="cite_ref-ludvik227_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludvik227-11">[11]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>The <i>Natya Shastra</i> describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116-12">[12]</a></sup> and then explains how the instrument should be played.<sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104-13">[13]</a></sup> The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the <i>Natya Shastra</i> was complete. The ancient veena, according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harp</a>. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-3">[3]</a></sup> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<sup id="cite_ref-ludvik227_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludvik227-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> word for veena is <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yazh" title="Yazh">yaaḻ</a></i> (<span lang="ta" title="Tamil language text">யாழ்</span>) (often written <i>yaazh</i> or <i>yaal</i>). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i>, dated from the 6th to the 11th century. A person who plays a veena is called a <i>vainika</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_early_Gupta_veena:_depiction_and_playing_technique">The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique</span></h3>
<p>One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> period was an instrument of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harp</a> type, and more precisely of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_musical_instruments_by_Hornbostel%E2%80%93Sachs_number:_322.11" title="List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11">arched harp</a>. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samudragupta" title="Samudragupta">Samudragupta</a>'s gold coins.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> The Veena Cave at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Udayagiri_Caves" title="Udayagiri Caves">Udayagiri</a> has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Construction">Construction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:142px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_Mohan_Veena,_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg/140px-A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="94" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="288" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_Mohan_Veena,_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohan_veena" title="Mohan veena">Mohan veena</a></div></div></div>
<p>At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-britveena_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britveena-15">[15]</a></sup> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-16">[16]</a></sup> The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<sup id="cite_ref-hastvina_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hastvina-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britveena_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britveena-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sanyal24_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sanyal24-18">[18]</a></sup> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swan</a> and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The melody strings are tuned in <i>c' g c G</i> (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-19">[19]</a></sup>), from which <i>sarani</i> (chanterelle) is frequently used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-20">[20]</a></sup> The drone strings are tuned in <i>c" g' c'</i> (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-19">[19]</a></sup>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanam" title="Tanam">tanams</a></i> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a> and to express harmony with clapped <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tala_(music)" title="Tala (music)">tala</a></i> of the piece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>The main string is called <i>Nāyakī Tār</i> (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079-21">[21]</a></sup> The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a plectrum. The <i>bola</i> alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are <i>da, ga, ra</i> on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164-23">[23]</a></sup> The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform <i>Dhruva</i> from fixed and <i>Cala</i> with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in <i>Sangita Cudamani</i> by Govinda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGautam19939_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGautam19939-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1_type_of_Veena,_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique,_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg/220px-1_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="779" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1_type_of_Veena,_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique,_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A Rudra veena, now at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.</div></div></div>
<p>Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128-26">[26]</a></sup> Some significant ones are:
</p>
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_veena" title="Rudra veena">Rudra veena</a></b> is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-27">[27]</a></sup> This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kasliwal116_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kasliwal116-28">[28]</a></sup> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-27">[27]</a></sup> It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<sup id="cite_ref-kasliwal116_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kasliwal116-28">[28]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Alain Daniélou</a>, this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-19">[19]</a></sup></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati_veena" title="Saraswati veena">Saraswati veena</a></b> is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichitra_veena" title="Vichitra veena">Vichitra veena</a></b> and <b>Chitra veena</b> or <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gottuvadhyam" title="Gottuvadhyam">gottuvadhyam</a></b> do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-27">[27]</a></sup></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></b> is a Persian word meaning three strings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-30">[30]</a></sup> Legends state that Amir Khusro of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> renamed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tritantri_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritantri veena">Tritantri veena</a> to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065-31">[31]</a></sup> The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066-32">[32]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Saradiya veena</b>, now called <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">Sarod</a></b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176-33">[33]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Pinaki veena</b>, related to <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarangi" title="Sarangi">Sarangi</a></b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177-34">[34]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Kachapi veena</b>, now called <b>Kachua sitar</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-30">[30]</a></sup></li>
<li>Others such as <b><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shatatantri_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shatatantri veena (page does not exist)">Shatatantri veena</a></b> (<b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Santoor" title="Santoor">Santoor</a></b>), <b>Gayatri veena</b> (with one string only) and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Saptatantri_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saptatantri veena (page does not exist)">Saptatantri veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chitra_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitra veena">Chitra veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ranjan_veena" title="Ranjan veena">Ranjan veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sagar_veena" title="Sagar veena">Sagar veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triveni_veena" title="Triveni veena">Triveni veena</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
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<li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Audio_a.svg/32px-Audio_a.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Audio_a.svg/48px-Audio_a.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Audio_a.svg/64px-Audio_a.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="460" /></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandura" title="Pandura">Pandura</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surbahar" title="Surbahar">Surbahar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">Sarod</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sursingar" title="Sursingar">Sursingar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambouras" title="Tambouras">Tambouras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanpura" title="Tanpura">Tambura</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-mmw1005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mmw1005_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmw1005_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier Monier-Williams, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html">वीणा</a>, Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 33, 86–87, 115–116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Miner2004p26-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Allyn Miner (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4nPHTCS8vfUC&pg=PA26"><i>Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 26–27. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1493-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1493-6"><bdi>978-81-208-1493-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sitar+and+Sarod+in+the+18th+and+19th+Centuries&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1493-6&rft.au=Allyn+Miner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nPHTCS8vfUC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kasliwal2004-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasliwal2004_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 70–72, 102–114. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=70-72%2C+102-114&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTe_Nijenhuis1974">Te Nijenhuis 1974</a>, pp. 17–22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck1993">Beck 1993</a>, pp. 108–112.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Liu2016p131-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liu2016p131_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu2016p131_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">A Madhavan (2016). Siyuan Liu (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ"><i>Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 131–132. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27886-3"><bdi>978-1-317-27886-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Asian+Theatre&rft.pages=131-132&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-27886-3&rft.au=A+Madhavan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1iFCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELidova2014-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELidova2014_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLidova2014">Lidova 2014</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Baumer1988p135-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baumer1988p135_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bettina Bäumer; Kapila Vatsyayan (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135"><i>Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 135–136. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1402-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1402-8"><bdi>978-81-208-1402-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kalatattvakosa%3A+A+Lexicon+of+Fundamental+Concepts+of+the+Indian+Arts&rft.pages=135-136&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1402-8&rft.au=Bettina+B%C3%A4umer&rft.au=Kapila+Vatsyayan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuPoIZaGGtiMC%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalal2014">Dalal 2014</a>, pp. 272–273.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ludvik227-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ludvik227_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludvik227_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Catherine Ludvík (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227"><i>Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 227–229. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-15814-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-15814-6"><bdi>90-04-15814-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sarasvat%C4%AB%2C+Riverine+Goddess+of+Knowledge%3A+From+the+Manuscript-carrying+V%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81-player+to+the+Weapon-wielding+Defender+of+the+Dharma&rft.pages=227-229&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=90-04-15814-6&rft.au=Catherine+Ludv%C3%ADk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4lsYKIXBOK0C%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 114–116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 98–104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta<span class="cs1-kern-right">"</span>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+Coin+Galleries%3A+Gupta%3A+Samudragupta%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoinindia.com%2Fgalleries-samudragupta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-britveena-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britveena_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britveena_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>britveena</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNettl_et_al.1998">Nettl et al. 1998</a>, pp. 352–355.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-hastvina-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hastvina_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>hastvina</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-sanyal24-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sanyal24_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>sanyal24</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-alainrudra-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf">Rudra Veena</a>, Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRandel2003">Randel 2003</a>, pp. 819–820.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 79.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, pp. 26–27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 153–164.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, pp. 111–113.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGautam19939-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGautam19939_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGautam1993">Gautam 1993</a>, p. 9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartinez2001">Martinez 2001</a>, pp. 127–128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorrellNarayan1980">Sorrell & Narayan 1980</a>, pp. 48–49.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-kasliwal116-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kasliwal116_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kasliwal116_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 116–124. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=116-124&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 117–118, 123. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=117-118%2C+123&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 179.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 65.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 66.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 176.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 177.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h3>
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBeck1993" class="citation book">Beck, Guy (1993). <i>Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound</i>. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-855-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-855-6"><bdi>978-0-87249-855-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sonic+Theology%3A+Hinduism+and+Sacred+Sound&rft.place=Columbia&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87249-855-6&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCaudhurī2000" class="citation book">Caudhurī, Vimalakānta Rôya (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQWLa--IHjIC"><i>The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1708-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1708-1"><bdi>978-81-208-1708-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Hindustani+Classical+Music&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1708-1&rft.aulast=Caudhur%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Vimalak%C4%81nta+R%C3%B4ya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgQWLa--IHjIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFDalal2014" class="citation book">Dalal, Roshen (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ"><i>Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide</i></a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-277-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-277-9"><bdi>978-81-8475-277-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+An+Alphabetical+Guide&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-8475-277-9&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Roshen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzrk0AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Daniélou, Alain</a> (1949). <i>Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs</i>. London: C. Johnson. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/851080">851080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Indian+Music%2C+Volume+1.+Theory+%26+technique%3B+Volume+2.+The+main+r%C4%81g%C7%8Es&rft.place=London&rft.pub=C.+Johnson&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F851080&rft.aulast=Dani%C3%A9lou&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGautam1993" class="citation book">Gautam, M.R. (1993). <i>Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music</i>. Munshiram Manoharlal. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0442-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0442-2"><bdi>81-215-0442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Raga+and+Tala+in+Indian+Music&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=81-215-0442-2&rft.aulast=Gautam&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(composer)" title="Walter Kaufmann (composer)">Kaufmann, Walter</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf"><i>The Ragas of North India</i></a>. Oxford & Indiana University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34780-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34780-0"><bdi>978-0-253-34780-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/11369">11369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ragas+of+North+India&rft.pub=Oxford+%26+Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11369&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34780-0&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fragasofnorthindi00kauf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Lal, Ananda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564446-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564446-3"><bdi>978-0-19-564446-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Indian+Theatre&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-564446-3&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Ananda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDftkAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLidova2014" class="citation journal">Lidova, Natalia (2014). "Natyashastra". Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0071">10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Natyashastra&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0071&rft.aulast=Lidova&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLochtefeld2002" class="citation book">Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC"><i>The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-2287-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-2287-1"><bdi>978-0-8239-2287-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism%2C+2+Volume+Set&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1&rft.aulast=Lochtefeld&rft.aufirst=James+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5kl0DYIjUPgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMartinez2001" class="citation book">Martinez, José Luiz (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC"><i>Semiosis in Hindustani Music</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1801-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1801-9"><bdi>978-81-208-1801-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiosis+in+Hindustani+Music&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1801-9&rft.aulast=Martinez&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Luiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOwJRnFIcM4cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNettl_et_al.1998" class="citation">Nettl, Bruno; Ruth M. Stone; James Porter; Timothy Rice (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC"><i>The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent</i></a>, Routledge, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-4946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-4946-1"><bdi>978-0-8240-4946-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garland+Encyclopedia+of+World+Music%3A+South+Asia+%3A+the+Indian+subcontinent&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1&rft.aulast=Nettl&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft.au=Ruth+M.+Stone&rft.au=James+Porter&rft.au=Timothy+Rice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZOlNv8MAXIEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRandel2003" class="citation book">Randel, Don Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC"><i>The Harvard Dictionary of Music</i></a> (fourth ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01163-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01163-2"><bdi>978-0-674-01163-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harvard+Dictionary+of+Music&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=fourth&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01163-2&rft.aulast=Randel&rft.aufirst=Don+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D02rFSecPhEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRowell2015" class="citation book">Rowell, Lewis (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ"><i>Music and Musical Thought in Early India</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73034-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73034-9"><bdi>978-0-226-73034-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+and+Musical+Thought+in+Early+India&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73034-9&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh5_UCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSorrellNarayan1980" class="citation book">Sorrell, Neil; Narayan, Ram (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ"><i>Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction</i></a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0756-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0756-9"><bdi>978-0-7190-0756-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Music+in+Performance%3A+A+Practical+Introduction&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9&rft.aulast=Sorrell&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Narayan%2C+Ram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjNhRAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFTe_Nijenhuis1974" class="citation book">Te Nijenhuis, Emmie (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ"><i>Indian Music: History and Structure</i></a>. BRILL Academic. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03978-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03978-3"><bdi>90-04-03978-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Music%3A+History+and+Structure&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=90-04-03978-3&rft.aulast=Te+Nijenhuis&rft.aufirst=Emmie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrgfAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Vatsyayan, Kapila (1977). <i>Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts</i>. Sangeet Natak Akademi. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/233639306">233639306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+dance+in+literature+and+the+arts&rft.pub=Sangeet+Natak+Akademi&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233639306&rft.aulast=Vatsyayan&rft.aufirst=Kapila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf">Table of Contents</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Vatsyayan, Kapila (2008). <i>Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition</i>. Munshiram Manoharlal. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87586-35-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87586-35-7"><bdi>978-81-87586-35-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/286469807">286469807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aesthetic+theories+and+forms+in+Indian+tradition&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F286469807&rft.isbn=978-81-87586-35-7&rft.aulast=Vatsyayan&rft.aufirst=Kapila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC"><i>Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-024003-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-024003-0"><bdi>978-3-11-024003-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+and+Communication%3A+An+Aesthetic+Cultural+History+of+Sanskrit+Hinduism&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-024003-0&rft.aulast=Wilke&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Moebus%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wmYz_OtZ_gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Veenas" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Veenas"><span style="">Veenas</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf">Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai</a>, Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble">Music of India Ensemble: Veena</a>, Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA</li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_musical_instruments" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Indian_musical_instruments" title="Template:Indian musical instruments"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_musical_instruments" title="Template talk:Indian musical instruments"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Indian_musical_instruments&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_musical_instruments" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Indian_musical_instruments" title="List of Indian musical instruments">Indian musical instruments</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wind (Sushir)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bansuri" title="Bansuri">Bansuri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pump_organ#In_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Pump organ">Harmonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kombu_(instrument)" title="Kombu (instrument)">Kombu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nadaswaram" title="Nadaswaram">Nadaswaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pungi" title="Pungi">Pungi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shankha" title="Shankha">Shankha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shehnai" title="Shehnai">Shehnai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shruti_box" title="Shruti box">Shruti box</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venu" title="Venu">Venu</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sarod_and_sitar.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Sarod_and_sitar.jpg/90px-Sarod_and_sitar.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="181" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="879" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plucked Stringed (Tat)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dotara" title="Dotara">Dotara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ektara" title="Ektara">Ektara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gottuvadhyam" title="Gottuvadhyam">Gottuvadhyam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pena_(musical_instrument)" title="Pena (musical instrument)">Pena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_veena" title="Rudra veena">Rudra veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Santoor" title="Santoor">Santoor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati_veena" title="Saraswati veena">Saraswati veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">Sarod</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seni_rebab" title="Seni rebab">Seni Rebab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surbahar" title="Surbahar">Surbahar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swarmandal" title="Swarmandal">Swarmandal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanpura" title="Tanpura">Tanpura</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronic_tanpura" title="Electronic tanpura">Electronic tanpura</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichitra_veena" title="Vichitra veena">Vichitra veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yazh" title="Yazh">Yazh</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bowed Stringed (Vitat)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esraj" title="Esraj">Dilruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esraj" title="Esraj">Esraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarangi" title="Sarangi">Sarangi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarinda" title="Sarinda">Sarinda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taus_(instrument)" title="Taus (instrument)">Taus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">Violin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membranous Percussion (Avanaddh)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chande" title="Chande">Chande</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chenda" title="Chenda">Chenda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Damaru" title="Damaru">Damaru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhak_(instrument)" title="Dhak (instrument)">Dhaak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duggi_(drum)" title="Duggi (drum)">Duggi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhol" title="Dhol">Dhol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dholak" title="Dholak">Dholak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dholki" class="mw-redirect" title="Dholki">Dholki</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idakka" title="Idakka">Edakka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanjira" title="Kanjira">Kanjira</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khamak" title="Khamak">Khamak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khol" title="Khol">Khol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madal" title="Madal">Madal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mizhavu" title="Mizhavu">Mizhav</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mridangam" title="Mridangam">Mridangam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">Nagada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakhavaj" title="Pakhavaj">Pakhawaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parai" title="Parai">Parai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sambal_(drum)" title="Sambal (drum)">Sambal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabla" title="Tabla">Tabla</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thavil" title="Thavil">Tavil</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Membranous Percussion (Ghan)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chimta" title="Chimta">Chimta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghatam" title="Ghatam">Ghatam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghungroo" title="Ghungroo">Ghungroo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jal_tarang" title="Jal tarang">Jal tarang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taal_(instrument)" title="Taal (instrument)">Kartal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanjani" title="Khanjani">Khanjani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khartal" title="Khartal">Khartal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taal_(instrument)" title="Taal (instrument)">Manjira</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morsing" title="Morsing">Morsing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bharatiya_Sangeet_Vadya" title="Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya">Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jivari" title="Jivari">Jivari</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lute" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Lute" title="Template:Lute"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Lute" title="Template talk:Lute"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Lute&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lute" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">Lute</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance music</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types by region</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goje" title="Goje">Goje</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xalam" title="Xalam">Xalam</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbat_(lute)" title="Barbat (lute)">Barbat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bipa" title="Bipa">Bipa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biwa" title="Biwa">Biwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dombra" title="Dombra">Dombra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutar" title="Dutar">Dutar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dramyin" title="Dramyin">Dramyin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Komuz" title="Komuz">Komuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kutiyapi" title="Kutiyapi">Kutiyapi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">Oud</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pipa" title="Pipa">Pipa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qinqin" title="Qinqin">Qinqin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rubab_(instrument)" title="Rubab (instrument)">Rubab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanshin" title="Sanshin">Sanshin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanxian" title="Sanxian">Sanxian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sapeh" title="Sapeh">Sapeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Setar" title="Setar">Setar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamisen" title="Shamisen">Shamisen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanbur" title="Tanbur">Tanbur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tar_(string_instrument)" title="Tar (string instrument)">Tar</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yueqin" title="Yueqin">Yueqin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lique_(instrument)" title="Angélique (instrument)">Angélique</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archlute" title="Archlute">Archlute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cobza" title="Cobza">Cobza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kobza" title="Kobza">Kobza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandore_(instrument)" title="Mandore (instrument)">Mandore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandora" title="Mandora">Mandora</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swedish_lute" title="Swedish lute">Swedish lute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Torban" title="Torban">Torban</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theorbo" title="Theorbo">Theorbo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vihuela" title="Vihuela">Vihuela</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related instruments</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citole" title="Citole">Citole</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cittern" title="Cittern">Cittern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_guitar" title="English guitar">English guitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gittern" title="Gittern">Gittern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guitarra_latina" title="Guitarra latina">Guitarra latina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guitarra_morisca" title="Guitarra morisca">Guitarra morisca</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/La%C3%BAd" title="Laúd">Laúd</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_composers_for_lute" title="List of composers for lute">Composers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lute_makers" title="Category:Lute makers">Manufacturers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lutenists_by_nationality" title="Category:Lutenists by nationality">Players</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="Commons-logo.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/10px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/15px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lutes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lutes">Commons</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1573372178 |