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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Infobox scientist
| name = Annie Jump Cannon
| image = Annie Jump Cannon 1922 Portrait.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Annie Jump Cannon in 1922
| birth_date = {{birth date|1863|12|11}}
| birth_place = [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]], Delaware, U.S.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2004|p=18}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|4|13|1863|12|11}}
| death_place = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], Massachusetts, U.S.
| residence =
| citizenship =
| nationality = American
| work_institutions =
| alma_mater = [[Wellesley College]], [[Wilmington Conference Academy]], [[Radcliffe College]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Stellar classification]]
| influences = [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer
| influenced =
| prizes = [[Henry Draper Medal]] (1931)
| religion =
| footnotes =
| signature =
}}[[File:Edward Charles Pickering's Harem 13 May 1913.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Pickering and his Computers standing in front of Building C at the [[Harvard College Observatory]], 13 May 1913]]
The [[Harvard College Observatory|Harvard Observatory]], under the direction of [[Edward Charles Pickering]] (1877 to 1919) and, following his death in 1919, [[Annie Jump Cannon]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/the-female-astronomers-who-captured-the-stars/|title=The Female Astronomers Who Captured the Stars}}</ref> had a number of women working as [[skilled worker]]s to process astronomical data.
"The women were challenged to make sense of these patterns by devising a scheme for sorting the stars into categories. Annie Jump Cannon's success at this activity made her famous in her own lifetime, and she produced a stellar classification system that is still in use today. Antonia Maury discerned in the spectra a way to assess the relative sizes of stars, and Henrietta Leavitt showed how the cyclic changes of certain variable stars could serve as distance markers in space."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/12/the-women-computers-who-measured-the-stars/509231/|title=The Women 'Computers' Who Revolutionized Astronomy|last=Woodman|first=Jenny|date=2016-12-02|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-16}}</ref>
Among these women were [[Williamina Fleming]], [[Annie Jump Cannon]], [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]], [[Florence Cushman]] and [[Antonia Maury]]. Although these women started primarily as calculators, they made significant contributions to astronomy, much of which they published in research articles. This staff came to be known as the '''Harvard Computers.'''
==History==
Although Pickering believed that gathering data at astronomical observatories was not the most appropriate work, it seems that several factors contributed to his decision to hire women instead of men.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref> Among them was the fact that men were paid much more than women, so he could employ more staff with the same budget. This was relevant in a time when the amount of astronomical data was surpassing the capacity of the Observatories to process it.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Scientists in America|last=Rossiter|first=Margaret W.|date=2006|publisher=[[JHU Press]]|isbn=978-0801857119|volume=I}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> Although some of Pickering's female staff were astronomy graduates, their wages were similar to those of unskilled workers. They usually earned between 25 and 50 cents per hour, more than a factory worker but less than a clerical one.<ref>{{cite book|title=Miss Leavitt's Stars|last=Johnson|first=George|date=2006|publisher=[[W. W. Norton]]|isbn=978-0393328561}} {{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> In describing the dedication and efficiency with which the Harvard Computers, including Florence, undertook this effort, Edward Pickering said, "a loss of one minute in the reduction of each estimate would delay the publication of the entire work by the equivalent of the time of one assistant for two years."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Glass Universe : How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars|last=Dava|first=Sobel|isbn=0143111345|location=New York|oclc=972263666}}</ref>
The women were often tasked with measuring the brightness, position, and color of stars.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">Geiling, Natasha. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-women-who-mapped-the-universe-and-still-couldnt-get-any-respect-9287444/?no-ist "The Women Who Mapped the Universe And Still Couldn't Get Any Respect"], ''[[Smithsonian.com]]'', 18 September 2013. Retrieved on 12 October 2017.</ref> The work included such tasks as classifying stars by comparing the photographs to known catalogs and reducing the photographs while accounting for things like atmospheric refraction in order to render the clearest possible image. Fleming herself described the work as "so nearly alike that there will be little to describe outside ordinary routine work of measurement, examination of photographs, and of work involved in the reduction of these observations".<ref name="smithsonianmag.com"/> At times women offered to work at the observatory for free in order to gain experience in a field that was difficult to get into.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref>
==Notable members==
=== Mary Anna Palmer Draper ===
[[Mary Anna Draper]] was the widow of [[Henry Draper|Dr. Henry Draper]], an astronomer who died before completing his work on the chemical composition of stars.<ref name=":1" /> She was very involved in her husband's work and wanted to finish his classification of stars after he passed away.<ref name=":1" /> Mary Draper quickly realized the task facing her was far too daunting for one person. She had received correspondence from Mr. Pickering, a close friend of hers and her husband's. Pickering offered to help finish her husband's work, and encouraged her to publish his findings up to the time of his death.<ref name=":1" /> After some deliberation and much consideration, Draper decided in 1886 to donate money and a telescope of her husband's to the Harvard Observatory in order to photograph the spectra of stars. She had decided this would be the best way to continue her husband's work and erect his legacy in astronomy.<ref name=":1" /> She was very insistent on funding the memorial project with her own inheritance, as it would carry on her husband's legacy. She was a dedicated follower of the observatory and a great friend of Pickering's. In 1900 she funded an expedition to see the total solar eclipse occurring that year.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Astronomer Edward Charles Pickering's Harvard computers.jpg|thumb|Harvard Computers at work, circa 1890, including [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] seated, third from left, with magnifying glass (1868–1921), [[Annie Jump Cannon]] (1863–1941), [[Williamina Fleming]] standing, at center (1857–1911), and [[Antonia Maury]] (1866–1952).]]
=== Williamina Fleming ===
[[Williamina Fleming]] had no prior relation to Harvard, as she was a Scottish immigrant<ref name=":1" /> working as Pickering's housemaid. Her first assignment was to improve an existing catalog of stellar spectra, which later lead to her appointment as head of the ‘’[[Henry Draper Catalogue]]’’ project. Fleming went on to help develop a classification of stars based on their hydrogen content, as well as play a major role in discovering the strange nature of [[white dwarf star]]s. <ref name="smithsonianmag.com"/> Williamina continued her career in astronomy when she was appointed Harvard's Curator of Astronomical Photographs in 1899, also known as Curator of the Photographic Plates. She remained the only woman curator until the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffleit|first=E. Dorrit|date=2002-12-01|title=Pioneering Women in the Spectral Classification of Stars|journal=Physics in Perspective|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=370–398|doi=10.1007/s000160200001|issn=1422-6944|bibcode=2002PhP.....4..370H}}</ref> Her work also led to her becoming the first female American citizen to be elected to the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1907.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Sue|date=2008-09-03|title=The Harvard computers|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=455|issue=7209|pages=36–37|doi=10.1038/455036a|pmid=18769425|bibcode=2008Natur.455...36N}}</ref>
=== Antonia Maury ===
[[Antonia Maury]] was the niece of Henry Draper, and after recommendation from Mrs. Draper, was hired as a computer.<ref name=":1" /> She was a graduate from [[Vassar College]], and was tasked with reclassifying some of the stars after the publication of the Henry Draper Catalog. Maury decided to go further and improved and redesigned the system of classification, but had other obligations and left the observatory in 1892 then again in 1894. Her work was finished with the help of Pickering and the computing staff and was published in 1897.<ref name=":1" /> She returned again in 1908 as an associate researcher.<ref name=":1" />
=== Anna Winlock ===
Some of the first women who were hired to work as computers had familial connections to the Harvard Observatory’s male staff. For instance, [[Anna Winlock]], one of the first of the Harvard Computers, was the daughter of [[Joseph Winlock]], the third director of the observatory and Pickering’s immediate predecessor.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=9}}</ref> Anna Winlock joined the observatory in 1875 to assist in supporting her family after her father's unexpected passing. She tackled her father's unfinished data analysis, performing the arduous work of mathematically reducing meridian circle observations, which rescued a decade's worth of numbers that had been left in a useless state. Winlock also worked on a stellar cataloging section called the "Cambridge Zone". Working over twenty years on the project, the work done by her team on the Cambridge Zone contributed significantly to the Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog, which contains information on more than one-hundred thousand stars and is used worldwide by many observatories and their researchers. Within a year of Anna Winlock's hiring, three other women joined the staff: Selina Bond, Rhoda Sauders, and a third, who was likely a relative of an assistant astronomer.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grier|first1=David Alan|title=When Computers Were Human|date=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400849369|page=82|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/whencomputerswer00davi}}</ref>
=== Annie Jump Cannon ===
Pickering hired [[Annie Jump Cannon]], a graduate of [[Wellesley College]], to classify the southern stars. While at Wellesley, she took astronomy courses from one of Pickering's star students, [[Sarah Frances Whiting]].<ref name=":1" /> She became the first female assistant to study [[variable star]]s at night.<ref name=":1" /> She studied the [[light curve]] of variable stars which could help suggest the type and causation of variation.<ref name=":1" /> Cannon considered merging the classification systems developed by Fleming and Maury rather than inventing a brand new one, and developed the [[Stellar classification#Harvard system|Harvard Classification Scheme]], which is the basis of the today's familiar O-B-A-F-G-K-M system. She also categorized the variable stars into tables so they could be identified and compared more easily.<ref name=":1" /> These systems connect the color of stars to their temperature.
Annie Jump Cannon is one of the more famous of the group, as the first female scientist to be recognized for many awards and titles in her field of study. She was the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford and the [[Henry Draper Medal]] from the National Academy of Sciences, and the first female officer in the American Astronomical Society. Cannon went on to establish her own Annie Jump Cannon Award for women in postdoctoral work.
=== Henrietta Leavitt ===
[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] arrived at the observatory in 1893. She had experience through her college studies, traveling abroad, and teaching. In academia, Leavitt excelled in mathematics courses at Cambridge.<ref name=":1" /> When she began working at the observatory she was tasked with measuring star brightness through [[photometry (astronomy)#Applications|photometry]].<ref name=":1" /> She found hundreds of new variable stars after starting to analyze the Great Nebula in Orion and her work was expanded to study the variables of the entire sky with Annie Jump Cannon and Evelyn Leland.<ref name=":1" /> With skills gained in photometry, Leavitt compared stars in different exposures. Studying [[Cepheid variable]]s, in the [[Small Magellanic Cloud]], she discovered that their [[apparent brightness]] was dependent on their period. This discovery led to the use of Cepheid variables as a [[standard candle]] for determining cosmic distances.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leavitt|first=Henrietta S.|last2=Pickering|first2=Edward C.|year=1912
|title=Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud
|journal=Harvard College Observatory Circular|volume=173|issue=|pages=1–3
|bibcode=1912HarCi.173....1L|doi=}}</ref> That, in turn, led directly to the modern understanding of the true size of the universe, and Cepheid variables are still an essential rung in the [[cosmic distance ladder]].
Sadly, Leavitt does not receive as much credit as she deserves. Pickering published her work with his name as co-author. The legacy she left allowed future scientists to make further discoveries in space. Astronomer Edwin Hubble used Leavitt's method to calculate the distance of the nearest galaxy to the earth, the Andromeda Galaxy. This led to the realization that there are even more galaxies than previously thought.
=== Florence Cushman ===
[[Florence Cushman]] (1860-1940) was an [[United States|American]] astronomer at the [[Harvard College Observatory]] who worked on the [[Henry Draper catalogue|''Henry Draper Catalogue'']].
Florence was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1860 and received her early education at [[Charlestown High School]], where she graduated in 1877. In 1888, she began work at the Harvard College Observatory as an employee of [[Edward Charles Pickering|Edward Pickering]]. Her classifications of stellar spectra contributed to ''[[Henry Draper Catalogue]]'' between 1918 and 1934.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spradley|first=Joseph|date=1990|title=Women in the Stars|journal=American Association of Physics Teachers|volume=28|issue=6|pages=372–377|doi=10.1119/1.2343078}}</ref> She stayed as an astronomer at the Observatory until 1937 and died in 1940 at the age of 80.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cushman, Florence|encyclopedia=Women in science : antiquity through the nineteenth century : a biographical dictionary with annotated bibliography|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|location=Cambridge, Mass.|last=Ogilvie|first=Marilyn Bailey|date=1986|edition=Reprinted|page=181|isbn=9780262650380}}</ref>
Florence Cushman worked at the Harvard College Observatory from 1918 to 1937. Over the course of her nearly fifty-year career, she employed the [[objective prism]] method to analyze, classify, and catalog the optical spectra of hundreds of thousands of stars. In the 19th century, the photographic revolution enabled more detailed analysis of the night sky than had been possible with solely eye-based observations. In order to obtain optical spectra for measurement, male astronomers at the Harvard College Observatory expose glass plates on which the astronomical images were captured at night. During the daytime, female assistants like Florence analyzed the resultant spectra by reducing values, computing magnitudes, and cataloging their findings.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|url=http://altbibl.io/gazette/computersatwork/|title=Computers at Work: Astronomical labor at the HCO at the turn of the century}}</ref> She is credited with determining the positions and magnitudes of the stars listed in the 1918 edition of the ''Henry Draper Catalogue'',<ref>Cannon, Annie J.; Pickering, Edward C. (1918) "The Henry Draper Catalogue". ''Annals of Harvard College Observatory''.; hours 0 to 3, '''91''' (1918), [[Bibcode]]: 1918AnHar..91....1C; hours 4 to 6, '''92''' (1918), [[Bibcode]]: 1918AnHar..92....1C; hours 7 to 8, '''93''' (1919), [[Bibcode]]: 1919AnHar..93....1C; hours 9 to 11, '''94''' (1919), [[Bibcode]]: 1919AnHar..94....1C; hours 12 to 14, '''95''' (1920), [[Bibcode]]: 1920AnHar..95....1C; hours 15 to 16, '''96''' (1921), [[Bibcode]]: 1921AnHar..96....1C; hours 17 to 18, '''97''' (1922), [[Bibcode]]: 1922AnHar..97....1C; hours 19 to 20, '''98''' (1923), [[Bibcode]]: 1923AnHar..98....1C; hours 21 to 23, '''99''' (1924), [[Bibcode]]: 1924AnHar..99....1C.</ref> which featured the spectra of roughly 222,000 stars.
== See also ==
* [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]]
*[[Evelyn Leland]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{commons category|Harvard Computers}}
== External links ==
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~jshaw/pick.html Pickering's Harem]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:American women astronomers]]
[[Category:Harvard Computers|*]]
[[Category:Harvard University staff]]
[[Category:Sex segregation]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Infobox scientist
| name = Annie Jump Cannon
| image = Annie Jump Cannon 1922 Portrait.jpg
[[File:Astronomer Edward Charles Pickering's Harvard computers.jpg|thumb|Harvard Computers at work, circa 1890, including [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] seated, third from left, with magnifying glass (1868–1921), [[Annie Jump Cannon]] (1863–1941), [[Williamina Fleming]] standing, at center (1857–1911), and [[Antonia Maury]] (1866–1952).]]
=== Williamina Fleming ===
[[Williamina Fleming]] had no prior relation to Harvard, as she was a Scottish immigrant<ref name=":1" /> working as Pickering's housemaid. Her first assignment was to improve an existing catalog of stellar spectra, which later lead to her appointment as head of the ‘’[[Henry Draper Catalogue]]’’ project. Fleming went on to help develop a classification of stars based on their hydrogen content, as well as play a major role in discovering the strange nature of [[white dwarf star]]s. <ref name="smithsonianmag.com"/> Williamina continued her career in astronomy when she was appointed Harvard's Curator of Astronomical Photographs in 1899, also known as Curator of the Photographic Plates. She remained the only woman curator until the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffleit|first=E. Dorrit|date=2002-12-01|title=Pioneering Women in the Spectral Classification of Stars|journal=Physics in Perspective|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=370–398|doi=10.1007/s000160200001|issn=1422-6944|bibcode=2002PhP.....4..370H}}</ref> Her work also led to her becoming the first female American citizen to be elected to the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1907.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Sue|date=2008-09-03|title=The Harvard computers|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=455|issue=7209|pages=36–37|doi=10.1038/455036a|pmid=18769425|bibcode=2008Natur.455...36N}}</ref>
=== Antonia Maury ===
[[Antonia Maury]] was the niece of Henry Draper, and after recommendation from Mrs. Draper, was hired as a computer.<ref name=":1" /> She was a graduate from [[Vassar College]], and was tasked with reclassifying some of the stars after the publication of the Henry Draper Catalog. Maury decided to go further and improved and redesigned the system of classification, but had other obligations and left the observatory in 1892 then again in 1894. Her work was finished with the help of Pickering and the computing staff and was published in 1897.<ref name=":1" /> She returned again in 1908 as an associate researcher.<ref name=":1" />
=== Anna Winlock ===
Some of the first women who were hired to work as computers had familial connections to the Harvard Observatory’s male staff. For instance, [[Anna Winlock]], one of the first of the Harvard Computers, was the daughter of [[Joseph Winlock]], the third director of the observatory and Pickering’s immediate predecessor.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=9}}</ref> Anna Winlock joined the observatory in 1875 to assist in supporting her family after her father's unexpected passing. She tackled her father's unfinished data analysis, performing the arduous work of mathematically reducing meridian circle observations, which rescued a decade's worth of numbers that had been left in a useless state. Winlock also worked on a stellar cataloging section called the "Cambridge Zone". Working over twenty years on the project, the work done by her team on the Cambridge Zone contributed significantly to the Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog, which contains information on more than one-hundred thousand stars and is used worldwide by many observatories and their researchers. Within a year of Anna Winlock's hiring, three other women joined the staff: Selina Bond, Rhoda Sauders, and a third, who was likely a relative of an assistant astronomer.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grier|first1=David Alan|title=When Computers Were Human|date=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400849369|page=82|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/whencomputerswer00davi}}</ref>
=== Annie Jump Cannon ===
Pickering hired [[Annie Jump Cannon]], a graduate of [[Wellesley College]], to classify the southern stars. While at Wellesley, she took astronomy courses from one of Pickering's star students, [[Sarah Frances Whiting]].<ref name=":1" /> She became the first female assistant to study [[variable star]]s at night.<ref name=":1" /> She studied the [[light curve]] of variable stars which could help suggest the type and causation of variation.<ref name=":1" /> Cannon considered merging the classification systems developed by Fleming and Maury rather than inventing a brand new one, and developed the [[Stellar classification#Harvard system|Harvard Classification Scheme]], which is the basis of the today's familiar O-B-A-F-G-K-M system. She also categorized the variable stars into tables so they could be identified and compared more easily.<ref name=":1" /> These systems connect the color of stars to their temperature.
Annie Jump Cannon is one of the more famous of the group, as the first female scientist to be recognized for many awards and titles in her field of study. She was the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford and the [[Henry Draper Medal]] from the National Academy of Sciences, and the first female officer in the American Astronomical Society. Cannon went on to establish her own Annie Jump Cannon Award for women in postdoctoral work.
=== Henrietta Leavitt ===
[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] arrived at the observatory in 1893. She had experience through her college studies, traveling abroad, and teaching. In academia, Leavitt excelled in mathematics courses at Cambridge.<ref name=":1" /> When she began working at the observatory she was tasked with measuring star brightness through [[photometry (astronomy)#Applications|photometry]].<ref name=":1" /> She found hundreds of new variable stars after starting to analyze the Great Nebula in Orion and her work was expanded to study the variables of the entire sky with Annie Jump Cannon and Evelyn Leland.<ref name=":1" /> With skills gained in photometry, Leavitt compared stars in different exposures. Studying [[Cepheid variable]]s, in the [[Small Magellanic Cloud]], she discovered that their [[apparent brightness]] was dependent on their period. This discovery led to the use of Cepheid variables as a [[standard candle]] for determining cosmic distances.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leavitt|first=Henrietta S.|last2=Pickering|first2=Edward C.|year=1912
|title=Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud
|journal=Harvard College Observatory Circular|volume=173|issue=|pages=1–3
|bibcode=1912HarCi.173....1L|doi=}}</ref> That, in turn, led directly to the modern understanding of the true size of the universe, and Cepheid variables are still an essential rung in the [[cosmic distance ladder]].
Sadly, Leavitt does not receive as much credit as she deserves. Pickering published her work with his name as co-author. The legacy she left allowed future scientists to make further discoveries in space. Astronomer Edwin Hubble used Leavitt's method to calculate the distance of the nearest galaxy to the earth, the Andromeda Galaxy. This led to the realization that there are even more galaxies than previously thought.
=== Florence Cushman ===
[[Florence Cushman]] (1860-1940) was an [[United States|American]] astronomer at the [[Harvard College Observatory]] who worked on the [[Henry Draper catalogue|''Henry Draper Catalogue'']].
Florence was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1860 and received her early education at [[Charlestown High School]], where she graduated in 1877. In 1888, she began work at the Harvard College Observatory as an employee of [[Edward Charles Pickering|Edward Pickering]]. Her classifications of stellar spectra contributed to ''[[Henry Draper Catalogue]]'' between 1918 and 1934.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spradley|first=Joseph|date=1990|title=Women in the Stars|journal=American Association of Physics Teachers|volume=28|issue=6|pages=372–377|doi=10.1119/1.2343078}}</ref> She stayed as an astronomer at the Observatory until 1937 and died in 1940 at the age of 80.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cushman, Florence|encyclopedia=Women in science : antiquity through the nineteenth century : a biographical dictionary with annotated bibliography|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|location=Cambridge, Mass.|last=Ogilvie|first=Marilyn Bailey|date=1986|edition=Reprinted|page=181|isbn=9780262650380}}</ref>
Florence Cushman worked at the Harvard College Observatory from 1918 to 1937. Over the course of her nearly fifty-year career, she employed the [[objective prism]] method to analyze, classify, and catalog the optical spectra of hundreds of thousands of stars. In the 19th century, the photographic revolution enabled more detailed analysis of the night sky than had been possible with solely eye-based observations. In order to obtain optical spectra for measurement, male astronomers at the Harvard College Observatory expose glass plates on which the astronomical images were captured at night. During the daytime, female assistants like Florence analyzed the resultant spectra by reducing values, computing magnitudes, and cataloging their findings.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|url=http://altbibl.io/gazette/computersatwork/|title=Computers at Work: Astronomical labor at the HCO at the turn of the century}}</ref> She is credited with determining the positions and magnitudes of the stars listed in the 1918 edition of the ''Henry Draper Catalogue'',<ref>Cannon, Annie J.; Pickering, Edward C. (1918) "The Henry Draper Catalogue". ''Annals of Harvard College Observatory''.; hours 0 to 3, '''91''' (1918), [[Bibcode]]: 1918AnHar..91....1C; hours 4 to 6, '''92''' (1918), [[Bibcode]]: 1918AnHar..92....1C; hours 7 to 8, '''93''' (1919), [[Bibcode]]: 1919AnHar..93....1C; hours 9 to 11, '''94''' (1919), [[Bibcode]]: 1919AnHar..94....1C; hours 12 to 14, '''95''' (1920), [[Bibcode]]: 1920AnHar..95....1C; hours 15 to 16, '''96''' (1921), [[Bibcode]]: 1921AnHar..96....1C; hours 17 to 18, '''97''' (1922), [[Bibcode]]: 1922AnHar..97....1C; hours 19 to 20, '''98''' (1923), [[Bibcode]]: 1923AnHar..98....1C; hours 21 to 23, '''99''' (1924), [[Bibcode]]: 1924AnHar..99....1C.</ref> which featured the spectra of roughly 222,000 stars.
== See also ==
* [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]]
*[[Evelyn Leland]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{commons category|Harvard Computers}}
== External links ==
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~jshaw/pick.html Pickering's Harem]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:American women astronomers]]
[[Category:Harvard Computers|*]]
[[Category:Harvard University staff]]
[[Category:Sex segregation]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -2,40 +2,4 @@
| name = Annie Jump Cannon
| image = Annie Jump Cannon 1922 Portrait.jpg
-| image_size =
-| caption = Annie Jump Cannon in 1922
-| birth_date = {{birth date|1863|12|11}}
-| birth_place = [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]], Delaware, U.S.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2004|p=18}}
-| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|4|13|1863|12|11}}
-| death_place = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], Massachusetts, U.S.
-| residence =
-| citizenship =
-| nationality = American
-| work_institutions =
-| alma_mater = [[Wellesley College]], [[Wilmington Conference Academy]], [[Radcliffe College]]
-| doctoral_advisor =
-| doctoral_students =
-| known_for = [[Stellar classification]]
-| influences = [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer
-| influenced =
-| prizes = [[Henry Draper Medal]] (1931)
-| religion =
-| footnotes =
-| signature =
-}}[[File:Edward Charles Pickering's Harem 13 May 1913.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Pickering and his Computers standing in front of Building C at the [[Harvard College Observatory]], 13 May 1913]]
-
-The [[Harvard College Observatory|Harvard Observatory]], under the direction of [[Edward Charles Pickering]] (1877 to 1919) and, following his death in 1919, [[Annie Jump Cannon]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/the-female-astronomers-who-captured-the-stars/|title=The Female Astronomers Who Captured the Stars}}</ref> had a number of women working as [[skilled worker]]s to process astronomical data.
-
-"The women were challenged to make sense of these patterns by devising a scheme for sorting the stars into categories. Annie Jump Cannon's success at this activity made her famous in her own lifetime, and she produced a stellar classification system that is still in use today. Antonia Maury discerned in the spectra a way to assess the relative sizes of stars, and Henrietta Leavitt showed how the cyclic changes of certain variable stars could serve as distance markers in space."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/12/the-women-computers-who-measured-the-stars/509231/|title=The Women 'Computers' Who Revolutionized Astronomy|last=Woodman|first=Jenny|date=2016-12-02|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-16}}</ref>
-
-Among these women were [[Williamina Fleming]], [[Annie Jump Cannon]], [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]], [[Florence Cushman]] and [[Antonia Maury]]. Although these women started primarily as calculators, they made significant contributions to astronomy, much of which they published in research articles. This staff came to be known as the '''Harvard Computers.'''
-
-==History==
-Although Pickering believed that gathering data at astronomical observatories was not the most appropriate work, it seems that several factors contributed to his decision to hire women instead of men.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref> Among them was the fact that men were paid much more than women, so he could employ more staff with the same budget. This was relevant in a time when the amount of astronomical data was surpassing the capacity of the Observatories to process it.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Scientists in America|last=Rossiter|first=Margaret W.|date=2006|publisher=[[JHU Press]]|isbn=978-0801857119|volume=I}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> Although some of Pickering's female staff were astronomy graduates, their wages were similar to those of unskilled workers. They usually earned between 25 and 50 cents per hour, more than a factory worker but less than a clerical one.<ref>{{cite book|title=Miss Leavitt's Stars|last=Johnson|first=George|date=2006|publisher=[[W. W. Norton]]|isbn=978-0393328561}} {{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> In describing the dedication and efficiency with which the Harvard Computers, including Florence, undertook this effort, Edward Pickering said, "a loss of one minute in the reduction of each estimate would delay the publication of the entire work by the equivalent of the time of one assistant for two years."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Glass Universe : How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars|last=Dava|first=Sobel|isbn=0143111345|location=New York|oclc=972263666}}</ref>
-
-The women were often tasked with measuring the brightness, position, and color of stars.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">Geiling, Natasha. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-women-who-mapped-the-universe-and-still-couldnt-get-any-respect-9287444/?no-ist "The Women Who Mapped the Universe And Still Couldn't Get Any Respect"], ''[[Smithsonian.com]]'', 18 September 2013. Retrieved on 12 October 2017.</ref> The work included such tasks as classifying stars by comparing the photographs to known catalogs and reducing the photographs while accounting for things like atmospheric refraction in order to render the clearest possible image. Fleming herself described the work as "so nearly alike that there will be little to describe outside ordinary routine work of measurement, examination of photographs, and of work involved in the reduction of these observations".<ref name="smithsonianmag.com"/> At times women offered to work at the observatory for free in order to gain experience in a field that was difficult to get into.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref>
-
-==Notable members==
-=== Mary Anna Palmer Draper ===
-[[Mary Anna Draper]] was the widow of [[Henry Draper|Dr. Henry Draper]], an astronomer who died before completing his work on the chemical composition of stars.<ref name=":1" /> She was very involved in her husband's work and wanted to finish his classification of stars after he passed away.<ref name=":1" /> Mary Draper quickly realized the task facing her was far too daunting for one person. She had received correspondence from Mr. Pickering, a close friend of hers and her husband's. Pickering offered to help finish her husband's work, and encouraged her to publish his findings up to the time of his death.<ref name=":1" /> After some deliberation and much consideration, Draper decided in 1886 to donate money and a telescope of her husband's to the Harvard Observatory in order to photograph the spectra of stars. She had decided this would be the best way to continue her husband's work and erect his legacy in astronomy.<ref name=":1" /> She was very insistent on funding the memorial project with her own inheritance, as it would carry on her husband's legacy. She was a dedicated follower of the observatory and a great friend of Pickering's. In 1900 she funded an expedition to see the total solar eclipse occurring that year.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Astronomer Edward Charles Pickering's Harvard computers.jpg|thumb|Harvard Computers at work, circa 1890, including [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] seated, third from left, with magnifying glass (1868–1921), [[Annie Jump Cannon]] (1863–1941), [[Williamina Fleming]] standing, at center (1857–1911), and [[Antonia Maury]] (1866–1952).]]
' |
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Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '| image_size = ',
1 => '| caption = Annie Jump Cannon in 1922',
2 => '| birth_date = {{birth date|1863|12|11}}',
3 => '| birth_place = [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]], Delaware, U.S.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2004|p=18}}',
4 => '| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|4|13|1863|12|11}}',
5 => '| death_place = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], Massachusetts, U.S.',
6 => '| residence = ',
7 => '| citizenship = ',
8 => '| nationality = American',
9 => '| work_institutions = ',
10 => '| alma_mater = [[Wellesley College]], [[Wilmington Conference Academy]], [[Radcliffe College]]',
11 => '| doctoral_advisor = ',
12 => '| doctoral_students = ',
13 => '| known_for = [[Stellar classification]]',
14 => '| influences = [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer',
15 => '| influenced = ',
16 => '| prizes = [[Henry Draper Medal]] (1931)',
17 => '| religion = ',
18 => '| footnotes = ',
19 => '| signature = ',
20 => '}}[[File:Edward Charles Pickering's Harem 13 May 1913.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Pickering and his Computers standing in front of Building C at the [[Harvard College Observatory]], 13 May 1913]]',
21 => '',
22 => 'The [[Harvard College Observatory|Harvard Observatory]], under the direction of [[Edward Charles Pickering]] (1877 to 1919) and, following his death in 1919, [[Annie Jump Cannon]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/the-female-astronomers-who-captured-the-stars/|title=The Female Astronomers Who Captured the Stars}}</ref> had a number of women working as [[skilled worker]]s to process astronomical data. ',
23 => '',
24 => '"The women were challenged to make sense of these patterns by devising a scheme for sorting the stars into categories. Annie Jump Cannon's success at this activity made her famous in her own lifetime, and she produced a stellar classification system that is still in use today. Antonia Maury discerned in the spectra a way to assess the relative sizes of stars, and Henrietta Leavitt showed how the cyclic changes of certain variable stars could serve as distance markers in space."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/12/the-women-computers-who-measured-the-stars/509231/|title=The Women 'Computers' Who Revolutionized Astronomy|last=Woodman|first=Jenny|date=2016-12-02|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-16}}</ref> ',
25 => '',
26 => 'Among these women were [[Williamina Fleming]], [[Annie Jump Cannon]], [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]], [[Florence Cushman]] and [[Antonia Maury]]. Although these women started primarily as calculators, they made significant contributions to astronomy, much of which they published in research articles. This staff came to be known as the '''Harvard Computers.'''',
27 => '',
28 => '==History==',
29 => 'Although Pickering believed that gathering data at astronomical observatories was not the most appropriate work, it seems that several factors contributed to his decision to hire women instead of men.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref> Among them was the fact that men were paid much more than women, so he could employ more staff with the same budget. This was relevant in a time when the amount of astronomical data was surpassing the capacity of the Observatories to process it.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Scientists in America|last=Rossiter|first=Margaret W.|date=2006|publisher=[[JHU Press]]|isbn=978-0801857119|volume=I}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> Although some of Pickering's female staff were astronomy graduates, their wages were similar to those of unskilled workers. They usually earned between 25 and 50 cents per hour, more than a factory worker but less than a clerical one.<ref>{{cite book|title=Miss Leavitt's Stars|last=Johnson|first=George|date=2006|publisher=[[W. W. Norton]]|isbn=978-0393328561}} {{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref> In describing the dedication and efficiency with which the Harvard Computers, including Florence, undertook this effort, Edward Pickering said, "a loss of one minute in the reduction of each estimate would delay the publication of the entire work by the equivalent of the time of one assistant for two years."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Glass Universe : How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars|last=Dava|first=Sobel|isbn=0143111345|location=New York|oclc=972263666}}</ref>',
30 => '',
31 => 'The women were often tasked with measuring the brightness, position, and color of stars.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">Geiling, Natasha. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-women-who-mapped-the-universe-and-still-couldnt-get-any-respect-9287444/?no-ist "The Women Who Mapped the Universe And Still Couldn't Get Any Respect"], ''[[Smithsonian.com]]'', 18 September 2013. Retrieved on 12 October 2017.</ref> The work included such tasks as classifying stars by comparing the photographs to known catalogs and reducing the photographs while accounting for things like atmospheric refraction in order to render the clearest possible image. Fleming herself described the work as "so nearly alike that there will be little to describe outside ordinary routine work of measurement, examination of photographs, and of work involved in the reduction of these observations".<ref name="smithsonianmag.com"/> At times women offered to work at the observatory for free in order to gain experience in a field that was difficult to get into.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=The Glass Universe|last=Sobel|first=Dava|date=2016|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780698148697|pages=xii}}</ref>',
32 => '',
33 => '==Notable members==',
34 => '=== Mary Anna Palmer Draper ===',
35 => '[[Mary Anna Draper]] was the widow of [[Henry Draper|Dr. Henry Draper]], an astronomer who died before completing his work on the chemical composition of stars.<ref name=":1" /> She was very involved in her husband's work and wanted to finish his classification of stars after he passed away.<ref name=":1" /> Mary Draper quickly realized the task facing her was far too daunting for one person. She had received correspondence from Mr. Pickering, a close friend of hers and her husband's. Pickering offered to help finish her husband's work, and encouraged her to publish his findings up to the time of his death.<ref name=":1" /> After some deliberation and much consideration, Draper decided in 1886 to donate money and a telescope of her husband's to the Harvard Observatory in order to photograph the spectra of stars. She had decided this would be the best way to continue her husband's work and erect his legacy in astronomy.<ref name=":1" /> She was very insistent on funding the memorial project with her own inheritance, as it would carry on her husband's legacy. She was a dedicated follower of the observatory and a great friend of Pickering's. In 1900 she funded an expedition to see the total solar eclipse occurring that year.<ref name=":1" /> '
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>{{Infobox scientist
| name = Annie Jump Cannon
| image = Annie Jump Cannon 1922 Portrait.jpg
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/220px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/330px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/440px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1502" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Harvard Computers at work, circa 1890, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a> seated, third from left, with magnifying glass (1868–1921), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a> (1863–1941), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Williamina_Fleming" title="Williamina Fleming">Williamina Fleming</a> standing, at center (1857–1911), and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonia_Maury" title="Antonia Maury">Antonia Maury</a> (1866–1952).</div></div></div>
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Williamina_Fleming"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Williamina Fleming</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Antonia_Maury"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Antonia Maury</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Anna_Winlock"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Anna Winlock</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Annie_Jump_Cannon"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Annie Jump Cannon</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Henrietta_Leavitt"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Henrietta Leavitt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Florence_Cushman"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Florence Cushman</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Williamina_Fleming">Williamina Fleming</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Williamina Fleming">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Williamina_Fleming" title="Williamina Fleming">Williamina Fleming</a> had no prior relation to Harvard, as she was a Scottish immigrant<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> working as Pickering's housemaid. Her first assignment was to improve an existing catalog of stellar spectra, which later lead to her appointment as head of the ‘’<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Draper_Catalogue" title="Henry Draper Catalogue">Henry Draper Catalogue</a>’’ project. Fleming went on to help develop a classification of stars based on their hydrogen content, as well as play a major role in discovering the strange nature of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_dwarf_star" class="mw-redirect" title="White dwarf star">white dwarf stars</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-smithsonianmag.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-2">[2]</a></sup> Williamina continued her career in astronomy when she was appointed Harvard's Curator of Astronomical Photographs in 1899, also known as Curator of the Photographic Plates. She remained the only woman curator until the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Her work also led to her becoming the first female American citizen to be elected to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> in 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Antonia_Maury">Antonia Maury</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antonia Maury">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonia_Maury" title="Antonia Maury">Antonia Maury</a> was the niece of Henry Draper, and after recommendation from Mrs. Draper, was hired as a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> She was a graduate from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vassar_College" title="Vassar College">Vassar College</a>, and was tasked with reclassifying some of the stars after the publication of the Henry Draper Catalog. Maury decided to go further and improved and redesigned the system of classification, but had other obligations and left the observatory in 1892 then again in 1894. Her work was finished with the help of Pickering and the computing staff and was published in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> She returned again in 1908 as an associate researcher.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anna_Winlock">Anna Winlock</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anna Winlock">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Some of the first women who were hired to work as computers had familial connections to the Harvard Observatory’s male staff. For instance, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anna_Winlock" title="Anna Winlock">Anna Winlock</a>, one of the first of the Harvard Computers, was the daughter of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Winlock" title="Joseph Winlock">Joseph Winlock</a>, the third director of the observatory and Pickering’s immediate predecessor.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Anna Winlock joined the observatory in 1875 to assist in supporting her family after her father's unexpected passing. She tackled her father's unfinished data analysis, performing the arduous work of mathematically reducing meridian circle observations, which rescued a decade's worth of numbers that had been left in a useless state. Winlock also worked on a stellar cataloging section called the "Cambridge Zone". Working over twenty years on the project, the work done by her team on the Cambridge Zone contributed significantly to the Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog, which contains information on more than one-hundred thousand stars and is used worldwide by many observatories and their researchers. Within a year of Anna Winlock's hiring, three other women joined the staff: Selina Bond, Rhoda Sauders, and a third, who was likely a relative of an assistant astronomer.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Annie_Jump_Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Annie Jump Cannon">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Pickering hired <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a>, a graduate of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wellesley_College" title="Wellesley College">Wellesley College</a>, to classify the southern stars. While at Wellesley, she took astronomy courses from one of Pickering's star students, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarah_Frances_Whiting" title="Sarah Frances Whiting">Sarah Frances Whiting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> She became the first female assistant to study <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">variable stars</a> at night.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> She studied the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Light_curve" title="Light curve">light curve</a> of variable stars which could help suggest the type and causation of variation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> Cannon considered merging the classification systems developed by Fleming and Maury rather than inventing a brand new one, and developed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stellar_classification#Harvard_system" title="Stellar classification">Harvard Classification Scheme</a>, which is the basis of the today's familiar O-B-A-F-G-K-M system. She also categorized the variable stars into tables so they could be identified and compared more easily.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> These systems connect the color of stars to their temperature.
</p><p>Annie Jump Cannon is one of the more famous of the group, as the first female scientist to be recognized for many awards and titles in her field of study. She was the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Draper_Medal" title="Henry Draper Medal">Henry Draper Medal</a> from the National Academy of Sciences, and the first female officer in the American Astronomical Society. Cannon went on to establish her own Annie Jump Cannon Award for women in postdoctoral work.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Henrietta_Leavitt">Henrietta Leavitt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Henrietta Leavitt">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a> arrived at the observatory in 1893. She had experience through her college studies, traveling abroad, and teaching. In academia, Leavitt excelled in mathematics courses at Cambridge.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> When she began working at the observatory she was tasked with measuring star brightness through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)#Applications" title="Photometry (astronomy)">photometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> She found hundreds of new variable stars after starting to analyze the Great Nebula in Orion and her work was expanded to study the variables of the entire sky with Annie Jump Cannon and Evelyn Leland.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a></sup> With skills gained in photometry, Leavitt compared stars in different exposures. Studying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variables</a>, in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Small Magellanic Cloud">Small Magellanic Cloud</a>, she discovered that their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apparent_brightness" class="mw-redirect" title="Apparent brightness">apparent brightness</a> was dependent on their period. This discovery led to the use of Cepheid variables as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_candle" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard candle">standard candle</a> for determining cosmic distances.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> That, in turn, led directly to the modern understanding of the true size of the universe, and Cepheid variables are still an essential rung in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">cosmic distance ladder</a>.
</p><p>Sadly, Leavitt does not receive as much credit as she deserves. Pickering published her work with his name as co-author. The legacy she left allowed future scientists to make further discoveries in space. Astronomer Edwin Hubble used Leavitt's method to calculate the distance of the nearest galaxy to the earth, the Andromeda Galaxy. This led to the realization that there are even more galaxies than previously thought.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Florence_Cushman">Florence Cushman</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Florence Cushman">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Florence_Cushman" title="Florence Cushman">Florence Cushman</a> (1860-1940) was an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> astronomer at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory" title="Harvard College Observatory">Harvard College Observatory</a> who worked on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Draper_catalogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Draper catalogue"><i>Henry Draper Catalogue</i></a>.
</p><p>Florence was born in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a> in 1860 and received her early education at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charlestown_High_School" title="Charlestown High School">Charlestown High School</a>, where she graduated in 1877. In 1888, she began work at the Harvard College Observatory as an employee of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering" title="Edward Charles Pickering">Edward Pickering</a>. Her classifications of stellar spectra contributed to <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Draper_Catalogue" title="Henry Draper Catalogue">Henry Draper Catalogue</a></i> between 1918 and 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> She stayed as an astronomer at the Observatory until 1937 and died in 1940 at the age of 80.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Florence Cushman worked at the Harvard College Observatory from 1918 to 1937. Over the course of her nearly fifty-year career, she employed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Objective_prism" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective prism">objective prism</a> method to analyze, classify, and catalog the optical spectra of hundreds of thousands of stars. In the 19th century, the photographic revolution enabled more detailed analysis of the night sky than had been possible with solely eye-based observations. In order to obtain optical spectra for measurement, male astronomers at the Harvard College Observatory expose glass plates on which the astronomical images were captured at night. During the daytime, female assistants like Florence analyzed the resultant spectra by reducing values, computing magnitudes, and cataloging their findings.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10">[10]</a></sup> She is credited with determining the positions and magnitudes of the stars listed in the 1918 edition of the <i>Henry Draper Catalogue</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> which featured the spectra of roughly 222,000 stars.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin" title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evelyn_Leland" title="Evelyn Leland">Evelyn Leland</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>:1</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-smithsonianmag.com_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>smithsonianmag.com</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Hoffleit, E. Dorrit (2002-12-01). "Pioneering Women in the Spectral Classification of Stars". <i>Physics in Perspective</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 370–398. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PhP.....4..370H">2002PhP.....4..370H</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs000160200001">10.1007/s000160200001</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/1422-6944">1422-6944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+in+Perspective&rft.atitle=Pioneering+Women+in+the+Spectral+Classification+of+Stars&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=370-398&rft.date=2002-12-01&rft.issn=1422-6944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs000160200001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PhP.....4..370H&rft.aulast=Hoffleit&rft.aufirst=E.+Dorrit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:02-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Nelson, Sue (2008-09-03). "The Harvard computers". <i>Nature</i>. <b>455</b> (7209): 36–37. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.455...36N">2008Natur.455...36N</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//doi.org/10.1038%2F455036a">10.1038/455036a</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18769425">18769425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Harvard+computers&rft.volume=455&rft.issue=7209&rft.pages=36-37&rft.date=2008-09-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18769425&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F455036a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.455...36N&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sobel, Dava (2016). <i>The Glass Universe</i>. Viking. p. 9. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780698148697" title="Special:BookSources/9780698148697"><bdi>9780698148697</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Glass+Universe&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780698148697&rft.aulast=Sobel&rft.aufirst=Dava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Grier, David Alan (2008). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whencomputerswer00davi"><i>When Computers Were Human</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. p. 82. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400849369" title="Special:BookSources/9781400849369"><bdi>9781400849369</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Computers+Were+Human&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781400849369&rft.aulast=Grier&rft.aufirst=David+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhencomputerswer00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Leavitt, Henrietta S.; Pickering, Edward C. (1912). "Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud". <i>Harvard College Observatory Circular</i>. <b>173</b>: 1–3. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1912HarCi.173....1L">1912HarCi.173....1L</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+College+Observatory+Circular&rft.atitle=Periods+of+25+Variable+Stars+in+the+Small+Magellanic+Cloud&rft.volume=173&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1912HarCi.173....1L&rft.aulast=Leavitt&rft.aufirst=Henrietta+S.&rft.au=Pickering%2C+Edward+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Spradley, Joseph (1990). "Women in the Stars". <i>American Association of Physics Teachers</i>. <b>28</b> (6): 372–377. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2343078">10.1119/1.2343078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Association+of+Physics+Teachers&rft.atitle=Women+in+the+Stars&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=372-377&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2343078&rft.aulast=Spradley&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). "Cushman, Florence". <i>Women in science : antiquity through the nineteenth century : a biographical dictionary with annotated bibliography</i> (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 181. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262650380" title="Special:BookSources/9780262650380"><bdi>9780262650380</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cushman%2C+Florence&rft.btitle=Women+in+science+%3A+antiquity+through+the+nineteenth+century+%3A+a+biographical+dictionary+with+annotated+bibliography&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=181&rft.edition=Reprinted&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780262650380&rft.aulast=Ogilvie&rft.aufirst=Marilyn+Bailey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:03-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:03_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://altbibl.io/gazette/computersatwork/">"Computers at Work: Astronomical labor at the HCO at the turn of the century"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computers+at+Work%3A+Astronomical+labor+at+the+HCO+at+the+turn+of+the+century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faltbibl.io%2Fgazette%2Fcomputersatwork%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarvard+Computers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cannon, Annie J.; Pickering, Edward C. (1918) "The Henry Draper Catalogue". <i>Annals of Harvard College Observatory</i>.; hours 0 to 3, <b>91</b> (1918), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1918AnHar..91....1C; hours 4 to 6, <b>92</b> (1918), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1918AnHar..92....1C; hours 7 to 8, <b>93</b> (1919), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1919AnHar..93....1C; hours 9 to 11, <b>94</b> (1919), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1919AnHar..94....1C; hours 12 to 14, <b>95</b> (1920), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1920AnHar..95....1C; hours 15 to 16, <b>96</b> (1921), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1921AnHar..96....1C; hours 17 to 18, <b>97</b> (1922), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1922AnHar..97....1C; hours 19 to 20, <b>98</b> (1923), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1923AnHar..98....1C; hours 21 to 23, <b>99</b> (1924), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: 1924AnHar..99....1C.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harvard_Computers&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~jshaw/pick.html">Pickering's Harem</a></li></ul>
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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1574853183 |