Examine individual changes

'{{About|the Polynesian language of the kingdom of Tonga|unrelated languages with similar names|Tonga language (disambiguation){{!}}Tonga language|and|Dungan language}} {{Infobox language |name=penis nigga |nativename= {{lang|to|lea faka-Tonga}} |states= [[Tonga]];<br>significant immigrant community in New Zealand and the United States |speakers=187,000<br> *{{sigfig|96,300|2}} in Tonga |speakers2={{sigfig|72,820|2}} elsewhere (no date), primarily in NZ, U.S., and Australia<ref name=e17>{{e17|ton}}</ref> |date=1998 |ref=e18 |familycolor=Austronesian |fam2=[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] |fam3=[[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] |fam4=[[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] |fam5=[[Tongic languages|Tongic]] |script=[[Latin script|Latin]]-based |nation= {{flag|Tonga}} |iso1=to |iso2=ton |iso3=ton |glotto=tong1325 |glottorefname=Tonga (Tonga Islands) |notice=IPA }} '''Tongan''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|ɒ|ŋ|ə|n}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|ɒ|ŋ|ɡ|ən}};<ref name="lexico">{{cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/tonga| title=Tonga |work=Lexico |accessdate=26 March 2020}}</ref> ''{{lang|to|lea fakatonga}}'') is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] of the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] branch spoken in [[Tonga]]. It has around 187,000 speakers<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ton|title=Tongan|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2017-12-13}}</ref> and is a [[national language]] of [[Tonga]]. It is a [[verb–subject–object|VSO]] (verb–subject–object) language. ==Related languages== Tongan is one of the multiple languages in the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] branch of the Austronesian languages, along with [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[Maori language|Maori]], [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], for example. Together with [[Niuean language|Niuean]], it forms the [[Tongic languages|Tongic]] subgroup of Polynesian. Tongan is unusual among Polynesian languages in that it has a so-called ''definitive accent''. As with all Polynesian languages, Tongan has adapted the phonological system of proto-Polynesian. # Tongan has retained the original proto-Polynesian *h, but has merged it with the original *s as {{IPA|/h/}}. (The {{IPA|/s/}} found in modern Tongan derives from *t before high front vowels). Most Polynesian languages have lost the original proto-Polynesian glottal stop {{IPA|/q/}}; however, it has been retained in Tongan and a few other languages including Rapa Nui.<ref>The glottal stop in most other Polynesian languages are the reflexes of other consonants of proto-Polynesian; for example, the glottal stop of Samoan and Hawaiian is a reflex of the original *k; the glottal stop of Cook Islands Māori represents a merger of the original *f and *s. Tongan does not show changes such as the *t to {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|*ŋ}} to {{IPA|/n/}} of Hawaiian; nor has Tongan shifted *f to {{IPA|/h/}}. Although Tongan, Samoan and other Western Polynesian languages are not affected by a change in [[Central Eastern Polynesian languages]] (such as [[Māori language|New Zealand Māori]]) involving the dissimilation of {{IPA|/faf/}} to {{IPA|/wah/}}, Tongan has vowel changes (as seen in ''monumanu'' from original ''manumanu'') which are not a feature of other languages.</ref> # In proto-Polynesian, *r and *l were distinct phonemes, but in most Polynesian languages they have merged, represented orthographically as ''r'' in most East Polynesian languages, and as ''l'' in most West Polynesian languages. However, the distinction can be reconstructed because Tongan kept the *l but lost the *r.<ref>This loss may be quite recent. The word "lua", meaning "two", is still found in some placenames and archaic texts. "Marama" (light) thus became "maama", and the two successive "a"s are still pronounced separately, not yet contracted to "māma". On the other hand "toro" (sugarcane) already has become "tō" (still "tolo" in Sāmoan).</ref> Tongan has heavily influenced the [[Wallisian language]] after Tongans colonized the island of [[Wallis (island)|'Uvea]] in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|language=German|author=Akihisa Tsukamoto|title=Forschungen über die Sprachen der Inseln zwischen Tonga und Saamoa|editor=LIT Verlag Münster|year=1994|pages=109|isbn=3825820157|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZQVriuXhE8AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" | ! colspan="10" |Polynesian sound correspondences |- !Phoneme |[[Proto-Polynesian language|Proto-Polynesian]] |Tongan |[[Niuean language|Niuean]] |[[Samoan language|Sāmoan]] |[[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] |[[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] |[[Māori language|Māori]] |[[Cook Islands Maori|Cook Is. Māori]] |[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] |[[English language|English]] |- !{{IPA|/ŋ/}} |*taŋata |tangata |tagata |tagata |tangata |ta{{okina}}ata |tangata |tangata |kanaka |person |- !{{IPA|/s/}} |*sina |hina |hina |sina |hina |hinahina |hina |{{okina}}ina |hina |grey-haired |- !{{IPA|/h/}} |*kanahe |kanahe |kanahe |{{okina}}anae | |{{okina}}anae |kanae |kanae |{{okina}}anae |[[mullet (fish)]] |- !{{IPA|/ti/}} |*tiale |siale |tiale |tiale |tiare |tiare |tīare |tiare |kiele |[[gardenia]] |- !{{IPA|/k/}} |*waka |vaka |vaka |va{{okina}}a |vaka |va{{okina}}a |waka |vaka |wa{{okina}}a |canoe |- !{{IPA|/f/}} |*fafine |fefine |fifine |fafine |vahine |vahine |wahine |va{{okina}}ine |wahine |woman |- !{{IPA|/ʔ/}} |*matuqa<ref>Glottal stop is represented as 'q' in reconstructed Proto-Polynesian words.</ref> |matu{{okina}}a |matua |matua |matu{{okina}}a |metua |matua |metua, matua |makua |parent |- !{{IPA|/r/}} |*rua |ua |ua |lua |rua |rua<ref>Archaic: the usual word in today's Tahitian is 'piti'.</ref> |rua |rua |'elua |two |- !{{IPA|/l/}} |*tolu |tolu |tolu |tolu |toru |toru |toru |toru |'ekolu |three |} ==Alphabet== Tongan is written in a subset of the [[Latin script]]. In the old, "missionary" [[alphabet]], the order of the letters was modified: the [[vowels]] were put first and then followed by the [[consonants]]: a, e, i, o, u, etc. That was still so as of the [[Privy Council]] decision of 1943 on the orthography of the Tongan language. However, C. M. Churchward's grammar and dictionary favoured the standard European alphabetical order, which, since his time, has been in use exclusively: {| class="wikitable" |+ Tongan alphabet ! Letter | '''a''' | '''e''' | '''f''' | '''h''' | '''i''' | '''k''' | '''l''' | '''m''' | '''n''' | '''ng''' | '''o''' | '''p''' | '''s''' | '''t''' | '''u''' | '''v''' | '''{{okina}}''' (''fakau{{okina}}a'') |- ! Pronunciation | {{IPA|/a/}} | {{IPA|/e/}} <!-- Does Tongan use a close-mid or open-mid vowel?--> | {{IPA|/f/}} | {{IPA|/h/}} | {{IPA|/i/}} | {{IPA|/k/}} | {{IPA|/l/}} | {{IPA|/m/}} | {{IPA|/n/}} | {{IPA|/ŋ/}}¹ | {{IPA|/o/}} | {{IPA|/p/}}² | {{IPA|/s/}}³ | {{IPA|/t/}} | {{IPA|/u/}} | {{IPA|/v/}} | {{IPA|/ʔ/}}⁴ |} Notes: # written as ''g'' but still pronounced as {{IPA|[ŋ]}} (as in Samoan) before 1943 # [[Aspiration (phonetics)|unaspirated]]; written as ''b'' before 1943 # sometimes written as ''j'' before 1943 (see below) # the [[glottal stop]]. It should be written with the modifier letter turned comma ([[Unicode]] 0x02BB) and not with the [[Quotation mark|single quote]] open or with a mixture of quotes open and quotes close. See also [[ʻOkina|{{okina}}okina]]. Note that the above order is strictly followed in proper dictionaries. Therefore, ''ngatu'' follows ''nusi'', ''{{okina}}a'' follows ''vunga'' and it also follows ''z'' if foreign words occur. Words with [[Vowel length|long vowels]] come directly after those with short vowels. Improper wordlists may or may not follow these rules. (For example, the Tonga [[telephone directory]] for years now ignores all rules.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}) The original ''j'', used for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, disappeared in the beginning of the 20th century, merging with {{IPA|/s/}}. By 1943, ''j'' was no longer used. Consequently, many words written with ''s'' in Tongan are cognate to those with ''t'' in other Polynesian languages. For example, ''Masisi'' (a star name) in Tongan is cognate with ''Matiti'' in [[Tokelau language|Tokelauan]]; ''siale'' ([[Gardenia]] taitensis) in Tongan and ''tiare'' in [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]. This seems to be a natural development, as {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in many Polynesian languages derived from Proto-Polynesian {{IPA|/ti/}}. ==Phonology== ===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" ! ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ![[Velar consonant|Velar]] ![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |-align="center" ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] |[[Voiced alveolar nasal|n]] |[[Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]] | |-align="center" ![[Stop consonant|Stop]] |[[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] |[[Voiceless dental and alveolar stops|t]] |[[Voiceless velar stop|k]] |[[Glottal stop|ʔ]] |-align="center" ![[Continuant]] |[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] |[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Lateral alveolar approximant|l]] | |[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] |} == Syllabification == *Each syllable has exactly one vowel. The number of syllables in a word is exactly equal to the number of vowels it has. *Long vowels, indicated with a ''toloi'' ([[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]), count as one, but may in some circumstances be split up in two short ones, in which case, they are both written. Toloi are supposed to be written where needed, in practice this may be seldom done. *Each syllable may have no more than one consonant. *Consonant combinations are not permitted. The ''[[Ng (character)|ng]]'' is not a consonant combination, since it represents a single sound. As such it can never be split, the proper [[Syllabification|hyphenation]] of {{lang|to|fakatonga}} (Tongan) therefore is fa-ka-to-nga. *Each syllable must end in a vowel. All vowels are pronounced, but an ''i'' at the end of an utterance is usually unvoiced. *The ''fakau{{okina}}a'' is a consonant. It must be followed (and, except at the beginning of a word, preceded) by a vowel. Unlike the glottal stops in many other Polynesian languages texts, the fakau{{okina}}a is always written. (Only sometimes before 1943.) *Stress normally falls on the next to last syllable of a word with two or more syllables; example: {{lang|to|móhe}} (sleep), {{lang|to|mohénga}} (bed). If, however, the last vowel is long, it takes the stress; example: {{lang|to|kumā}} (mouse) (stress on the long ā). The stress also shifts to the last vowel if the next word is an [[clitic|enclitic]]; example: {{lang|to|fále}} (house), {{lang|to|falé ni}} (this house). Finally the stress can shift to the last syllable, including an enclitic, in case of the definitive accent; example: {{lang|to|mohengá}} ((that) particular bed), {{lang|to|fale ní}} (this particular house). It is also here that a long vowel can be split into two short ones; example: pō (night), poó ni (this night), pō ní (this particular night). Or the opposite: {{lang|to|maáma}} (light), {{lang|to|māmá ni}} (this light), {{lang|to|maama ní}} (this particular light). There are some exceptions to the above general rules. The stress [[Acute accent|accent]] is normally not written, except where it is to indicate the definitive accent or ''fakamamafa''. But here, too, people often neglect to write it, only using it when the proper stress cannot be easily derived from the context. Although the acute accent has been available on most [[personal computer]]s from their early days onwards, when Tongan newspapers started to use computers around 1990 to produce their papers, they were unable to find, or failed to enter, the proper keystrokes, and it grew into a habit to put the accent after the vowel instead of on it: not ''{{lang|to|á}}'' but ''{{lang|to|a´}}''.{{fact|date=April 2020}} But as this distance seemed to be too big, a demand arose for Tongan fonts where the acute accent was shifted to the right, a position halfway in between the two extremes above. Most papers still follow this practice. == Grammar == ===Articles=== English, like most European languages, uses only two [[Article (grammar)|article]]s: *[[Indefinite article|indefinite]] ''a'' *[[Definite article|definite]] ''the'' By contrast, Tongan has three articles, and [[Possessive pronoun|possessives]] also have a three-level definiteness distinction: * indefinite ''ha''. Example: ko ha pālangi ('a white person', or any other person from somewhere other than Tonga) * semi-definite ''(h)e''. Example: ko e pālangi ('the white person' in the sense that the person does not belong to some other race, but still rather 'a white person' if there are several of them) * definite ''(h)e'' with the shifted ultimate stress. Example: ko e pālangí ('the white person', that particular person there and no one else). ===Registers=== There are three [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] which consist of * ordinary words (the normal language) * honorific words (the language for the chiefs) * regal words (the language for the king) There are also further distinctions between * polite words (used for more formal contexts) * derogatory words (used for informal contexts, or to indicate humility) For example, the phrase "Come and eat!" translates to: * ordinary: ''ha{{okina}}u {{okina}}o kai'' (come and eat!); Friends, family members and so forth may say this to each other when invited for dinner. * honorific: ''me{{okina}}a mai pea {{okina}}ilo'' (come and eat!); The proper used towards chiefs, particularly the nobles, but it may also be used by an employee towards his boss, or in other similar situations. When talking about chiefs, however, it is always used, even if they are not actually present, but in other situations only on formal occasions. A complication to the beginning student of Tongan is that such words very often also have an alternative meaning in the ordinary register: ''me{{okina}}a'' (thing) and ''{{okina}}ilo'' (know, find). * regal: ''hā{{okina}}ele mai pea taumafa'' (come and eat!); Used towards the king or God. The same considerations as for the honorific register apply. ''Hā{{okina}}ele'' is one of the regal words which have become the normal word in other Polynesian languages. ===Pronouns=== The Tongan language distinguishes three [[Grammatical number|numbers]]: singular, [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]. They appear as the three major columns in the tables below. The Tongan language distinguishes four persons: First person [[Clusivity|exclusive]], first person [[Clusivity|inclusive]], second person and third person. They appear as the four major rows in the tables below. This gives us 12 main groups. ====Subjective and objective==== In addition, possessive pronouns are either [[alienable possession|alienable]] (reddish) or [[inalienable possession|inalienable]] (greenish), which Churchward termed ''subjective'' and ''objective''. This marks a distinction that has been referred to, in some analyses of other [[Polynesian languages]], as ''a-possession'' versus ''o-possession'', respectively,<ref>These ''a'' and ''o'' refer to the characteristic vowel used in those pronouns. In Tongan, however, this distinction is much less clear, and rather a characteristic for the indefinite and definite forms respectively. Use of the ''a'' & ''o'' terms therefore is not favoured.</ref> though more Tongan-appropriate version would be ''{{okina}}e-possession'' and ''ho-possession''. ''Subjective'' and ''objective'' are fitting labels when dealing with verbs: ''{{okina}}eku taki'' "my leading" vs. ''hoku taki'' "my being led". However, this is less apt when used on nouns. Indeed, in most contexts ''hoku taki'' would be interpreted as "my leader", as a noun rather than a verb. What then of nouns that have no real verb interpretation, such as ''fale'' "house"? Churchward himself laid out the distinction thus:<ref>{{cite book | last = Churchward | first = C.M. | title = Tongan Grammar | publisher = Vava'u Press Limited | date = 1999 | pages = 81 | isbn = 982-213-007-4}}</ref> <blockquote>But what about those innumerable cases in which the possessive can hardly be said to correspond either to the subject or to the object of a verb? What, for example, is the rule or the guiding principle, which lies behind the fact that a Tongan says ''{{okina}}eku pa{{okina}}anga'' for ' my money' but ''hoku fale'' for 'my house'? It may be stated as follows: the use of ''{{okina}}eku'' for 'my' implies that I am active, influential, or formative, &c., towards the thing mentioned, whereas the use of ''hoku'' for 'my' implies that the thing mentioned is active, influential, or formative, &c., towards me. Or, provided that we give a sufficiently wide meaning to the word 'impress', we may say, perhaps, that ''{{okina}}eku'' is used in reference to things upon which I impress myself, while ''hoku'' is used in reference to things which impress themselves upon me.</blockquote> {{okina}}E possessives are generally used for: *Goods, money, tools, utensils, instruments, weapons, vehicles, and other possessions which the subject owns or uses (''{{okina}}eku pa{{okina}}anga'', "my money") *Animals or birds which the subjects owns or uses (''{{okina}}eku fanga puaka'', "my pigs") *Things which the subject eats, drinks, or smokes (''{{okina}}eku me{{okina}}akai'', "my food") *Things which the subject originates, makes, mends, carries, or otherwise deals with (''{{okina}}eku kavenga'', "my burden") *Persons in the subject's employ, under their control, or in their care (''{{okina}}eku tamaio{{okina}}eiki'' "my male servant") Ho possessives are generally used for *Things which are a part of the subject or 'unalienable' from the subject, such as body parts (''hoku sino'', "my body") *Persons or things which represent the subject (''hoku hingoa'', "my name") *The subject's relatives, friends, associates, or enemies (''hoku hoa'', "my companion (spouse)") *Things which are provided for the subject or devolve to them or fall to their lot (''hoku tofi{{okina}}a'', "my inheritance") *In general, persons or things which surround, support, or control the subject, or on which the subject depends (''hoku kolo'', "my village/town") There are plenty of exceptions which do not fall under the guidelines above, for instance, ''{{okina}}eku tamai'', "my father". The number of exceptions is large enough to make the alienable and inalienable distinction appear on the surface to be as arbitrary as the [[grammatical gender]] distinction for Romance languages, but by and large the above guidelines hold true. =====Cardinal pronouns===== The cardinal pronouns are the main [[personal pronoun]]s which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the [[verb]], light colour) or postposed (after the verb, dark colour). The first are the normal alienable possessive pronouns, the latter the stressed alienable pronouns, which are sometimes uses as [[reflexive pronoun]]s, or with ''kia te'' in front the inalienable possessive forms. (There is no possession involved in the cardinal pronouns and therefore no alienable or inalienable forms). {| class="wikitable" |+Cardinal pronouns |- !colspan=2| !Position !Singular !Dual !Plural |- align=center !rowspan=4|1st person !rowspan=2|<small>exclusive <br>(I, we, us)</small> |preposed |u, ou, ku |ma |mau |- align=center |postposed |au |kimaua |kimautolu |- align=center !rowspan=2|<small>inclusive<br>(one, we, us)</small> |preposed |te |ta |tau |- align=center |postposed |kita |kitaua |kitautolu |- align=center !colspan=2 rowspan=2|2nd person |preposed |ke |mo |mou |- align=center |postposed |koe |kimoua |kimoutolu |- align=center !colspan=2 rowspan=2|3rd person |preposed |ne |na |nau |- align=center |postposed |ia |kinaua |kinautolu |} *all the preposed pronouns of one syllable only (ku, u, ma, te, ta, ke, mo, ne, na) are enclitics which never can take the stress, but put it on the vowel in front of them. Example: ''ʻoku naú'' versus ''ʻokú na'' (not: ''ʻoku ná''). *first person singular, ''I'' uses ''u'' after ''kuo'', ''te'', ''ne'', and also ''ka'' (becomes ''kau''), ''pea'', ''mo'' and ''ʻo''; but uses ''ou'' after ''ʻoku''; and uses ''ku'' after ''naʻa''. *first person inclusive (I and you) is somewhat of a misnomer, at least in the singular. The meanings of ''te'' and ''kita'' can often rendered as ''one'', that is the modesty ''I''. Examples of use. *Naʻa ''ku'' fehuʻi: I asked *Naʻe fehuʻi (ʻe) ''au'': I(!) asked (stressed) *ʻOku ''ou'' fehuʻi ''au'': I ask myself *Te ''u'' fehuʻi kiate ''koe'': I shall ask you *Te ''ke'' tali kiate ''au'': You will answer me *Kapau te ''te'' fehuʻi: If one would ask *''Tau'' ō ki he hulohula?: Are we (all) going to the ball? *Sinitalela, ''mau'' ō ki he hulohula: [[Cinderella]], we go to the ball (... said the evil stepmother, and she went with two of her daughters, but not Cinderella) Another archaic aspect of Tongan is the retention of preposed pronouns.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} They are used much less frequently in Sāmoan and have completely disappeared in East Polynesian languages, where the pronouns are cognate with the Tongan postposed form minus ''ki-''. (We love you: ʻOku ʻofa kimautolu kia te kimoutolu; Māori: e aroha nei mātou i a koutou). =====Possessive pronouns===== The [[Possessive pronoun|possessives]] for every person and number (1st person plural, 3rd person dual, etc.) can be further divided into normal or ordinary (light colour), emotional (medium colour) and emphatic (bright colour) forms. The latter is rarely used, but the two former are common and further subdivided in [[Definite pronoun|definite]] (saturated colour) and [[Indefinite pronoun|indefinite]] (greyish colour) forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:#ffd;" |- | rowspan="2" style="font-size:large" | Possessive<br/>pronouns | rowspan="2" | definite<br/>or not | rowspan="2" | type | colspan="2" | singular | colspan="2" | dual | colspan="2" | plural |- | style="background:#fea;"| alienable^2,5 | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable^2,5 | style="background:#fea;"| alienable^2,5 | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable^2,5 | style="background:#fea;"| alienable^2,5 | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable^2,5 |- ! rowspan="5" | 1st person<br>(exclusive)<br>(my, our) | style="background:#fea;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#ffa;"| ordinary | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻeku¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hoku | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻema¹ | style="background:#efa;"| homa | style="background:#fea;"| ''heʻ''emau¹ | style="background:#efa;"| homau |- | style="background:#edb;"| indefinite | style="background:#eda;"| haʻaku | style="background:#deb;"| haku | style="background:#eda;"| haʻama | style="background:#deb;"| hama | style="background:#eda;"| haʻamau | style="background:#deb;"| hamau |- | style="background:#fc7;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#fd7;"| emotional | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻeku | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻoku | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻema | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻoma | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻemau | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻomau |- | style="background:#eecc88;"| indefinite | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻaku | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻaku | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻama | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻama | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻamau | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻamau |- | colspan="2" style="background:#fd0;"| emphatic³ | style="background:#f94;"| haʻaku | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻoku | style="background:#f94;"| haʻamaua | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻomaua | style="background:#f94;"| haʻamautolu | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻomautolu |- ! rowspan="5" | 1st person<br>(inclusive)⁴<br>(my, our) | style="background:#fea;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#ffa;"| ordinary | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻete¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hoto | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻeta¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hota | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻetau¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hotau |- | style="background:#edb;"| indefinite | style="background:#eda;"| haʻate | style="background:#edeebb;"| hato | style="background:#eda;"| haʻata | style="background:#deb;"| hata | style="background:#eda;"| haʻatau | style="background:#deb;"| hatau |- | style="background:#fc7;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#fd7;"| emotional | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻete | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻoto | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻeta | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻota | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻetau | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻotau |- | style="background:#eecc88;"| indefinite | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻate | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻato | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻata | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻata | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻatau | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻatau |- | colspan="2" style="background:#fd0;"| emphatic³ | style="background:#f94;"| haʻata | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻota | style="background:#f94;"| haʻataua | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻotaua | style="background:#f94;"| haʻatautolu | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻotautolu |- ! rowspan="5" | 2nd person<br>(your) | style="background:#fea;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#ffa;"| ordinary | style="background:#fea;"| hoʻo | style="background:#efa;"| ho | style="background:#fea;"| hoʻomo | style="background:#efa;"| homo | style="background:#fea;"| hoʻomou | style="background:#efa;"| homou |- | style="background:#edb;"| indefinite | style="background:#eda;"| haʻo | style="background:#deb;"| hao | style="background:#eda;"| haʻamo | style="background:#deb;"| hamo | style="background:#eda;"| haʻamou | style="background:#deb;"| hamou |- | style="background:#fc7;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#fd7;"| emotional | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻo | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻo | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻomo | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻomo | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻomou | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻomou |- | style="background:#eecc88;"| indefinite | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻao | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻao | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻamo | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻamo | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻamou | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻamou |- | colspan="2" style="background:#fd0;"| emphatic³ | style="background:#f94;"| haʻau | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻou | style="background:#f94;"| haʻamoua | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻomoua | style="background:#f94;"| haʻamoutolu | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻomoutolu |- ! rowspan="5" | 3rd person<br>(his, her, its, their) | style="background:#fea;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#ffa;"| ordinary | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻene¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hono | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻena¹ | style="background:#efa;"| hona | style="background:#fea;"| ''he''ʻenau¹ | style="background:#efa;"| honau |- | style="background:#edb;"| indefinite | style="background:#eda;"| haʻane | style="background:#deb;"| hano | style="background:#eda;"| haʻana | style="background:#deb;"| hana | style="background:#eda;"| haʻanau | style="background:#deb;"| hanau |- | style="background:#fc7;"| definite | rowspan="2" style="background:#fd7;"| emotional | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻene | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻono | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻena | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻona | style="background:#fc7;"| siʻenau | style="background:#ddff88;"| siʻonau |- | style="background:#eecc88;"| indefinite | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻane | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻano | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻana | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻana | style="background:#eecc88;"| siʻanau | style="background:#ccee88;"| siʻanau |- | colspan="2" style="background:#fd0;"| emphatic³ | style="background:#f94;"| haʻana | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻona | style="background:#f94;"| haʻanaua | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻonaua | style="background:#f94;"| haʻanautolu | style="background:#9f4;"| hoʻonautolu |} Notes: #the ordinary definite possessives starting with ''he'' (in italics) drop this prefix after any word except ''ʻi, ki, mei, ʻe''. Example: ''ko ʻeku tohi'', my book; ''ʻi heʻeku tohi'', in my book. #all ordinary alienable possessive forms contain a [[fakauʻa]], the inalienable forms do not. #the emphatic forms are not often used, but if they are, they take the definitive accent from the following words (see below) #first person inclusive (me and you) is somewhat of a misnomer. The meanings of ''heʻete, hoto'', etc. can often rendered as ''one's'', that is the modesty ''me''. #the choice between an alienable or inalienable possessive is determined by the word or phrase it refers to. For example: ''ko ho fale'' '(it is) your house' (inalienable), ''ko ho'o tohi'', '(it is) your book' (alienable). *''Ko ho tohi, ko hoʻo fale''* are wrong. Some words can take either, but with a difference in meaning: ''ko ʻene taki'' 'his/her leadership'; ''ko hono taki'' 'his/her leader'. Examples of use. *ko haʻaku/haku kahoa: my garland (any garland from or for me) *ko ʻeku/hoku kahoa: my garland (it is my garland) *ko ʻeku/hoku kahoá: my garland, that particular one and no other *ko heʻete/hoto kahoa: one's garland {mine in fact, but that is not important} *ko siʻaku kahoa: my cherished garland (any cherished garland from or for me) *ko siʻeku/siʻoku kahoa: my cherished garland (it is my cherished garland) *ko haʻakú/hoʻokú kahoa: garland (emphatically mine) &ndash; that particular garland is mine and not someone else's *ko homa kahoa: our garlands (exclusive: you and I are wearing them, but not the person we are talking to) *ko hota kahoa: our garlands (inclusive: you and I are wearing them, and I am talking to you) =====Other pronouns===== These are the remainders: the pronominal adjectives (mine), [[indirect object]] pronouns or [[pronominal adverbs]] (for me) and the adverbial possessives (as me). {| class="wikitable" style="background:#ffd;" |- | rowspan="2" style="font-size:large" | other<br/>pronouns | rowspan="2" | type | colspan="2" | singular¹ | colspan="2" | dual | colspan="2" | plural |- | style="background:#fea;"| alienable | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable | style="background:#fea;"| alienable | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable | style="background:#fea;"| alienable | style="background:#efa;"| inalienable |- | rowspan="3" | 1st person<br>(exclusive)<br>(my, our) | style="background:#fea;"| pronominal adjective | style="background:#fea;"| ''ʻa''ʻaku | style="background:#efa;"| ''ʻo''ʻoku | style="background:#fea;"| ʻamaua | style="background:#efa;"| ʻomaua | style="background:#fea;"| ʻamautolu | style="background:#efa;"| ʻomautolu |- | style="background:#fc7;"| pronominal adverb | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻaku | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻoku | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻamaua | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻomaua | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻamautolu | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻomautolu |- | style="background:#fc4;"| adverbial possessive | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻaku | style="background:#af4;"| moʻoku | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻama | style="background:#af4;"| moʻoma | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻamau | style="background:#af4;"| moʻomau |- | rowspan="3" | 1st person<br>(inclusive)<br>(my, our) | style="background:#fea;"| pronominal adjective | style="background:#fea;"| ''ʻa''ʻata | style="background:#efa;"| ''ʻo''ʻota | style="background:#fea;"| ʻataua | style="background:#efa;"| ʻotaua | style="background:#fea;"| ʻatautolu | style="background:#efa;"| ʻotautolu |- | style="background:#fc7;"| pronominal adverb | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻata | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻota | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻataua | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻotaua | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻatautolu | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻotautolu |- | style="background:#fc4;"| adverbial possessive | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻate | style="background:#af4;"| moʻoto | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻata | style="background:#af4;"| moʻota | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻatau | style="background:#af4;"| moʻotau |- | rowspan="3" | 2nd person<br>(your) | style="background:#fea;"| pronominal adjective | style="background:#fea;"| ''ʻa''ʻau | style="background:#efa;"| ''ʻo''ʻou | style="background:#fea;"| ʻamoua | style="background:#efa;"| ʻomoua | style="background:#fea;"| ʻamoutolu | style="background:#efa;"| ʻomoutolu |- | style="background:#fc7;"| pronominal adverb | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻau | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻou | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻamoua | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻomoua | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻamoutolu | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻomoutolu |- | style="background:#fc4;"| adverbial possessive | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻo | style="background:#af4;"| moʻo | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻamo | style="background:#af4;"| moʻomo | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻamou | style="background:#af4;"| moʻomou |- | rowspan="3" | 3rd person<br>(his, her, its, their) | style="background:#fea;"| pronominal adjective | style="background:#fea;"| ''ʻa''ʻana | style="background:#efa;"| ''ʻo''ʻona | style="background:#fea;"| ʻanaua | style="background:#efa;"| ʻonaua | style="background:#fea;"| ʻanautolu | style="background:#efa;"| ʻonautolu |- | style="background:#fd7;"| pronominal adverb | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻana | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻona | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻanaua | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻonaua | style="background:#fc7;"| maʻanautolu | style="background:#ddff88;"| moʻonautolu |- | style="background:#fc4;"| adverbial possessive | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻane | style="background:#af4;"| moʻono | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻana | style="background:#af4;"| moʻona | style="background:#fa4;"| maʻanau | style="background:#af4;"| moʻonau |} Notes: #the first syllable in all singular pronominal adjectives (in italics) is reduplicated and can be dropped for somewhat less emphasis *the pronominal adjectives put a stronger emphasis on the possessor than the possessive pronouns do *the use of the adverbial possessives is rare Examples of use: *ko hono valá: it is his/her/its clothing/dress *ko e vala ʻona: it is his/her/its (!) clothing/dress *ko e vala ʻoʻona: it is his/her/its (!!!) clothing/dress *ko hono valá ʻona: it is his/her/its own clothing/dress *ko hono vala ʻoná: it is his/her/its own clothing/dress; same as previous *ko hono vala ʻoʻoná: it is his/her/its very own clothing/dress *ʻoku ʻoʻona ʻa e valá ni: this clothing is his/hers/its *ʻoku moʻona ʻa e valá: the clothing is for him/her/it *ʻoange ia moʻono valá: give it (to him/her/it) as his/hers/its clothing ===Numerals=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ 0-9 ! 0 | colspan="5" | noa |- ! 1 | taha ! 2 | ua ! 3 | tolu |- ! 4 | fā ! 5 | nima ! 6 | ono |- ! 7 | fitu ! 8 | valu ! 9 | hiva |} In Tongan, "telephone-style" numerals can be used: reading numbers by simply saying their digits one by one.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Churchward|first=Clerk Maxwell|title=Tongan grammar|publisher=Vava'u Press|year=1953|isbn=0-908717-05-9|edition=Pbk.|location=Tonga|pages=171|oclc=21337535}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unilang.org/course.php?res=81|title=UniLang • Tongan for Beginners|website=unilang.org|access-date=2020-04-08}}</ref> For 'simple' two-digit multiples of ten both the 'full-style' and 'telephone-style' numbers are in equally common use, while for other two-digit numbers the 'telephone-style' numbers are almost exclusively in use: {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ 10-90 'tens' ! # ! 'full-style' ! 'telephone-style' |- ! 10 | hongofulu | taha-noa |- ! 20 | ungofulu/uofulu | ua-noa |- ! 30 | tolungofulu | tolu-noa |- ! colspan="3" | ... |} | {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |+ 11-99 ! # ! 'full-style' ! 'telephone-style' |- ! 11 | hongofulu ma taha | taha-taha |- ! 24 | ungofulu ma fā | ua-fā |- ! colspan="3" | ... |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ exceptions ! # ! Tongan |- ! 22 | uo-ua |- ! 55 | nime-nima |- ! 99 | hive-hiva |} |} {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ 100-999 'simple' ! # ! Tongan |- ! 100 | teau |- ! 101 | teau taha |- ! 110 | teau hongofulu |- ! 120 | teau-ua-noa |- ! 200 | uongeau |- ! 300 | tolungeau |- ! colspan="2" | ... |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ 100-999 'complex' ! # ! Tongan |- ! 111 | taha-taha-taha |- ! 222 | uo-uo-ua |- ! 482 | fā-valu-ua |- ! colspan="2" | ... |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ 1000- ! # ! Tongan |- ! 1000 | taha-afe |- ! 2000 | ua-afe |- ! colspan="2" | ... |- ! 10000 | mano |- ! 100000 | kilu |- ! 1000000 | miliona |- ! colspan="2" | ... |} |} ʻOku fiha ia? (how much (does it cost)?) Paʻanga ʻe ua-nima-noa (T$2.50) In addition there are special, traditional counting systems for fish, coconuts, yams, etc.<ref>{{cite book | last = Churchward | first = C.M. | title = Tongan Grammar | publisher = Vava'u Press Limited | date = 1999 | pages = 184–189 | isbn = 982-213-007-4}}</ref> ==Literature== {{Refimprove section|date=January 2010}} One of the first publications of Tongan texts was in [[William Mariner (writer)|William Mariner]]'s grammar and dictionary of the Tongan language, edited and published in 1817 by [[John Martin (meteorologist)|John Martin]] as part of volume 2 of Mariner's ''Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean''.<ref>https://archive.org/details/b29335784_0002/page/352/mode/2up</ref> Orthography has changed since Mariner's time. An annotated list of dictionaries and vocabularies of the Tongan language is available at the website of the Bibliographical Society of America under the resource heading 'Breon Mitchell": https://bibsocamer.org/bibsite-home/list-of-resources/. Tongan is primarily a spoken, rather than written, language. The [[Bible]] and the [[Book of Mormon]] were translated into Tongan and few other books were written in it.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} There are several weekly and monthly magazines in Tongan, but there are no daily newspapers. Weekly newspapers, some of them twice per week: *''Ko e Kalonikali ʻo Tonga'' *''Ko e Keleʻa'' *''Taimi ʻo Tonga'' *''Talaki'' *''Ko e Tauʻatāina'' *''Tonga Maʻa Tonga'' Monthly or two-monthly papers, mostly church publications: *''Taumuʻa lelei'' ([[Catholic Church]]) *''Tohi fanongonongo'' ([[Free Wesleyan Church|Free Wesleyan]]) *''Liahona'' ([[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]])<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/liahona?lang=eng Online Tongan edition of Liahona, churchofjesuschrist.org]</ref> *''ʻOfa ki Tonga'' (Tokaikolo) ==Calendar== The Tongan calendar was based on the phases of the moon and had 13 months. The main purpose of the calendar, for Tongans, was to determine the time for the planting and cultivation of yams, which were Tonga's most important staple food. {| class="wikitable" ! Name !! Compared to Modern Calendar |- | Lihamuʻa || mid-November to early December |- | Lihamui || mid-December to early January |- | Vaimuʻa || mid-January to early February |- | Vaimui || mid-February to early March |- | Fakaafu Moʻui || mid-March to early April |- | Fakaaafu Mate || mid-April to early May |- | Hilingakelekele || mid-May to early June |- | Hilingameaʻa || mid-June to early July |- | ʻAoʻaokimasisiva || mid-July to early August |- | Fuʻufuʻunekinanga || mid-August to early September |- | ʻUluenga || mid-September to early October |- | Tanumanga || early October to late October |- | ʻOʻoamofanongo || late October to early November. |} <ref>[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jamel/1%20Taimi%20Ta%27u.htm ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027182528/http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jamel/1%20Taimi%20Ta%27u.htm |date=October 27, 2011 }}</ref> {| style="background:none;" |- |valign="top"| {|style="margin-right: 2em;" |- ! style="text-align:left; width:5em;"| Day ! style="text-align:left; width:8em;"| Tongan Term |- |Monday || Mōnite |- |Tuesday || Tūsite |- |Wednesday || Pulelulu |- |Thursday || Tuʻapulelulu |- |Friday || Falaite |- |Saturday || Tokonaki |- |Sunday || Sāpate |} | {| |- ! style="text-align:left; width:5em;"| Month ! style="text-align:left; width:7em;"| Transliteration |- |January || Sānuali |- |February || Fēpueli |- |March || Maʻasi |- |April || ʻEpeleli |- |May || Mē |- |June || Sune |- |July || Siulai |- |August || ʻAokosi |- |September || Sēpitema |- |October || ʻOkatopa |- |November || Nōvema |- |December || Tisema |} |} ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== *C.Maxwell Churchward, ''Tongan Grammar''. 1999. Tonga: Vavaʼu Press {{ISBN|982-213-007-4}} (previously: 1953. London: Oxford University Press ; 1985. Tonga: Vavaʼu Press {{ISBN|0-908717-05-9}}) *C.Maxwell Churchward, ''Tongan Dictionary: Tongan-English and English-Tongan''. 1999. Tonga: Vavaʼu Press (previsouly: 1959. London : Oxford University Press) *Edgar Tuʻinukuafe, ''A Simplified Dictionary of Modern Tongan''. 1993. Polynesian Press {{ISBN|0908597096}}, {{ISBN|978-0908597093}} ==External links== {{interwiki|code=to}} *[http://www.planet-tonga.com Planet Tonga] *[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tongan.htm Omniglot on Tongan] *[http://www.freelang.net/online/tongan.php Basic online Tongan–English and English–Tongan dictionary] {{Polynesian languages}} {{Oceania topic|Languages of}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Languages of Tonga]] [[Category:Tongic languages]] [[Category:Polynesian languages]] [[Category:Verb–subject–object languages]]'