Examine individual changes

[ 0 => '{{short description|Genus of birds}}', 1 => '{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2019}}', 2 => '{{other uses}}', 3 => '{{Automatic taxobox ', 4 => '| name = Cassowary', 5 => '| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|5|0}}<small>Early [[Pliocene]] – Recent</small>', 6 => '| image = Southern Cassowary 7071.jpg', 7 => '| image_caption = [[Southern cassowary]]', 8 => '| parent_authority = [[Johann Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1847<ref>{{cite book |title= Official Lists and Indexes of Names and Works in Zoology |editor1=Melville, R. V. |editor2=Smith, J. D. D. |year=1987 |publisher=ICZN |url= https://archive.org/stream/officiallistsind00inte#page/16/mode/1up |page=17 }}</ref>', 9 => '| taxon = Casuarius', 10 => '| authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], 1760', 11 => '| type_species=''Casuarius casuarius''', 12 => '| type_species_authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758', 13 => '| diversity_link = #Taxonomy, systematics and evolution', 14 => '| diversity = ', 15 => '| subdivision_ranks = Species', 16 => '| subdivision = ', 17 => '''[[Casuarius casuarius]]''<br /><small>Southern cassowary</small><br />', 18 => '''[[Casuarius unappendiculatus]]''<br /><small>Northern cassowary</small><br />', 19 => '''[[Casuarius bennetti]]''<br /><small>Dwarf cassowary</small><br />', 20 => '†''[[Casuarius lydekkeri]]''<br /><small>Pygmy cassowary</small>', 21 => '| synonyms = ', 22 => '* ''Casoarius'' <small>Bont.</small>', 23 => '* ''Cela'' <small>Oken 1816</small>', 24 => '* ''Cela'' <small>Moehr 1752 nomen rejectum</small>', 25 => '* ''Rhea'' <small>[[Bernard Germain de Lacépède|Lacépède]] 1800 non Latham 1790</small> ', 26 => '* ''Chelarga'' <small>Billberg 1828</small>', 27 => '* ''Oxyporus'' <small>Brookes 1828</small>', 28 => '* ''Thrasys'' <small>Billberg 1828</small>', 29 => '* ''Cassowara'' <small>Perry 1811</small>', 30 => '* ''Hippalectryo'' <small>Gloger 1842</small><ref>{{cite web |title = Part 7- Vertebrates |date = 2007 |publisher = Collection of group names |url = http://mave.tweakdsl.nl/tn/genera7.html |accessdate = 2016-05-04 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161005114629/http://mave.tweakdsl.nl/tn/genera7.html |archive-date = 2016-10-05 |url-status = dead }}</ref>', 31 => '}}', 32 => '', 33 => ''''Cassowaries '''({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|s|ə|w|ɛər|i|}}), genus '''''Casuarius''''', are [[ratite]]s ([[flightless bird]]s without a [[keel (bird anatomy)|keel]] on their [[sternum]] bone) that are native to the [[tropical forest]]s of [[New Guinea]] (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia), [[East Nusa Tenggara]], the [[Maluku Islands]], and northeastern [[Australia]].<ref name="Clements, J (2007)">Clements, J. (2007)</ref>', 34 => '', 35 => 'There are three [[Extant taxon|extant]] species. The most common of these, the [[southern cassowary]], is the third-tallest and second-heaviest living bird, smaller only than the [[Common ostrich|ostrich]] and [[emu]].', 36 => '', 37 => 'Cassowaries [[Frugivore|feed mainly on fruit]], although all species are truly [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] and will take a range of other plant food, including shoots and grass seeds, in addition to [[fungi]], [[invertebrate]]s, and small [[vertebrate]]s. Cassowaries are very wary of humans, but if provoked they are capable of inflicting serious injuries, including fatal, to both dogs and people. It has often been labeled "the world's most dangerous bird".<ref name="HuffPost 04-2019">{{cite news |last=Mosbergen |first=Dominique |title=‘World’s Most Dangerous Bird’ Kills 75-Year-Old Owner In Florida |work=[[HuffPost]] |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/cassowary-florida-worlds-dangerous-bird-attack_n_5cb30bdfe4b082aab086ecc5 |date=2019-04-14 |access-date=2019-04-15}}</ref>', 38 => '', 39 => '== Taxonomy, systematics, and evolution ==', 40 => 'The [[genus]] ''Casuarius'' was erected by the French scientist [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] in his ''Ornithologie'' published in 1760.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Brisson | first=Mathurin Jacques | author-link=Mathurin Jacques Brisson | year=1760 | title=Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés | volume=Volume 1 | language=French, Latin | at=[https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36010444 Vol. 1, p. 46], [https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36294276 Vol. 5: p. 10, Plate 1 fig 2] | place=Paris | publisher=Jean-Baptiste Bauche }}</ref> The [[type species]] is the [[southern cassowary]] (''Casuarius casuarius'').<ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World | volume=Volume 1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=7 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108628 }}</ref> The Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] had introduced the genus ''Casuarius'' in the sixth edition of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' published in 1748,<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1748 | title= Systema Naturae sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque aeneis illustrata | edition=6th | publisher=Godofr, Kiesewetteri | place=Stockholmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | pages=16, 27 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/25749139 }}</ref> but Linnaeus dropped the genus in the important [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of 1758 and put the southern cassowary together with the [[common ostrich]] and the [[greater rhea]] in the genus ''[[Struthio]]''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=Volume 1 | edition=10th | page=155 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | place=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url= https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727062 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Allen | first=J.A. | author-link=Joel Asaph Allen | year=1910 | title=Collation of Brisson's genera of birds with those of Linnaeus |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=28 | pages=317–335 | url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/handle/2246/678 |hdl= 2246/678 }}</ref> As the publication date of Linnaeus's sixth edition was before the 1758 starting point of the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]], Brisson, and not Linnaeus, is considered as the authority for the genus.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=Article 3 | year=1999 |title=International Code of Zoological Nomenclature | edition=4th | isbn=978-0-85301-006-7 | place=London | publisher=International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/index.jsp?article=3&nfv=true }}</ref>', 41 => '', 42 => 'Cassowaries (from [[Malay language|Malay]] ''kasuari'')<ref>{{cite OED | cassowary}}</ref> are part of the [[ratite]] group, which also includes the [[emu]], [[rhea (bird)|rheas]], [[Common ostrich|ostriches]], and [[kiwi]], as well as the extinct [[moa]]s and [[elephant bird]]s. Three [[Extant taxon|extant]] species are recognised, and one [[extinct]]:', 43 => '{| class="wikitable"', 44 => '|-', 45 => '! Image !! Scientific name !! Common Name!! Distribution', 46 => '|-', 47 => '|[[File:Casuarius casuarius Schönbrunn2008a.jpg|120px]] || ''Casuarius casuarius'' || [[Southern cassowary]] or double-wattled cassowary || southern [[New Guinea]], northeastern [[Australia]], and the [[Aru Islands Regency|Aru Islands]], mainly in lowlands<ref name="Clements, J (2007)" />', 48 => '|-', 49 => '|[[File:Casuarius bennetti -Avilon Zoo, Rodriguez, Rizal, Philippines-8a.jpg|120px]] || ''Casuarius bennetti'' || [[Dwarf cassowary]] or Bennett's cassowary || [[New Guinea]], [[New Britain]], and [[Yapen Island|Yapen]], mainly in highlands<ref name="Clements, J (2007)" />', 50 => '|-', 51 => '|[[File:Casuarius unappendiculatus -Northern Cassowary -oblique front.jpg|120px]] || ''Casuarius unappendiculatus'' || [[Northern cassowary]] or single-wattled cassowary || Northern and western [[New Guinea]], and [[Yapen Island|Yapen]], mainly in lowlands<ref name="Clements, J (2007)" /><ref name= Davies>Davies, S. J. J. F. (2002)</ref>', 52 => '|-', 53 => '|| (Extinct)[[extinct|†]] ||''Casuarius lydekkeri'' || [[Casuarius lydekkeri|Pygmy cassowary]] or small cassowary || [[Pleistocene]] fossils of New South Wales<ref>{{cite journal| last = Miller | first = Alden H.|title =The history and significance of the fossil Casuarius lydekkeri| date= June 19, 1962 | publisher = The Australian Museum| url = https://media.australianmuseum.net.au/media/Uploads/Journals/17417/662_complete.pdf |page= 235-238 |volume= 25 |issue= 10 |doi= 10.3853/j.0067-1975.25.1962.662| accessdate = March 20, 2017}}</ref> and Papua New Guinea<ref name="Rich et al 1988">{{cite journal |last=Rich |first=P. V. |last2=Plane |first2=Michael |last3=Schroeder |first3=Natalie |title=A pygmy cassowary (Casuarius lydekkeri) from late Pleistocene bog deposits at Pureni, Papua New Guinea |journal=Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics |date= 1988 |volume= 10 |page= 377-389 |url=https://d28rz98at9flks.cloudfront.net/81234/Jou1988_v10_n4_p377.pdf}}</ref>', 54 => '|}', 55 => '', 56 => 'Most authorities consider the taxonomic classification above to be [[monotypic]], however, several [[subspecies]] of each have been described,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perron.eu/Publications/All%20cassowaries.html|title=The Taxonomy of the Genus Cassowarius|website=perron.eu|accessdate=July 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305031102/http://www.perron.eu/Publications/All%20cassowaries.html|archive-date=2016-03-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> and some of them have even been suggested as separate species, e.g., ''C. (b) papuanus''.<ref name= Davies /> The taxonomic name ''C. (b) papuanus'' also may be in need of revision to ''Casuarius (bennetti) westermanni''.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The taxonomic status of Casuarius bennetti papuanus and C. b. westermanni | author = Richard M. Perron | journal = Bull. B.O.C. | date = 2011 | volume = 131 | issue = 1 | url = http://www.perron.eu/Publications/Bennetti.pdf |page= 54-58 | access-date = 2015-11-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151122080324/http://www.perron.eu/Publications/Bennetti.pdf | archive-date = 2015-11-22 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Validation of these subspecies has proven difficult due to individual variations, age-related variations, the scarcity of [[Biological specimen|specimens]], the stability of specimens (the bright skin of the head and neck—the basis of describing several subspecies—fades in specimens), and the practice of trading live cassowaries for thousands of years, some of which are likely to have escaped or deliberately [[Introduced species|introduced]] to regions away from their origin.<ref name= Davies />', 57 => '', 58 => '[[File:CassowarySkullLyd4.png|right|thumb|Illustration of the skull]]', 59 => 'The evolutionary history of cassowaries, as of all ratites, is not well known. A fossil species was reported from Australia, but for reasons of [[biogeography]] this assignment is not certain and it might belong to the prehistoric ''[[Emuarius]]'', which were cassowary-like primitive emus.', 60 => '', 61 => 'All [[ratite]]s are believed to have originally come from the super-continent [[Gondwana]], which separated around 180 million years ago. Studies show that ratites continued to evolve after this separation into their modern counterparts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jungletours.com.au/is-a-cassowary-a-dinosaur/|title=Is A Cassowary A Dinosaur?|website=Jungle Tours & Trekking}}</ref><!-- Auk80:584 -->', 62 => '', 63 => '== Description ==', 64 => 'Typically, all cassowaries are shy birds that are found in the deep forest. They are adept at disappearing long before a human knows they were there. The southern cassowary of the far north [[Queensland]] [[rain forest]]s is not well studied, and the northern and dwarf cassowaries even less so.', 65 => '', 66 => 'Females are larger and more brightly coloured than the males. Adult southern cassowaries are {{cvt|1.5|to(-)|1.8|m|ft|0}} tall, although some females may reach {{cvt|2|m|ft}},<ref name="buzzle.com">buzzle.com</ref> and weigh {{cvt|58.5|kg|lb|-1}}.<ref name="Davies" />', 67 => '', 68 => 'All cassowaries have feathers that consist of a shaft and loose barbules. They do not have [[rectrices]] (tail feathers) or a [[Uropygial gland|preen gland]]. Cassowaries have small wings with 5–6 large [[remex|remiges]]. These are reduced to stiff, [[keratin]]ous quills, resembling porcupine quills, with no barbs.<ref name="Davies" /> A claw exists on each second digit of the feet.<ref name="HarmerandShipley1899" /> The [[furcula]] and [[coracoid]] are degenerate, and their [[palatal]] bones and [[Sphenoid bone|sphenoid]] bones touch each other.<ref name="davies">Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)</ref> These, along with their wedge-shaped body, are thought to be adaptations to ward off vines, thorns, and saw-edged leaves, allowing them to run quickly through the rainforest.<ref name="Gilliard 1958, p. 23">Gilliard (1958), p. 23.</ref>', 69 => '', 70 => '[[File:Jurong Southern Cassowary.jpg|thumb|Cassowaries use their feet as weapons]]', 71 => 'Cassowaries have three-[[toe]]d feet with sharp [[claw]]s. The second toe, the inner one in the [[Human Anatomical Terms#Anatomical directions|medial]] position, sports a [[dagger]]-like claw that may be {{cvt|125|mm|in|0}} long.<ref name=Davies2002>Davies, S. J. J. F. (2002) "Ratites and Tinamous" Oxford University Press. New York, USA</ref> This claw is particularly fearsome since cassowaries [[#Attacks|sometimes kick humans and other animals]] with their powerful legs. Cassowaries can run at up to {{cvt|50|km/h|mph|-1}} through the dense forest and can jump up to {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|0}}. They are good swimmers, crossing wide rivers and swimming in the sea.<ref name=HarmerandShipley1899>Harmer, S. F. & Shipley, A. E. (1899)</ref>', 72 => '', 73 => '[[File:Cassowary head frontal.jpg|thumb|Close-up of the head of a southern cassowary]]', 74 => 'All three species have a keratinous skin-covered {{birdgloss|casque}} on their heads that grows with age. The casque's shape and size, up to {{cvt|18|cm|in|0}}, is species-dependent. ''Casuarius casuarius'' has the largest and ''Casuarius bennetti'' the smallest (tricorn shape), with ''Casuarius unappendiculatus'' having variations in between. Contrary to earlier findings,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Crome, F. |author2=Moore, L | date = 1988 | title = The cassowary's casque | journal = Emu | volume = 88 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–124 | doi = 10.1071/MU9880123}}</ref> the hollow inside of the casque is spanned with fine fibres that are believed to have an acoustic function.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/08912963.2014.985669 |author1=Naish, D. |author2=Perron, R. |title=Structure and function of the cassowary's casque and its implications for cassowary history, biology and evolution}}</ref> Several functions for the casque have been proposed. One is that they are a [[secondary sexual characteristic]]. Other suggested functions include being used to batter through underbrush, as a weapon in dominance disputes, or for pushing aside leaf litter during foraging. The latter three are disputed by biologist Andrew Mack, whose personal observation suggests that the casque amplifies deep sounds.<ref name="Mack, A.L. & Jones, J. (2003)">Mack, A. L. & Jones, J. (2003)</ref> ', 75 => '', 76 => 'Earlier research indicates the birds lower their heads when running "full tilt through the vegetation, brushing saplings aside and occasionally careening into small trees. The casque would help protect the skull from such collisions". Cassowaries eat fallen fruit and consequently spend much time under trees where seeds the size of golfballs or larger fall from heights of up to {{cvt|30|m|ft|-1}}; the wedge-shaped casque may protect the head by deflecting falling fruit.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} ', 77 => '', 78 => 'It also has been speculated that the casques play a role in either sound reception or acoustic communication. This is related to a discovery that at least the dwarf cassowary and southern cassowary produce very-low frequency sounds, which may aid in communication in dense rainforest.<ref name="Mack, A.L. & Jones, J. (2003)" /> The "boom" vocalisation that cassowaries produce is the lowest-frequency bird call known and is at the lower limit of human hearing.<ref>Owen, J. (2003)</ref> A cooling function for the very similar casques of guineafowl has been proposed.', 79 => '', 80 => 'The average lifespan of wild cassowaries is believed to be about 40 to 50 years.<ref name="animals.jrank.org">{{cite web|url=http://animals.jrank.org/pages/363/Cassowaries-Casuaridae-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html|title=Cassowaries: Casuaridae – Behavior And Reproduction|work=jrank.org}}</ref>', 81 => '', 82 => '== Distribution and habitat ==', 83 => 'Cassowaries are native to the humid [[rainforests]] of New Guinea and nearby smaller islands, and to northeastern Australia.<ref name="Clements, J (2007)" /> They will, however, venture out into palm scrub, [[grassland]], [[savanna]], and swamp forest.<ref name="davies" /> It is unclear whether some island populations are natural or the result of human trade in young birds.', 84 => '', 85 => '== Behaviour and ecology ==', 86 => 'Cassowaries are solitary birds except during courtship, egg-laying, and sometimes around ample food supplies.<ref name="davies" /> The male cassowary defends a territory of about {{convert|7|km2|acres|abbr=on}} for himself and his mate. Female cassowary have larger territories, overlapping those of several males.<ref name="animals.jrank.org" /> While females move among satellite territories of different males, they appear to remain within the same territories for most of their lives, mating with the same, or closely related, males over the course of their life spans.', 87 => '', 88 => 'Courtship and pair bonding rituals begin with the vibratory sounds broadcast by females. Males approach and run with necks parallel to the ground while making dramatic movements of the head, which accentuate the frontal neck region. The female approaches drumming slowly. The male will crouch upon the ground and the female will either step on the male's back for a moment before crouching beside him in preparation for copulation, or she may attack. This is often the case with the females pursuing the males in ritualistic chasing behaviours that generally terminate in water. The male cassowary dives into water and submerges himself up to his upper neck and head. The female pursues him into the water where he eventually drives her to the shallows where she crouches making ritualistic motions of her head. The two may remain in copulation for extended periods of time. In some cases another male may approach and run off the first male. He will climb onto her to copulate as well.', 89 => '', 90 => 'Males are far more tolerant of one another than females, which do not tolerate the presence of other females.{{cn|date=March 2019}}', 91 => '', 92 => '=== Reproduction ===', 93 => '[[File:Casuarius casuarius -Brevard Zoo-8a.jpg|right|thumb|Southern cassowary]]', 94 => 'The cassowary breeding season starts in May to June. Females lay three to eight large, bright green or pale green-blue [[Bird egg|eggs]] in each clutch into a heap of leaf litter prepared by the male.<ref name="davies" /> The eggs measure about {{convert|9|by|14|cm|in|abbr=on}} – only ostrich and emu eggs are larger. ', 95 => '', 96 => 'The male [[Avian incubation|incubates]] those eggs for 50–52 days, removing or adding litter to regulate the temperature, then protects the chicks, who stay in the nest for about nine months. He defends them fiercely against all potential predators, including humans. The young males later go off to find a territory of their own.<ref name="davies" /><ref name="animals.jrank.org" /> ', 97 => '', 98 => 'The female does not care for the eggs or the chicks, but rather moves on within her territory to lay eggs in the nests of several other males.', 99 => '', 100 => '{{quote|Young cassowaries are brown and have buffy stripes. They are often kept as pets in native villages [in New Guinea], where they are permitted to roam like barnyard fowl. Often they are kept until they become nearly grown and someone gets hurt. Mature cassowaries are placed beside native houses in cribs hardly larger than the birds themselves. Garbage and other vegetable food is fed to them, and they live for years in such enclosures; in some areas their plumage is still as valuable as [[shell money]] . Caged birds are regularly bereft of their fresh plumes.<ref name="Gilliard 1958, p. 23" />', 101 => '}}', 102 => '', 103 => '=== Diet ===', 104 => 'Cassowaries are predominantly [[frugivorous]], but [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] opportunistically when small prey is available. Besides fruits, their diet includes flowers, [[fungi]], snails, insects, frogs, birds, fish, rats, mice, and [[carrion]]. Fruit from at least 26 plant families has been documented in the diet of cassowaries. Fruits from the [[laurus nobilis|laurel]], [[podocarp]], palm, wild grape, [[nightshade]], and myrtle families are important items in the diet.<ref name="davies" /> The [[cassowary plum]] takes its name from the bird.', 105 => '', 106 => 'Where trees are dropping fruit, cassowaries will come in and feed, with each bird defending a tree from others for a few days. They move on when the fruit is depleted. Fruit, even items as large as [[banana]]s and apples, is swallowed whole.', 107 => '', 108 => 'Cassowaries are a [[keystone species]] of rain forests because they eat fallen fruit whole and distribute seeds across the jungle floor via excrement.<ref name="davies" />', 109 => '', 110 => 'As for eating the cassowary, it is supposed to be quite tough. Australian administrative officers stationed in New Guinea were advised that it "should be cooked with a stone in the pot: when the stone is ready to eat so is the Cassowary".<ref>Vader, John, ''New Guinea: The Tide is Stemmed.'' NY, Ballantine Books: 1971, p. 35.</ref>', 111 => '', 112 => '=== Role in seed dispersal and germination ===', 113 => 'Cassowaries feed on the fruit of several hundred rainforest species and usually pass viable seeds in large, dense [[Feces|scats]]. They are known to disperse seeds over distances greater than a kilometre, and thus play an important role in the ecosystem. Germination rates for seeds of the rare Australian rainforest tree ''[[Ryparosa]]'' were found to be much higher after passing through a cassowary's gut (92% versus 4%).<ref>Weber, B. L. & Woodrow, I. E.</ref>', 114 => '', 115 => '== Status and conservation ==', 116 => '[[File:Road sign -Cairns, Queensland, Australia-26Oct2007.jpg|right|thumb|A road sign in [[Cairns]], [[Queensland]], Australia]]', 117 => 'The southern cassowary is endangered in Queensland. Kofron and Chapman (2006) assessed the decline of this species. They found that, of the former cassowary habitat, only 20–25% remains. They stated that habitat loss and fragmentation is the primary cause of decline.<ref name=Kofron&Chapman2006>Kofron, C. P. & Chapman, A. (2006)</ref> They then studied 140 cases of cassowary mortality and found that motor vehicle strikes accounted for 55% of the deaths, and dog attacks produced another 18%. Remaining causes of death included hunting (5 cases), entanglement in wire (1 case), the removal of cassowaries that attacked humans (4 cases), and natural causes (18 cases), including tuberculosis (4 cases). The cause for 14 cases were indicated as, for unknown reasons.<ref name="Kofron&Chapman2006" />', 118 => '', 119 => 'Hand feeding of cassowaries poses a significant threat to their survival because it lures them into suburban areas. There, the birds are more susceptible to encounters with vehicles and dogs.<ref>Borrell 2008.</ref> Contact with humans encourages cassowaries to take food from picnic tables. [[Feral pig]]s also are a significant threat to their survival. They destroy nests and eggs of cassowaries, but their worst effect is as competitors for food, which may be catastrophic for the cassowaries during lean times.', 120 => '', 121 => 'In February 2011 [[Cyclone Yasi]] destroyed a large area of cassowary habitat, endangering 200 of the birds – approximately 10% of the total Australian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/cyclone-puts-cassowary-in-greater-peril-2226790.html|title=Cyclone puts cassowary in greater peril|work=The Independent}}</ref>', 122 => '', 123 => 'The Mission Beach community in far north Queensland holds an annual Cassowary Festival in September where funds are raised to map the Mission Beach Cassowary Corridor.', 124 => '', 125 => '== In captivity ==', 126 => 'The cassowary has solitary habits and breeds less frequently in zoos than other [[ratite]]s such as [[ostrich]] and [[emu]]. Unlike other ratites, it lives exclusively in tropical rainforest, and it is important to recreate this habitat carefully. Unlike the emu, which will live with other [[sympatric]] species, such as kangaroos, in "mixed Australian fauna" displays, the cassowary does not cohabit well among its own kind. Individual specimens must even be kept in separate enclosures, due to their solitary and aggressive nature. Territoriality is one of their most important characteristics.', 127 => '', 128 => 'The double-wattled cassowary (''Casuarius casuarius'') is the most popular species in captivity and it is fairly common in European and American zoos, where it is known for its unmistakable appearance. {{As of|2019}} only [[Weltvogelpark Walsrode]] in Germany has all three species of cassowary in its collection: single-wattled cassowary (''Casuarius unappendiculatus'') and Bennett's cassowary (''Casuarius bennetti''), both of which are endemic to the tropical rainforest of [[New Guinea]], and the dwarf cassowary, the smallest species. If subspecies are recognised, Weltvogelpark Walsrode has ''Casuarius bennettii westermanni'' and ''Casuarius unappendiculatus rufotinctus''.', 129 => '', 130 => '== Relationship with humans ==', 131 => '[[File:UvA-BC 300.273 - Siboga - de "scheepsvogel" Piet, een kasuaris, op het erf van de pasanggrahan op Saleyer.jpg|thumbnail|Cassowary held as pet during the [[Siboga Expedition]] on Indonesia and New Guinea, 1899–1900]]', 132 => '', 133 => 'Some New Guinea Highlands societies capture cassowary chicks and raise them as semi-tame poultry, for use in ceremonial gift exchanges and as food.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bulmer |first=Ralph |date=March 1967 |title=Why is the Cassowary Not a Bird? A Problem of Zoological Taxonomy Among the Karam of the New Guinea Highlands |journal=Man |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=5–25 |jstor=2798651 |doi= 10.2307/2798651 }}</ref> They are the only indigenous Australasian animal known to have been partly domesticated by people prior to European arrival.<ref> Bourke, R. Michael: History of agriculture in Papua New Guinea in Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, ANU Press, 2009</ref>', 134 => '', 135 => '=== Attacks ===', 136 => 'Cassowaries have a reputation for being dangerous to people and domestic animals. During [[World War&nbsp;II]] American and Australian troops stationed in New Guinea were warned to steer clear of them. In his 1958 book, ''Living Birds of the World'', ornithologist [[Ernest Thomas Gilliard]] wrote:', 137 => '', 138 => '<blockquote>The inner or second of the three toes is fitted with a long, straight, murderous nail which can sever an arm or eviscerate an abdomen with ease. There are many records of natives being killed by this bird.<ref name=Gilliard1958>Gilliard, Thomas E. (1958) ''Living Birds of the World'' Doubleday{{page needed|date=January 2015}}</ref></blockquote>', 139 => '', 140 => 'This assessment of the danger posed by cassowaries has been repeated in print by authors including Gregory S. Paul (1988)<ref name=Paul88>Paul, G. S. (1988)</ref> and [[Jared Diamond]] (1997).<ref name="Diamond1997GGS">Diamond, J. (1997)</ref> A 2003 historical study of 221 cassowary attacks showed that 150 had been against humans: 75% of these had been from cassowaries that had been fed by people, 71% of the time the bird had chased or charged the victim, 15% of the time they kicked. Of the attacks, 73% involved the birds expecting or snatching food, 5% involved defending their natural food sources, 15% involved defending themselves from attack, and 7% involved defending their chicks or eggs. Only one human death was reported among those 150 attacks.<ref name=Kofron1999>Kofron, C. P. (1999)</ref>', 141 => '', 142 => 'The first documented human death caused by a cassowary was on April 6, 1926. In Australia, 16-year-old Phillip McClean and his brother, age 13, came across a cassowary on their property and decided to try and kill it by striking it with clubs. The bird kicked the younger boy, who fell and ran away as his older brother struck the bird. The older McClean then tripped and fell to the ground. While he was on the ground, the cassowary kicked him in the neck, opening a {{cvt|1.25|cm|in|1}} wound that may have severed his [[jugular vein]]. The boy died of his injuries shortly thereafter.<ref name=Kofron2003>Kofron, C. P. (2003)</ref>', 143 => '', 144 => 'Cassowary strikes to the abdomen are among the rarest of all, but there is one case of a dog that was kicked in the belly in 1995. The blow left no puncture, but there was severe bruising. The dog later died from an apparent intestinal rupture.<ref name="Kofron2003" />', 145 => '', 146 => 'Another human death due to a cassowary was recorded in Florida on April 12, 2019. The bird's owner, a 75-year-old man who had raised the animal, was apparently clawed to death after he fell to the ground.<ref name="HuffPost 04-2019"/><ref>{{cite web | last = The Associated Press | location = Alachua, Florida, USA | title = Authorities: Large, flightless bird kills its Florida owner | date = April 13, 2019 | publisher = ABCNews |website= abcnews.go.com | url = https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/large-flightless-bird-kills-florida-owner-62382669 | accessdate= 2019-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | location = Alachua, Florida, USA | title = Cassowary kills man at farm near Alachua | date = April 13, 2019 | publisher = The Gainesville Sun|website= gainesville.com | url = https://www.gainesville.com/news/20190413/cassowary-kills-man-at-farm-near-alachua | accessdate= 2019-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/1a319ca7adc54e7bb45481ac57b8bc74|title=Cassowary, called 'most dangerous bird,' attacks and kills Florida man|last=Hackney|first=Deanna|last2=McLaughlin|first2=Eliott C.|date=2019-04-15|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-04-16|last3=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/14/cassowary-worlds-dangerous-bird-kills-owner-florida/|title=Cassowary, world’s 'most dangerous bird', kills owner in Florida|last=Staff|first=Our Foreign|date=2019-04-14|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2019-04-16|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>', 147 => '', 148 => '== See also ==', 149 => '* ''[[Corythoraptor]]''', 150 => '* [[Dromaeosauridae|Raptors]]', 151 => '', 152 => '== References ==', 153 => '=== Citations ===', 154 => '{{Reflist}}', 155 => '', 156 => '=== Cited texts ===', 157 => '{{refbegin|30em}}', 158 => '* {{cite journal | last = Borrell | first = Brendan | title = Invasion of the Cassowaries | journal = Smithsonian magazine | date = October 2008 | url = http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/phenomena-200810.html | archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20121213022722/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/phenomena-200810.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2012-12-13 }}', 159 => '* {{cite web', 160 => ' | last = Brands | first = Sheila', 161 => ' | title = Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification – Genus Casuarius', 162 => ' | date = August 14, 2008 | publisher = The Taxonomicon |website= sn2000.taxonomy.nl', 163 => ' | url = http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Classification/79004.htm | accessdate= 2016-09-21}}', 164 => '* {{cite web', 165 => ' | title = The Cassowary Bird', 166 => ' | publisher = Buzzle.com', 167 => ' | accessdate = 2016-09-20', 168 => ' | url = http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/7-18-2006-102736.asp', 169 => ' | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090315223855/http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/7-18-2006-102736.asp', 170 => ' | archive-date = March 15, 2009', 171 => ' | url-status = dead', 172 => ' }}', 173 => '* {{cite news', 174 => ' | last = Clark | first = Philip | title = Stay in Touch', 175 => ' | newspaper = The Sydney Morning Herald', 176 => ' | date = November 5, 1990}} Cites "authorities" for the death claim.', 177 => '* {{cite book', 178 => ' | last1=Clements |first1=James', 179 => ' | title=The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World', 180 => ' | edition=6 |year=2007 |publisher= Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY', 181 => ' | isbn=978-0-8014-4501-9}}', 182 => '* {{cite journal', 183 => ' | last1 = Crome | first1 = F.', 184 => ' | last2 = Moore | first2 = L. | year = 1988', 185 => ' | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9880123.pdf', 186 => ' | title = The cassowary's casque', 187 => ' | journal = Emu | volume = 88 | pages = 123–124', 188 => ' | doi = 10.1071/MU9880123', 189 => ' | issue = 2}}', 190 => '* {{cite book', 191 => ' | last = Davies | first = S. J. J. F. | year = 2002', 192 => ' | title = Ratites and Tinamous', 193 => ' | publisher = Oxford University Press', 194 => ' | isbn = 0-19-854996-2}}', 195 => '* {{cite encyclopedia', 196 => ' | last=Davies |first=S. J. J. F. |year=2003', 197 => ' | editor-last = Hutchins | editor-first = Michael', 198 => ' | encyclopedia=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |edition=2nd', 199 => ' | publisher=Gale Group |volume=8 |title=Birds I: Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins |location=Farmington Hills, MI', 200 => ' | isbn=0-7876-5784-0 |pages=75–77}}', 201 => '* {{cite book', 202 => ' |last1=Diamond |first1=J.', 203 => ' | title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies | publisher=W.W. Norton & Company', 204 => ' |date=March 1997 | pages = 165', 205 => ' | isbn=0-393-03891-2 }}<!--|accessdate=2008-08-05-->', 206 => '* {{cite book', 207 => ' | last1=Gilliard |first1=E. Thomas', 208 => ' | title=Living Birds of the World | url=https://archive.org/details/livingbirdsofwor00gill | url-access=registration | year= 1958 |origyear=1958', 209 => ' | publisher=Doubleday & Company |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/livingbirdsofwor00gill/page/23 23–24] |chapter=Cassowaries', 210 => ' |isbn=}}', 211 => '* {{cite book', 212 => ' | last1=Gotch |first1=A. F. |year= 1995', 213 => ' | title=Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals |origyear=1979', 214 => ' | publisher=Facts on File|location=New York, NY | pages=178–179 | chapter=Cassowaries', 215 => ' | isbn=0-8160-3377-3}}', 216 => '* {{cite book', 217 => ' | last1=Harmer |first1=S. F.', 218 => ' | last2=Shipley |first2=A. F.', 219 => ' | title=The Cambridge Natural History | year=1899', 220 => ' | publisher=Macmillan and Co | pages=35–36}}', 221 => '* {{cite journal', 222 => ' | last = Kofron | first = Christopher P. | title = Attacks to humans and domestic animals by the southern cassowary (''Casuarius casuarius johnsonii'') in Queensland, Australia', 223 => ' | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 249 | issue = 4 |date=December 1999 | pages = 375–81', 224 => ' | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01206.x}}', 225 => '* {{cite journal', 226 => ' | last = Kofron | first = Christopher P. | year = 2003', 227 => ' | title = Case histories of attacks by the southern cassowary in Queensland', 228 => ' | journal = Memoirs of the Queensland Museum | volume = 49 | issue = 1 | pages = 335–8}}', 229 => '* {{cite journal | last1 = Kofron | first1 = Christopher P. | last2 = Chapman | first2 = Angela | year = 2006 | title = Causes of mortality to the endangered Southern Cassowary ''Casuarius casuariusjohnsonii'' in Queensland, Australia | journal = Pacific Conservation Biology | volume = 12 | pages = 175–9 | url = http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=787702580497775;res=IELNZC | access-date = January 6, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171116065549/http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary | archive-date = November 16, 2017 | url-status = dead }}', 230 => '* {{cite journal', 231 => ' | last1 = Mack | first = A. L.', 232 => ' | last2 = Jones | first2 = J. | year = 2003', 233 => ' | title = Low-frequency vocalizations by cassowaries (Casuarius spp.)', 234 => ' | journal = The Auk | volume = 120 | issue = 4 | pages = 1062–68 | doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[1062:lvbccs]2.0.co;2}}', 235 => '* {{cite journal', 236 => ' | last1 = Naish | first1 = Darren ', 237 => ' | last2 = Perron | first2 = Richard M. | year = 2014', 238 => ' | title = Structure and function of the cassowary’s casque and its implications for cassowary history, biology and evolution', 239 => ' | journal = Historical Biology | doi=10.1080/08912963.2014.985669}}', 240 => '* {{cite web', 241 => ' | last = Owen | first = J. | year = 2003', 242 => ' | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1104_031104_cassowary.html', 243 => ' | title = Does Rain Forest Bird "Boom" Like a Dinosaur?', 244 => ' | publisher = National Geographic News}}', 245 => '* {{cite book', 246 => ' | last = Paul | first = Gregory S. | year = 1988', 247 => ' | title = Predatory Dinosaurs of the World', 248 => ' | url = https://archive.org/details/predatorydinosau00paul | url-access = registration | publisher = Simon and Schuster | location = New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/predatorydinosau00paul/page/364 364], 464}}', 249 => '* {{cite book', 250 => ' | last = Perron | first = Richard M. | year = 2016', 251 => ' | title = Taxonomy of the Genus Casuarius', 252 => ' | publisher = Quantum Conservation', 253 => ' | isbn=978-3-86523-272-4 }}<!--|accessdate=2016-03-01-->', 254 => '* {{cite journal', 255 => ' | last = Perron | first = Richard M. | title = The taxonomic status of Casuarius bennetti papuanus and C. b. westermanni', 256 => ' | journal=Bull. B.O.C.', 257 => ' | year=2011', 258 => ' | volume=131 |issue=1 |pages=54–58', 259 => '}}', 260 => '* {{cite journal', 261 => ' | title=Cassowaries', 262 => ' | author=Sclater, P. L.', 263 => ' | date=October 14, 1875', 264 => ' | bibcode=1875Natur..12..516S', 265 => ' | journal=Nature', 266 => ' | doi=10.1038/012516a0', 267 => ' | issue=311', 268 => ' | volume=12', 269 => ' | pages=516–7}}', 270 => '* {{cite book', 271 => ' | last = Underhill | first = D. | year = 1993', 272 => ' | title = Australia's Dangerous Creatures Reader's Digest', 273 => ' | location = Sydney', 274 => ' | isbn = 0-86438-018-6}}', 275 => '* {{cite journal', 276 => ' | last1 = Weber | first1 = B. L.', 277 => ' | last2 = Woodrow | first2 = I. E.', 278 => ' | title = Cassowary frugivory, seed defleshing and fruit fly infestation influence the transition from seed to seedling in the rare Australian rainforest tree, Ryparosa sp. nov. 1 (Achariaceae)', 279 => ' | journal = Functional Plant Biology | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 505–16', 280 => ' | doi = 10.1071/FP03214', 281 => ' | year = 2004}}', 282 => '', 283 => '{{refend}}', 284 => '', 285 => '=== Uncited text ===', 286 => '* Rothschild, Walter (1899). [https://archive.org/details/monographofgenus00roth ''A Monograph of the Genus Casuarius'']. ''[[Transactions of the Zoological Society of London]]'', vol. 15, pt. 5, December 1900.', 287 => '', 288 => '== External links ==', 289 => '{{Commons category|Casuarius}}', 290 => '{{Wiktionary|cassowary}}', 291 => '* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060503085739/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Casuarius_casuarius/ Images and movies of the southern cassowary ''(Casuarius casuarius)'']—[[ARKive]]', 292 => '* [http://www.cassowaryconservation.asn.au/ C4 Community for Coastal and Cassowary Conservation]—Based in Mission Beach', 293 => '* [http://vimeo.com/4441022 Video: Cassowary with 3 chicks drinking water at Elantra Resort, Mission Beach]', 294 => '* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/cassowaries-casuariidae Cassowary videos, photos and sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection', 295 => '* {{cite Americana|wstitle=Cassowary|author=[[Ernest Ingersoll]] |short=x}}', 296 => '', 297 => '{{Casuariiformes}}', 298 => '{{Taxonbar|from=Q201231}}', 299 => '', 300 => '[[Category:Casuariidae| ]]', 301 => '[[Category:Birds of New Guinea| ]]', 302 => '[[Category:Extant Zanclean first appearances]]', 303 => '[[Category:Flightless birds]]', 304 => '[[Category:Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Australasia-Pacific region]]' ]