Examine individual changes

'{{Otheruses}} [[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|300px|Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico.]] [[Image:ParaguayChaco Clearings for cattle grazing .jpg|thumb|300px|deforestation in the [[Paraguay]] [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]]]] [[Image:Amazonie deforestation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Deforestation and increased road-building in the [[Amazon Rainforest]] are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to [[biodiversity]].]] '''Deforestation''' is the clearance of naturally occurring forests by [[logging]] and burning. Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees or derived [[charcoal]] are used as, or sold, for fuel or as a commodity, while cleared land is used as [[pasture]] for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient [[reforestation]] has resulted in damage to [[habitat]], [[biodiversity]] loss and [[arid]]ity. It has adverse impacts on [[biosequestration]] of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]]. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse [[soil erosion]] and frequently degrade into [[wasteland]]. Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental law are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation is an ongoing issue that is causing [[extinction]], changes to climatic conditions, [[desertification]], and displacement of [[indigenous people]]. Among countries with a per capita [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of at least US$4,600, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/103/46/17574.short Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity], 2006, by Pekka E. Kauppi (Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki), Jesse H. Ausubel (Program for the Human Environment, The Rockefeller University), Jingyun Fang (Department of Ecology, Peking University), Alexander S. Mather (Department of Geography and Environment, University of Aberdeen), Roger A. Sedjo (Resources for the Future), and Paul E. Waggoner (Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station)</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/21/science/earth/21tier.html?_r=2 "Use Energy, Get Rich and Save the Planet"], ''The New York Times'', April 20, 2009</ref> ==Causes of deforestation== There are many root causes of contemporary deforestation, including [[Political corruption|corruption]] of government institutions,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=110193 | title=Corruption blamed for deforestation | first=T.J. | last=Burgonio | publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer | date=January 3, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/74/Uganda.html | title=Uganda: Deforestation, corruption and the false solution of plantations | publisher=World Rainforest Movement | title=WRM Bulletin Number 74 | date=September 2003}}</ref> the [[international inequality|inequitable]] distribution of wealth and power,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/deforest/deforest.html | title=Global Deforestation | work=Global Change Curriculum | publisher=University of Michigan Global Change Program | date=January 4, 2006}}</ref> [[population growth]]<ref name=population1 /> and [[overpopulation]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0816.htm | title=Impact of Population and Poverty on Rainforests | first=Rhett A | last=Butler | work=Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face | accessdate=May 13, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/deforestation.htm | title=The Choice: Doomsday or Arbor Day | author=Jocelyn Stock, Andy Rochen | accessdate=May 13, 2009}}</ref> and [[urbanization]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/0/7/4/8/p107488_index.html | title=Demographics, Democracy, Development, Disparity and Deforestation: A Crossnational Assessment of the Social Causes of Deforestation | last=Ehrhardt-Martinez | last=Karen | work=Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Atlanta Hilton Hotel, Atlanta, GA, Aug 16, 2003 | accessdate=May 13, 2009}}</ref> [[Globalization]] is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=9366 | title=The Double Edge of Globalization | publisher=Yale University Press | date=June 2007 | work=YaleGlobal Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0805.htm | title=Human Threats to Rainforests—Economic Restructuring | first=Rhett A | last=Butler | work=Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face | accessdate=May 13, 2009}}</ref> though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.spa.ucla.edu/cgpr/docs/sdarticle1.pdf | title=Globalization, Forest Resurgence, and Environmental Politics in El Salvador | author=Susanna B. Hecht, Susan Kandel, Ileana Gomes, Nelson Cuellar and Herman Rosa | work=World Development Vol. 34, No. 2 | pages=308–323 | year=2006}}</ref> In 2000 the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."<ref name=population1>{{cite web | url=http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPan0050.htm | title=Population and deforestation | author=Alain Marcoux | date=August 2000 | work=SD Dimensions | publisher=Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref> According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/pub_07_financial_flows.pdf | author=UNFCCC | title=Investment and financial flows to address climate change | work=unfccc.int | publisher=UNFCCC | pages=81 |year=2007}}</ref> The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.<ref name=economicvalue>{{cite web | url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/external/academic/forest-es-2003-en.pdf | last=Pearce | first=David W | title=The Economic Value of Forest Ecosystems | work=Ecosystem Health, Vol. 7, no. 4 | month=December | year=2001 | pages=284–296}}</ref> Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.<ref name=economicvalue /> From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem.<ref name=costarica>{{cite web | url=http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/RPAS/rpv?hm=HInit&afpf=x99-225.pdf&journal=cjfr&volume=30 | author=Erwin H Bulte; Mark Joenje; Hans G P Jansen | title=Is there too much or too little natural forest in the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica? | work=Canadian Journal of Forest Research; 30:3 | year=2000 | pages=495–506}}</ref> Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.<ref name=causesof>{{cite web | url=http://ideas.repec.org/a/oup/wbrobs/v14y1999i1p73-98.html | author=Arild Angelsen, David Kaimowitz | title=Rethinking the causes of deforestation: Lessons from economic models | work=The World Bank Research Observer, 14:1 | publisher=Oxford University Press | pages=73–98 |date=February 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://studentresearch.wcp.muohio.edu/BiogeogDiversityDisturbance/ReflectionsDeforestCrisis.pdf | first=William F. | last=Laurance | title=Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis | work=Biological Conservation, Volume 91, Issues 2-3 | date=December 1999 | pages=109–117}}</ref> Similarly, there is no consensus on whether poverty is important in deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.<ref name=causesof /> Claims that population growth drives deforestation have been disputed;<ref name=causesof /> one study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.freenetwork.org/resources/documents/2-5Deforestationtropical.pdf | author=Helmut J. Geist And Eric F. Lambin | title=Proximate Causes and Underlying Driving Forces of Tropical Deforestation | date=February 2002 | work=BioScience, Vol. 52, No. 2 | pages=143–150}}</ref> Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.mongabay.com/Butler_and_Laurance-TREE.pdf | author=Butler, Rhett A. and Laurance, William F. | title=New strategies for conserving tropical forests | date=August 2008 | work=Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol. 23, No. 9 | pages=469–472}}</ref> Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like [[transmigration]] in countries like [[Indonesia]] and [[colonization]] in [[Latin America]], [[India]], [[Java]] etc. during late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.<ref>Rudel, T.K. 2005 "Tropical Forests: Regional Paths of Destruction and Regeneration in the Late 20th Century" Columbia University Press</ref> ==Environmental problems== ====Atmospheric==== Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping [[climate]] and [[geography]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2004/0603amazondry.html|title=NASA - Top Story - NASA DATA SHOWS DEFORESTATION AFFECTS CLIMATE}}</ref><ref name="newsfromafrica.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsfromafrica.org/newsfromafrica/articles/art_9607.html|title=Massive deforestation threatens food security}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/d/deforestation.htm Deforestation], ScienceDaily</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070511100918.htm Confirmed: Deforestation Plays Critical Climate Change Role], ScienceDaily, May 11, 2007</ref> Deforestation is a contributor to [[global warming]],<ref>[http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000385/index.html Deforestation causes global warming], [[FAO]]</ref><ref name="Fearnidel">Philip M. Fearnside1 and William F. Laurance, ''TROPICAL DEFORESTATION AND GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS'', Ecological Applications, Volume 14, Issue 4 (August 2004) pp. 982–986</ref> and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationchirac.eu/en/deforestation/|title=Fondation Chirac &raquo; Deforestation and desertification}}</ref> According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total [[anthropogenic]] [[carbon dioxide]] emissions.<ref name="IPCC deforestation">http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter7.pdf IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis", Section 7.3.3.1.5 (p. 527)</ref> But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding [[peatland]] emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%.<ref>G.R.van der Werf, D.C.Morton, R.S.DeFries, J.G.J.Olivier, P.S.Kasibhatla, R.B.Jackson, G.J.Collatz and J.T.Randerson, ''CO₂ emissions from forest loss'', Nature Geoscience, Volume 2 (November 2009) pp. 737-738</ref> Trees and other plants remove [[carbon]] (in the form of [[carbon dioxide]]) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] during the process of [[photosynthesis]] and release oxygen back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon over an annual or longer timeframe. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, the wood must be harvested and turned into long-lived products and trees must be re-planted.<ref>I.C. Prentice. "The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" IPCC, http://www.grida.no/CLIMATE/IPCC_TAR/wg1/pdf/TAR-03.PDF</ref> Deforestation may cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests are stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see [[carbon dioxide sink]] and [[carbon cycle]]). Reducing emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".<ref>''Bringing 'REDD' into a new deal for the global climate'', S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, L. Ximena Rubio Alvarado, Analyses, n° 2, 2007, Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations.[http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Analyses/Why-are-we-seeing-REDD]</ref> Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of world's oxygen,<ref name="timesonline.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article664544.ece|title=How can you save the rain forest. October 8, 2006. Frank Field | location=London | work=The Times | date=October 8, 2006 | accessdate=April 1, 2010}}</ref> although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net [[oxygen]] to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and deforestation will have no effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.<ref>Broeker, Wallace S. (2006). "Breathing easy: Et tu, O₂." Columbia University http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-2.1/broecker.htm.</ref><ref>Moran, E.F., "Deforestation and Land Use in the Brazilian Amazon", Human Ecology, Vol 21, No. 1, 1993"</ref> However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO₂, which contributes to global warming.<ref name="Fearnidel" /> Forests are also able to extract [[carbon dioxide]] and [[pollutant]]s from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} ====Hydrological==== The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html|title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report}}</ref> Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that [[Soil erosion|erosion]], flooding and [[landslide]]s ensue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uwec.edu/jolhm/EH2/Rogge/index.htm|title=Deforestation and Landslides in Southwestern Washington}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/413717.stm China's floods: Is deforestation to blame?], BBC News</ref> Forests enhance the recharge of [[aquifer]]s in some locales, however, forests are a major source of aquifer depletion on most locales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797|title=www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html|title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report}}</ref> Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and [[Transpiration|transpire]] precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into [[flash flood]]ing and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased [[evapotranspiration]], which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels down wind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one preliminary study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Trees, and plants in general, affect the [[water cycle]] significantly: * their canopies intercept a proportion of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere ([[Interception (water)|canopy interception]]); * their litter, stems and trunks slow down [[surface runoff]]; * their roots create [[macropore]]s - large conduits - in the soil that increase [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]] of water; * they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce [[Water content|soil moisture]] via [[transpiration]]; * their [[plant litter|litter]] and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water. * their leaves control the [[humidity]] of the atmosphere by [[transpiration|transpiring]]. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.<ref>[http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ageng/irrigate/eb66w.htm "Soil, Water and Plant Characteristics Important to Irrigation".] North Dakota State University.</ref> As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planet's fresh water.<ref name="timesonline.co.uk"/> ====Soil==== [[Image:DEFORASTATION RAIN FOREST RIO DE JANEIRO BRAZIL.JPG|thumb|right|Deforestation for the use of [[clay]] in the [[Brazil]]ian city of [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca, in [[Jacarepaguá]]]] Undisturbed forest has very low rates of [[soil]] loss, approximately 2 metric [[ton]]s per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile). {{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Deforestation generally increases rates of soil [[erosion]], by increasing the amount of [[Surface runoff|runoff]] and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment. China's [[Loess Plateau]] was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow'). Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees. Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying [[bedrock]]. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of [[landslide]]s, which can threaten people living nearby. However most deforestation only affects the trunks of trees, allowing for the roots to stay rooted, negating the landslide. ====Ecological==== Deforestation results in declines in biodiversity.<ref>http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/nilsson.html Do We Have Enough Forests? By Sten Nilsson</ref> The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/deforestation.htm|title=Deforestation}}</ref> Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for [[wildlife]];<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070808132022.htm Rainforest Biodiversity Shows Differing Patterns], ScienceDaily, August 14, 2007</ref> moreover, forests foster [[medicinal plants|medicinal conservation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmbf.de/en/12484.php|title=BMBF: Medicine from the rainforest}}</ref> With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]), deforestation can destroy [[Genetics|genetic]] variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.<ref>[http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Single-largest-biodiversity-survey-says-primary-rainforest-is-irreplaceable-1218-1/ Single-largest biodiversity survey says primary rainforest is irreplaceable], Bio-Medicine, November 14, 2007</ref> Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse [[ecosystem]]s on Earth<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev1.shtml Tropical rainforests - The tropical rainforest], BBC</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/trforest.htm|title=Tropical Rainforest}}</ref> and about 80% of the world's known [[biodiversity]] could be found in tropical rainforests,<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSMAN18800220080620 U.N. calls on Asian nations to end deforestation], Reuters</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm|title=Rainforest Facts}}</ref> removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a [[Soil degradation|degraded]]<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev4.shtml Tropical rainforests - Rainforest water and nutrient cycles], BBC</ref> environment with reduced biodiversity.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0702-gardner.html Primary rainforest richer in species than plantations, secondary forests], July 2, 2007</ref> Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.<ref>Pimm, Stuart L, Russell, Gareth J, Gittleman, John L, Brooks, Thomas M. 1995 "The future of biodiversity" Science 269:5222 347-341</ref> Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as forest are declines species diversity will decline similarly.<ref name="ReferenceA">Timothy Charles and Whitmore, Jeffrey Sayer, 1992 "Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction" International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Commission on Ecology.</ref> However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.<ref name="ReferenceB">Pimm, Stuart L, Russell, Gareth J, Gittleman, John L, Brooks, Thomas M.1995 "The future of biodiversity" Science 269:5222 347-341</ref> It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.<ref name="rain-tree.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm|title=www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref> Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing [[Holocene mass extinction]].<ref>Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, ISBN 0-385-46809-1</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/the-great-rainforest-tragedy-542135.html The great rainforest tragedy], The Independent</ref> The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and [[Flora|plant species]] in [[Southeast Asia]] could be wiped out in the 21st century.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3973 Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia], New Scientist, 23 July 2003</ref> Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> == Economic impact == Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve [[living standard]]s for the world's [[Poverty|poor]] and reduce global [[GDP]] by about 7% by 2050, a major report concluded at the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) meeting in Bonn.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7424535.stm Nature loss 'to hurt global poor'], BBC News, May 29, 2008</ref> Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for [[paper]]. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.<ref>http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf Forest Products</ref> The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or [[over-exploitation]] of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity (hence reduction in [[nature's services]]). [[West Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Southeast Asia]] and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0905.htm|title=Destruction of Renewable Resources}}</ref> The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpowers the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.<ref>[http://www.cgiar.org/Newsroom/releases/news.asp?idnews=663 Deforestation Across the World's Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to a New Study at CGIAR.org], December 4, 2007</ref> According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 [[euro]] (about US$35).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asb.cgiar.org/News/default.asp?a=%7B580BF3A6-9A50-4162-B059-80CF00046F24%7D|title=New ASB Report finds deforestation offers very little money compared to potential financial benefits at ASB.CGIAR.org}}</ref> == Forest Transition Theory == [[Image:forest transition theory.jpg|thumb|{{Information |Description = Forest Transition Theory |Source = http://www.redd-oar.org/links/REDD-OAR_en.pdf, p.16 |Date = 17:05, 28 March 2010 (UTC)2008 |Author = Angelsen |Permission = |other_versions = }}]] The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the [[forest transition]] (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries) [See Mather 1992; Rudel et al. 2005; Chomitz et al. 2006; and Angelsen 2007] Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover - high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD. low forest cover - high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover - low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a “law of nature,” and the pattern is infuenced by national context (e.g., human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to “bridge” the forest transition. FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country’s economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (e.g., higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and yer maw!!!!!!!! (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation. [Rudel et al. 2005] == Historical causes == {{See|Timeline of environmental events}} ===Prehistory=== [[File:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|250px|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.]] Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization.<ref name=FutureEaters>{{Cite book|last=Flannery|first=T|year=1994 |title=The future eaters |publisher=Reed Books |place=Melbourne}}</ref> The first evidence of deforestation appears in the [[Mesolithic period]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119153736/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 |title=Clearances and Clearings: Deforestation in Mesolithic/Neolithic Britain|journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology}}</ref> It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals.<ref name=FutureEaters/> With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer|foragers]] used fire to create openings for [[red deer]] and [[wild boar]]. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as [[oak]] and [[Ash tree|ash]] are replaced in the [[palynology|pollen]] record by [[hazel]]s, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased [[transpiration]], resulting in the formation of upland [[peat bog]]s. Widespread decrease in [[elm]] [[pollen]] across Europe between 8400-8300 BC and 7200-7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of [[Neolithic]] agriculture. The [[Neolithic period]] saw extensive deforestation for [[Agriculture|farming land]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254115/hand-tool/39205/Neolithic-tools|title=hand tool :: Neolithic tools -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeolink.co.uk/Neolithic-Age.html|title=Neolithic Age from 4,000 BC to 2,200 BC or New Stone Age}}</ref> Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted [[Langdale axe industry]] in the [[English Lake District]], quarries developed at [[Penmaenmawr]] in [[North Wales]] and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the [[mechanical strength]] of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. [[Flint]] was still used from sources such as [[Grimes Graves]] but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]]; for example the environs of the [[Palace of Knossos]] were severely deforested in the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2007. [http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes "Knossos fieldnotes"], ''The Modern Antiquarian''</ref> ===Pre-industrial history=== Throughout most of history, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.school.eb.com/comptons/article-9310969?query=deforestation&ct=|title=www.school.eb.com/comptons/article-9310969?query=deforestation&ct=<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref> only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. In [[ancient Greece]], Tjeered van Andel and co-writers<ref>Tjeerd H. van Andel, Eberhard Zangger, Anne Demitrack, "Land Use and Soil Erosion in Prehistoric and Historical Greece' ''Journal of Field Archaeology'' 17.4 (Winter 1990), pp. 379-396</ref> summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000 years the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic [[silting]] of ports along the southern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (''e.g.'' [[Clarus]], and the examples of [[Ephesus]], [[Priene]] and [[Miletus]], where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal [[Syria]] during the last centuries BC. [[Easter Island]] has suffered from heavy [[soil erosion]] in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.<ref>[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/The_Mystery_of_Easter_Island.html "The Mystery of Easter Island"], ''Smithsonian Magazine'', April 01, 2007</ref> [[Jared Diamond]] gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book ''[[Collapse (book)|Collapse]]''. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongabay.com/09easter_island.htm|title=Historical Consequences of Deforestation: Easter Island}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/042.html|title=Jared Diamond, Easter Island's End}}</ref> The famous silting up of the harbor for [[Bruges]], which moved port commerce to [[Antwerp]], also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval [[Riez]] in upper [[Provence]], alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} [[Image:Oldgrowth3.jpg|thumb|right|500px|'''Loss of [[old growth forest]] in the [[United States]]; 1620, 1850, and 1920 maps:'''<br>'' From William B. Greeley's, The Relation of Geography to Timber Supply, Economic Geography, 1925, vol. 1, p. 1-11. Source of "Today" map: compiled by George Draffan from roadless area map in The Big Outside: A Descriptive Inventory of the Big Wilderness Areas of the United States, by Dave Foreman and Howie Wolke (Harmony Books, 1992)''. These maps represent only virgin forest lost. Some regrowth has occurred but not to the age, size or extent of 1620 due to population increases and food cultivation.]] A typical [[progress trap]] was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (e.g. construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient [[Asia Minor]]. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy)protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodlands.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the [[Benedictine]] and [[Commercial]] orders) and some [[feudal]] lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the [[Black Death]] or devastating warfare (e.g. [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] hordes in eastern and central Europe, [[Thirty Years' War]] in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the [[secondary forest]]s usually lacked the original [[biodiversity]]. From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in [[Western Europe]] as a result of the [[overpopulation|expanding human population]]. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, [[Colonialism|colonisation]], [[slave trade]]&ndash;and other trade on the high seas consumed many forest resources. [[Piracy]] also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.){{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} In ''Changes in the Land'' (1983), [[William Cronon]] analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in [[New England]] during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of [[charcoal]] on an industrial scale in [[Early Modern Europe]] was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of [[New England]] to supply the need. Each of Nelson's [[Royal Navy]] war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] planted [[oak]] forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-nineteenth century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. [[Norman F. Cantor]]'s summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe:<ref>In closing ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages: The Life and Death of a Civilization'' (1993) pp 564f.</ref> {{Quote|Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. They were faced with a nutritional decline because of the elimination of the generous supply of wild game that had inhabited the now-disappearing forests, which throughout medieval times had provided the staple of their carnivorous high-protein diet. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster [from] which it was saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize.}} ==Industrial era== In the 19th century, introduction of [[steamboat]]s in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the [[Mississippi River]], with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between [[St. Louis]] and the confluence with the [[Ohio River]] to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snagpullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to 200 feet back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the [[Illinois Country]], such as [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]], [[Cahokia, Illinois|Cahokia]] and St. Philippe, [[Illinois]] were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their [[archeology]].<ref>F. Terry Norris, "Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley", in ''Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis'', Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997, pp. 73-89</ref> Specific parallels are seen in the twentieth-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. ===Rates of deforestation=== [[Image:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|250px|Orbital photograph of human deforestation in progress in the [[Tierras Bajas]] project in eastern [[Bolivia]]]] Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852.<ref name="Wilson">[[E. O. Wilson]], 2002, ''The Future of Life'', Vintage ISBN 0-679-76811-4</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jul/01/forests.conservation Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries], guardian.co.uk, July 1, 2008</ref> It has been estimated that about half of the Earth's mature [[tropical forest]]s—between 7.5 million and 8 million km² (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km² (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet<ref name=worldbook>Maycock, Paul F. ''[http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/article?id=ar704660 Deforestation]''. WorldBookOnline.</ref>—have now been cleared.<ref name="Nielsen">Ron Nielsen, ''The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet'', Picador, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0312425814</ref><ref>[http://www.nature.org/rainforests/explore/facts.html Rainforests - Facts and information about the Rainforest].</ref> Some scientists have predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed)<ref name=worldbook /> are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be ten percent remaining,<ref name="Wilson" /><ref name="Nielsen" /> with another ten percent in a degraded condition.<ref name="Wilson" /> 80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.<ref name="Wilson" /> The difficulties of estimating deforestation rates are nowhere more apparent than in the widely varying estimates of rates of rainforest deforestation. Some environmental groups argue that one fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990, that rainforests 50 years ago covered 14% of the world's land surface and have been reduced to 6%,<ref name="rain-tree.com" /> and that all tropical forests will be gone by 2090.<ref name="rain-tree.com" /> Meanwhile, Alan Grainger of Leeds University argues that there is no credible evidence of any long-term decline in rainforest area.<ref>Adam, David. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jan/08/forests.climatechange "Global deforestation figures questioned"]. ''The Guardian''. January 8, 2008.</ref> [[Bjørn Lomborg]], author of ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', claims that global forest cover has remained approximately stable since the middle of the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/EnvironmentalQuality.html|title=www.econlib.org/library/Enc/EnvironmentalQuality.html<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=[[Bjørn Lomborg]] | title=The Skeptical Environmentalist | year=2001 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge}}</ref> Along similar lines, some have claimed that for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than {{convert|50|acres|0|abbr=on}} of new forest are growing in the tropics.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/30/science/earth/30forest.html?_r=2&hp=&pagewanted=print New Jungles Prompt a Debate on Rain Forests], The New York Times, January 30, 2009.</ref> These divergent viewpoints are the result of the uncertainties in the extent of tropical deforestation. For tropical countries, deforestation estimates are very uncertain and could be in error by as much as +/- 50%,<ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9b91zn_txQgC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#PPP1,M1 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry.]'' Cambridge University Press. {{page number |date=May 2009}}</ref> while a 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates.<ref>Frederic Achard, Hugh D Eva, Hans-Jurgen Stibig, Philippe Mayaux (2002). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12169731 "Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests."] ''Science'' 297:5583: pp. 999-1003.</ref> Conversely, a new analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the [[Amazon rainforest]] is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.<ref>Jha, Alok. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2005/oct/21/brazil.conservationandendangeredspecies "Amazon rainforest vanishing at twice rate of previous estimates"]. ''The Guardian''. October 21, 2005.</ref><ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1021/p04s01-sten.html Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster], csmonitor.com</ref> Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a [[Kuznets curve#Environmental Kuznets Curve|Kuznets curve]],<ref>http://www.aseanenvironment.info/Abstract/41014849.pdf Deforestation and the environmental Kuznets curve:An institutional perspective</ref> which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (e.g., the extinction of species).<ref>[http://www.env-econ.net/2006/11/a_deforestation.html Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?], November 22, 2006</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/deveco/v58y1999i1p231-244.html|title=Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for deforestation?}}</ref> A 2005 report by the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) estimates that although the Earth's total forest area continues to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation has recently been slowing.<ref name=pantropical>{{cite web | url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y1997e/y1997e1f.htm | title=Pan-tropical Survey of Forest Cover Changes 1980-2000 | work=Forest Resources Assessment | publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) | location=Rome, Italy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/003/X9591E.HTM|title=www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/003/X9591E.HTM<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref> Still others claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.<ref>[http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4521 Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content], [[Worldwatch Institute]]</ref> The London-based [[Rainforest Foundation]] notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savannah-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests."<ref name="news.mongabay.com">{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html|title=World deforestation rates and forest cover statistics, 2000-2005}}</ref> Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,<ref>The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation.</ref> and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0629-deforestation.html|title=Remote sensing versus self-reporting}}</ref> which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.<ref>The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). ''Forest Law Enforcement''.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). ''Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru''.)</ref> Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Up to 90% of [[West Africa]]'s coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/deforestation/effect.html|title=National Geographic: Eye in the Sky—Deforestation}}</ref> In [[South Asia]], about 88% of the rainforests have been lost.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~admckettrick/projects/ag101_project/html/size.html|title=Rainforests & Agriculture}}</ref> Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the [[Amazon basin]], where the [[Amazon Rainforest]] covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A925913 The Amazon Rainforest], BBC</ref> The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were [[Central America]]—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia.<ref name="news.mongabay.com" /> In [[Central America]], two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.<ref name="ru.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ru.org/ecology-and-environment/the-causes-of-tropical-deforestation.html|title=The Causes of Tropical Deforestation}}</ref> [[Brazil]] has lost 90-95% of its [[Mata Atlântica]] forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kids.mongabay.com/lesson_plans/lisa_algee/deforestation.html|title=What is Deforestation?}}</ref> [[Madagascar]] has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests.<ref>[http://www.iucn.org/where/global/index.cfm?uNewsID=87 IUCN - Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List], June 27, 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/data/images/archive/1717/17173001.jpg|title=Madagascar's rainforest}}</ref> As of 2007, less than 1% of [[Haiti]]'s forests remained.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satglobal.com/cfpap2.htm|title=International Conference on Reforestation and Environmental Regeneration of Haiti}}</ref> [[Mexico]], India, the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Malaysia]], [[Bangladesh]], China, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Laos]], [[Nigeria]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Liberia]], [[Guinea]], [[Ghana]] and the [[Côte d'Ivoire]], have lost large areas of their rainforest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongabay.com/deforestation_rate_tables.htm|title=Chart - Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Destruction/|title=Rainforest Destruction}}</ref> Several countries, notably [[Brazil]], have declared their deforestation a national emergency.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/environment/2008-01-24-brazil-amazon_N.htm Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007], USATODAY.com, January 24, 2008</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/brazil/story/0,,1488468,00.html|title=Rainforest loss shocks Brazil | work=The Guardian | location=London | first=John | last=Vidal | date=May 31, 2005 | accessdate=April 1, 2010}}</ref> ==Deforestation by region== {{Main|Deforestation by region}} Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Southeast Asia and parts of South America are among the regions of highest concern to [[environmentalists]]. ==Controlling deforestation== ===Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)=== {{Main|Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation}} Major international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation]] (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the [[UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010 - 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |title= Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009 |pages= |publisher=UNFCC |year= 2009 |url= http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/application/pdf/cop15_cph_auv.pdf |accessdate= 2009-12-28}}</ref> Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the [[Center for Global Development|Center for Global Development's]] FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative [http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/forestmonitoringforactionforma] and the [[Group on Earth Observations| Group on Earth Observations']] Forest Carbon Tracking Portal [http://portal.geo-fct.org/national-demonstrators/browser]. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15 <ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |title= Methodological Guidance |pages= |publisher=UNFCC |year= 2009 |url= http://unfccc.int/files/na/application/pdf/cop15_ddc_auv.pdf |accessdate= 2009-12-28}}</ref> ===Farming=== New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] crops, [[greenhouse]], [[autonomous building]] gardens, and [[hydroponic]]s. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic [[agriculture]], cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} ===Forest management=== Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In [[Tonga]], paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause,<ref>Diamond, Jared ''Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed''; Viking Press 2004, pages 301-302</ref> while during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]], Japan,<ref>Diamond, pages 320-331</ref> the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In sixteenth century Germany landowners also developed [[silviculture]] to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with ''good rainfall'', ''no dry season'' and ''very young [[soil]]s'' (through [[volcano|volcanism]] or [[glaciation]]). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. In the areas where "[[slash-and-burn]]" is practiced, switching to "[[slash-and-char]]" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The [[biochar]] thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial [[amendment]] to the soil. Mixed with [[biomass]] it brings the creation of [[terra preta]], one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. ===Certification of sustainable forest management practices=== Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as [[PEFC]] and [[FSC]], contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. Certification represents a shift from regulatory approaches to market incentives to promote sustainable forest management. By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation."<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0350e/i0350e00.HTM "State of the World's Forests 2009"]. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.</ref> ===Reforestation=== {{Main|Reforestation}} In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and [[afforestation]] are increasing the area of forested lands.<ref>Jonathan A Foley, Ruth DeFries, Gregory P Asner, Carol Barford, et al. 2005 "Global Consequences of Land Use" Science 309:5734 570-574</ref> The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million [[hectare]]s of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forest will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com">James Owen, 2006, "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests" National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/11/061113-forests.html</ref> In the [[People's Republic of China]], where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has in the past required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer required today, but March 12 of every year in China is the [[Planting Holiday]]. Also, it has introduced the [[Green Wall of China]] project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of trees dying off after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com" /> The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%.<ref>John Gittings, 2001, "Battling China's deforestation" World News http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/mar/20/worlddispatch.china</ref> An ambitious proposal for China is the [[Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System]] and the [[Proposed sahara forest project]] coupled with the [[Seawater Greenhouse]]. In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner is causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices. The [[Arbor Day Foundation]]'s Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the [[lumber]] companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land. Organizations such as [[Community Forestry International]], [[Cool Earth]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], [[Conservation International]], [[African Conservation Foundation]] and [[Greenpeace]] also focus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particular has also mapped out the forests that are still intact [http://www.intactforests.org/publications/intactforests_poster_preview.pdf] and published this information on the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intactforests.org|title=World Intact Forests campaign by Greenpeace}}</ref> [[HowStuffWorks]] in turn has made a simpler thematic map<ref>[http://maps.howstuffworks.com/world-forest-cover-map.htm World forest cover map]</ref> showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/maps/pdf/WOR_THEM_Forests.pdf|title=Alternative thematic map by Howstuffworks; in pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damage caused by man. === Forest plantations === To meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers Botkins and [[Sedjo]] that high-yielding forest [[plantations]] are suitable. It has been calculated that plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annually could supply all the timber required for international trade on 5% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1-2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5 to 10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interpersed with conservation land.<ref>No Man's Garden Daniel B. Botkin p 246-247</ref> One analysis of FAO data suggests that afforestation and reforestation projects "could reverse the global decline in woodlands within 30 years."<ref>Sample, Ian. [http://environment.guardian.co.uk/conservation/story/0,,1947182,00.html "Forests are poised to make a comeback, study shows"]. ''The Guardian''. November 14, 2006.</ref> Reforestation through tree planting could take advantage of changing precipitation patterns due to climate change. This would be done by studying where precipitation is projected to increase (see [http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/ the "2050 Precipitation" thematic map created by Globalis]) and setting up reforestation projects in these locations. Areas such as Niger, Sierra Leone and Liberia are especially important candidates because they also suffer from an expanding desert (the Sahara) and decreasing biodiversity (while being important [[biodiversity hotspot]]s). ==Military context== [[File:Attack on bloody ridge.jpg|thumb|American [[M4 Sherman|Sherman tanks]] knocked out by Japanese artillery on Okinawa.]]While the preponderance of deforestation is due to demands for agricultural and urban use for the human population, there are some examples of military causes. One example of deliberate deforestation is that which took place in the U.S. [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|zone of occupation]] in Germany after World War II. Before the onset of the [[Cold War]] defeated Germany was still considered a potential future threat rather than potential future ally. To address this threat, attempts were made to [[Industrial plans for Germany|lower German industrial potential]], of which forests were deemed an element. Sources in the U.S. government admitted that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests." As a consequence of the practice of clear-felling, deforestation resulted which could "be replaced only by long forestry development over perhaps a century."<ref>Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects Of Industrial Disarmament 1945-1948, Rutgers University Press, 1964. p. 119. The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively; U.S. office of Military Government, ''A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender'' (1946), p.70; and U.S. Office of Military Government, ''The German Forest Resources Survey'' (1948), p. II. For similar observations see G.W. Harmssen, ''Reparationen, Sozialproduct, Lebensstandard'' (Bremen: F. Trujen Verlag, 1948), I, 48</ref> [[War]] can also be a cause of deforestation, either deliberately such as through the use of [[Agent Orange]]<ref>"Encyclopedia of World Environmental History". Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0415937337</ref> during the [[Vietnam War]] where, together with bombs and bulldozers, it contributed to the destruction of 44% of the forest cover,<ref>Patricia Marchak, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=Oi-xLllDK8oC&pg=PA157&dq=deforestation+%22agent+orange%22&sig=CiHOq-9TslQ688z1sWvKYDCcUmc Logging the Globe]" p. 157</ref> or inadvertently such as in the 1945 [[Battle of Okinawa]] where bombardment and other combat operations reduced the lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc-shorinryu.com/okinawa.html|title=Okinawan History and Karate-do<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> {{See also|Environmental issues with war}} ==See also== {{portalbox |name1=Environment |image1=Devils Punchbowl Waterfall, New Zealand.jpg |name2=Ecology |image2=Earth flag PD.jpg |name3=Earth sciences |image3=Terra.png |name4=Biology |image4=Darlingtonia_californica.jpg |name5=Sustainable development |image5= Sustainable development.svg}} {{Div col}} * [[Assarting]] * [[Biochar]] * [[Flexible Mechanisms|CDM & JI A/R projects]] * [[Deforestation during the Roman period]] * [[Deforestation in Cambodia]] * [[Desertification]] * [[Ecoforestry]] * [[Economic impact analysis]] * [[Environmental issues with paper]] * [[Forestry]] * [[Illegal logging]] * [[Land use, land-use change and forestry]] * [[Moisture recycling]] * [[Mountaintop removal]] * [[Natural landscape]] * [[Neolithic]] * [[Overpopulation]] * [[Rainforest]] * [[Richard St. Barbe Baker]] * [[Satoyama]] * [[Slash-and-burn]] * [[Slash-and-char]] * [[Terra preta]] * [[Wilderness]] * [[Intact forest landscape]] * [[World Forestry Congress]] * [[Biodiversity]] {{Div col end}} ==References== ;Notes {{Reflist|3}} ;General references {{Refbegin}} * BBC 2005 TV series on the history of geological factors shaping human history (name?) * ''A Natural History of Europe'' - 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF * Whitney, Gordon G. (1996). ''From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-57658-X * Williams, Michael. (2003). ''Deforesting the Earth''. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89926-8 * Wunder, Sven. (2000). ''The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador''. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Press]], London. ISBN 0-333-73146-8 * FAO&CIFOR report: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae929e/ae929e00.htm Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts?] * {{Cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g6RfkqCUQyQC&pg=PA147&dq=oxygen+percent+algae+plants&sig=4tJv81njIlr7qsWD95pHcuRlffc#PPA147,M1 |title=Plants: the potentials for extracting protein, medicines, and other useful chemicals (workshop proceedings) |year=1983 |month=September |chapter=Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource |last=Fenical |first=William |page=147 |isbn=1428923977 |publisher=DIANE Publishing}} {{Refend}} ;Ethiopia deforestation references {{Refbegin}} * Parry, J. (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38-39. Retrieved November 22, 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341). * Hillstrom, K & Hillstrom, C. (2003). Africa and the Middle east. A continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Santabarbara, CA: ABC CLIO. * Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the earth: From prehistory to global crisis: An Abridgment. Chicago: The university of Chicago Press. * Mccann. J.C. (1990). A Great Agrarian cycle? Productivity in Highland Ethiopia, 1900 To 1987. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xx: 3,389-416. Retrieved November 18, 2006, from JSTOR database. {{Refend}} == External links == {{commons|Deforestation}} * [http://amazonrainforestfund.org Amazon Rainforest Fund Adopt-an-Acre] * [http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fra2005/en/ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005] by the [[FAO]] Comprehensive assessment of forests and forestry. Includes 350 page report and 15 page summary * [http://earthwatch.unep.net/emergingissues/forests/forestloss.php#WRI/WCMC/WWF.%201997. United Nations EarthWatch] * [http://ec.europa.eu/comm/agriculture/fore/index_en.htm EU Forestry]. * [http://www.coolearth.org Cool Earth] * [http://www.un.org/esa/forests United Nations Forum on Forests] * [http://www.rcfa-cfan.org/english/issues.12-3.html CFAN] - [[CIDA]] Forestry Advisory Network DEFORESTATION: Tropical Forests in Decline * [http://www.greenpeace.org/china/en/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/ Our disappearing forests - Greenpeace China] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/19/cocaine-rainforests-columbia-santos-calderon Cocaine destroys 4&nbsp;m2 of rainforest per gram] The Guardian * [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6034 "Avoided Deforestation" Plan Gains Support - Worldwatch Institute] * [http://condor.cmich.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p1610-01coll1&CISOPTR=162&filename=163.pdf 3D Mapping for the Cloud Forest in Chanchamayo, Peru] - link to scholarly resource Central Michigan University. * [http://uk.oneworld.net/guides/forests OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide] * [http://www.forestindustries.eu/redd Some Background Info to Deforestation and REDD+] ;In the media * March 14, 2007, ''[[The Independent|Independent Online]]'': [http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article2355962.ece Destruction of forests in developing world 'out of control'] ;Films online * Watch the [[National Film Board of Canada]] documentaries [http://www.nfb.ca/film/battle_for_the_trees/ ''Battle for the Trees''] & [http://www.nfb.ca/film/forest_in_crisis/ ''Forest in Crisis''] * [http://indigenouspeoplesissues.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4668:video-on-deforestation-in-paraguay-as-a-result-of-agricultural-development-impact-to-indigenous-people-and-wildlife&catid=68:videos-and-movies&Itemid=96 Video on Illegal Deforestation In Paraguay] {{global warming}} [[Category:Deforestation]] [[Category:Climate forcing agents]] [[Category:Forestry]] [[ar:إزالة الغابات]] [[bg:Обезлесяване]] [[ca:Desforestació]] [[cs:Odlesňování]] [[de:Entwaldung]] [[et:Metsatustumine]] [[es:Deforestación]] [[eo:Senarbarigo]] [[eu:Baso-soiltze]] [[fr:Déforestation]] [[gl:Deforestación]] [[hi:वनोन्मूलन]] [[id:Deforestasi]] [[it:Diboscamento]] [[he:בירוא יערות]] [[kn:ಅರಣ್ಯನಾಶ]] [[lt:Miškų nykimas]] [[hu:Erdőirtás]] [[nl:Ontbossing]] [[ja:森林破壊]] [[no:Avskoging]] [[nn:Avskoging]] [[oc:Desboscament]] [[pl:Wylesianie]] [[pt:Desflorestação]] [[qu:Sach'a-sach'a qulluy]] [[ru:Обезлесение]] [[simple:Deforestation]] [[sk:Odlesňovanie]] [[fi:Metsäkato]] [[sv:Avskogning]] [[tl:Deporestasyon]] [[ta:காடழிப்பு]] [[te:అటవీ నిర్మూలన]] [[vi:Phá rừng]] [[zh:森林開伐]]'