Examine individual changes
This page allows you to examine the variables generated by the Edit Filter for an individual change.
Variables generated for this change
| Variable | Value |
|---|---|
Edit count of the user (user_editcount) | null |
Name of the user account (user_name) | '156.110.44.1' |
Age of the user account (user_age) | 0 |
Groups (including implicit) the user is in (user_groups) | [
0 => '*'
] |
Rights that the user has (user_rights) | [
0 => 'createaccount',
1 => 'read',
2 => 'edit',
3 => 'createtalk',
4 => 'writeapi',
5 => 'viewmywatchlist',
6 => 'editmywatchlist',
7 => 'viewmyprivateinfo',
8 => 'editmyprivateinfo',
9 => 'editmyoptions',
10 => 'abusefilter-log-detail',
11 => 'urlshortener-create-url',
12 => 'centralauth-merge',
13 => 'abusefilter-view',
14 => 'abusefilter-log',
15 => 'vipsscaler-test'
] |
Whether the user is editing from mobile app (user_app) | false |
Whether or not a user is editing through the mobile interface (user_mobile) | false |
Page ID (page_id) | 1743283 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Constitutional Convention (United States)' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'Constitutional Convention (United States)' |
Edit protection level of the page (page_restrictions_edit) | [] |
Last ten users to contribute to the page (page_recent_contributors) | [
0 => 'Randy Kryn',
1 => 'Espoo',
2 => 'TimothyBlue',
3 => 'Citation bot',
4 => 'Coolcaesar',
5 => 'Ltwin',
6 => 'Wtmitchell',
7 => '2A00:23C7:212D:4B00:D5E6:8AE5:A452:20A9',
8 => 'Filedelinkerbot',
9 => 'InternetArchiveBot'
] |
Page age in seconds (page_age) | 487148020 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | '' |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{redirect|Federal Convention}}
{{short description|Event in 1787 in Philadelphia creating the United States Constitution}}
{{Use American English|date = April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}}
{{US Constitution article series}}
The '''Constitutional Convention'''{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} (also known as the '''Philadelphia Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} the '''Federal Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} or the '''Grand Convention at Philadelphia'''){{Sfn|Odesser-Torpey|2013|p=26}}{{Sfn|Rossiter|1987}} took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as [[Independence Hall]]) in [[Philadelphia]]. Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the [[Articles of Confederation]], the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them [[James Madison]] of Virginia and [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected [[George Washington]] of Virginia, former commanding general of the [[Continental Army]] in the late [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution of the United States]], placing the Convention among the most significant events in American history.
At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Constitutional" convention, nor did most of the delegates arrive intending to draft a new constitution. Many assumed that the purpose of the convention was to discuss and draft improvements to the existing Articles of Confederation, and would have not agreed to participate otherwise. Once the convention began, however, most of the delegates – though not all – came to agree in general terms that the goal would be a new system of government, not simply a revised version of the Articles of Confederation.
Several broad outlines were proposed and debated, most notably James Madison's [[Virginia Plan]] and [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]'s [[New Jersey Plan]]. The Virginia Plan was selected as the basis for the new government. While the concept of a federal government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) and the general role of each branch was not heavily disputed, several issues delayed further progress and threatened the success of the convention. The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] as the upper legislative house of a [[bicameral]] [[United States Congress|Congress]]; whether "proportional representation" was to be defined by a state's geography or by its population, and whether slaves were to be counted; whether to divide the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] among three people or vest the power in a single chief executive to be called the President; how a president would be elected, for what term, and whether to limit each president to a single term; what offenses should be impeachable; the nature of a fugitive slave clause, and whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade; and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or the executive. Most of the time during the convention was spent on deciding these issues.
Progress was slow until mid-July when the [[Connecticut Compromise]] resolved enough lingering arguments for a draft written by the [[Committee of Detail]] to gain acceptance. Though more modifications and compromises were made over the following weeks, most of the rough draft remained in place and can be found in the finished version of the Constitution. After several more issues were resolved, the Committee of Style produced the final version in early September. It was voted on by the delegates, inscribed on parchment with engraving for printing, and signed by thirty-nine of fifty-five delegates on September 17, 1787. The completed proposed Constitution was then released to the public to begin the debate and [[History of the United States Constitution#Ratification of the Constitution|ratification process]].
==Historical context==
{{Further|History of the United States (1776–1789)}}
[[File:United States 1789-03 to 1789-08 eastern.jpg|thumb]]
During the [[American Revolution]], the [[Thirteen states|thirteen American states]] replaced their [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial governments]] with [[republic]]an constitutions based on the principle of [[separation of powers]], organizing government into [[legislative]], [[Executive (government)|executive]] and [[judicial]] branches. These revolutionary constitutions endorsed [[legislative supremacy]] by placing most power in the legislature—since it was viewed as most representative of the people—including power traditionally considered as belonging to the executive and judicial branches. State [[Governor (United States)|governors]] lacked significant authority, and state courts and judges were under the control of the legislative branch.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=155–156}}
After [[United States Declaration of Independence|declaring independence]] from Britain in 1776, the thirteen states created a permanent alliance to coordinate American efforts to win the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. This alliance, the [[United States]], was to be governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]], which was more of a treaty between independent countries than a national constitution.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=13–14}} The Articles were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] in 1777 but not finally ratified by all states until 1781.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|p=1}} During the [[Confederation Period]], the United States was essentially a federation of independent republics, with the Articles guaranteeing state sovereignty and independence. The Confederation was governed by the [[Congress of the Confederation]], a [[unicameral]] legislature whose members were chosen by the state legislatures and in which each state cast a single vote.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=4}} Congress was given a limited set of powers, mainly in the area of waging war and foreign affairs. It could not levy taxes or tariffs, and it could only request money from the states, with no power to force delinquent states to pay.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|pp=4–5}} Since the Articles could only be amended by a unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective [[veto]] power over any proposed change.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}} A [[super majority]] (nine of thirteen state delegations) was required for Congress to pass major legislation such as declaring war, making treaties, or borrowing money.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=41}} The Confederation had no executive or judicial branches, which meant the Confederation government lacked effective means to enforce its own laws and treaties against state non-compliance.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=47}} It soon became evident to nearly all that the Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various problems confronting the United States.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}}
Once the immediate task of winning the war had passed, states began to look to their own interests rather than those of the whole country. By the mid-1780s, states were refusing to provide Congress with funding, which meant the Confederation government could not pay the interest on its foreign debt, pay soldiers stationed along the Ohio River or defend American navigation rights on the Mississippi River against Spanish interference.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=20–21}} In 1782, Rhode Island vetoed an amendment that would have allowed Congress to levy taxes on imports to pay off federal debts. A second attempt was made to approve a federal impost in 1785; however, this time it was New York which disapproved.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=15}}
The Confederation Congress also lacked the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. Britain, France and Spain imposed various restrictions on American ships and products, while the US was unable to coordinate retaliatory trade policies. When states like Massachusetts or Pennsylvania placed reciprocal duties on British trade, neighboring states such as Connecticut and Delaware established [[free port]]s to gain an economic advantage. In the 1780s, some states even began applying customs duties against the trade of neighboring states.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=21–23}} In 1784, Congress proposed an amendment to give it powers over foreign trade; however, it failed to receive unanimous approval by the states.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=34}}
Many upper-class Americans complained that state constitutions were too democratic and, as a result, legislators were more concerned with maintaining popular approval than doing what was best for the nation. The most pressing example was the way state legislatures responded to calls for economic relief in the 1780s. Many people were unable to pay taxes and debts due to a post-war economic depression that was exacerbated by a scarcity of gold and silver [[coin]]s. States responded by issuing [[paper currency]], which often [[Currency appreciation and depreciation|depreciated]] in value, and by making it easier to defer tax and debt payments. These policies favored debtors at the expense of creditors, and it was proposed that Congress be given power to prevent such [[Populism|populist]] laws.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=74–88}}
When the government of Massachusetts refused to enact similar relief legislation, rural farmers resorted to violence in [[Shays' Rebellion]] (1786–1787). This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, [[Daniel Shays]], a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the [[Continental Army]]. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.{{Sfn|Richards|2003|pp=132–139}}
These and other issues greatly worried many of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] that the Union as it existed up to that point was in danger of breaking apart.{{Sfn|Palumbo|2009|pp=9–10}}{{Sfn|Kaminski|Leffler|1991|p=3}} In September 1786, delegates from five states met at the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] and invited all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation".{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=6}} Rhode Island was the only state that refused to send delegates, though it would become the last state to ratify the Constitution in May 1790.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html|title=Observing Constitution Day|date=August 21, 2016|website=archives.gov|publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817165833/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html|archive-date=August 17, 2019}}</ref>
== Operations and procedures ==
[[File:Independence_Hall_10.jpg|thumb|Independence Hall's Assembly Room]]
Originally planned to begin on May 14, the convention had to be postponed when very few of the selected delegates were present on that day due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century. On May 14, only delegates from Virginia and Pennsylvania were present.{{Sfn|Moehn|2003|p=37}} It was not until May 25 that a [[quorum]] of seven states was secured and the convention could begin inside the [[Independence Hall (United States)|Pennsylvania State House]].{{Sfn|Moehn|2003|p=37}} New Hampshire delegates would not join the convention until July 23, more than halfway through the proceedings.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=103}}
The first thing the Convention did was choose a presiding officer, unanimously electing [[George Washington]] president of the convention.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} The Convention then adopted rules to govern its proceedings. Each state delegation received a single vote either for or against a proposal in accordance with the majority opinion of the state's delegates.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=83}} This rule increased the power of the smaller states.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=51}}
When a state's delegates divided evenly on a motion, the state did not cast a vote. Throughout the convention, delegates would regularly come and go. Only 30 to 40 delegates were present on a typical day, and each state had its own quorum requirements. Maryland and Connecticut allowed a single delegate to cast its vote. New York required all three of its delegates to be present. If too few of a state's delegates were in attendance, the state did not cast a vote. After two of New York's three delegates abandoned the convention in mid-July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the convention, although [[Alexander Hamilton]] would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=83}}{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=51}}
The rules allowed delegates to demand reconsideration of any decision previously voted on. This allowed the delegates to take [[straw vote]]s to measure the strength of controversial proposals and to change their minds as they worked for consensus.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=82}} It was also agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=11}} Despite the sweltering summer heat, the windows of the meeting hall were nailed shut to keep the proceedings a secret from the public.<ref name="Pursuing American Ideals2">{{cite book|title=History Alive! Pursuing American Ideals|date=April 2013|publisher=Teachers' Curriculum Institute|location=Rancho Cordova, CA|page=56}}</ref> Although [[William Jackson (secretary)|William Jackson]] was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison's ''[[Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787]],'' supplemented by the notes of [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]], remain the most complete record of the convention.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|pp=162–64}} Due to the pledge to secrecy, Madison's account was not published until after his death in 1836.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-10-02-0001|title=Madison at the Federal Convention|website=founders.archives.gov|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration|language=en|accessdate=1 October 2019}}</ref>
== Madison's blueprint ==
[[File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg|thumb|James Madison, the author of the [[Virginia Plan]]]]
[[James Madison]] of Virginia arrived in Philadelphia eleven days early and determined to set the convention's agenda.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=129}} Before the convention, Madison studied republics and confederacies throughout history, such as ancient Greece and contemporary Switzerland.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=29}} In April 1787, he drafted a document entitled "Vices of the Political System of the United States", which systematically evaluated the American political system and offered solutions for its weaknesses.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=27}} Due to his advance preparation, Madison's blueprint for constitutional revision became the starting point for the convention's deliberations.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=128}}
Madison believed the solution to America's problems was to be found in a strong central government.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=29}} Congress needed compulsory taxation authority as well as power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=129}} To prevent state interference with the federal government's authority, Madison believed there needed to be a way to enforce the federal supremacy, such as an explicit right of Congress to use force against non-compliant states and the creation of a federal court system. Madison also believed the method of representation in Congress had to change. Since under Madison's plan, Congress would exercise authority over citizens directly—not simply through the states—representation ought to be apportioned by population, with more populous states having more votes in Congress.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=130}}
Madison was also concerned with preventing a [[tyranny of the majority]]. The government needed to be neutral between the various [[Political faction|factions]] or interest groups that divided society—creditors and debtors, rich and poor, or farmers, merchants and manufacturers. Madison believed that a single faction could more easily control the government within a state but would have a more difficult time dominating a national government comprising many different interest groups. The government could be designed to further insulate officeholders from the pressures of a majority faction. To protect both national authority and minority rights, Madison believed Congress should be granted veto power over state laws.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=131–132}}
== Early debates ==
[[File:Virginia Plan.png|thumb|Virginia Plan]]
[[File:Pinckney Plan.png|thumb|Charles Pinckney Plan]]
While waiting for the convention to formally begin, Madison sketched out his initial proposal, which became known as the [[Virginia Plan]] and reflected his views as a strong [[American nationalism|nationalist]]. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates agreed with Madison's plan and formed what came to be the predominant coalition within the convention.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=52}} The plan was modeled on the state governments and was written in the form of fifteen resolutions outlining basic principles. It lacked the system of [[Checks and Balances|checks and balances]] that would become central to the US Constitution.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=53}} It called for a supreme national government and was a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=91}} On May 29, [[Edmund Randolph]], the governor of Virginia, presented the Virginia Plan to the convention.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=86}}
The same day, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of South Carolina introduced his own plan that also greatly increased the power of the national government; however, the supporters of the Virginia Plan ensured that it, rather than Pinckney's plan, received the most consideration.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=99}} Many of Pinckney's ideas did appear in the final draft of the Constitution. His plan called for a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Delegates and a Senate. The popularly elected House would elect senators who would serve for four-year terms and represent one of four regions. The national legislature would have veto power over state laws. The legislature would elect a chief executive called a president. The president and his cabinet would have veto power over legislation. The plan also included a national judiciary.{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
On May 30, the Convention agreed, at the request of [[Gouverneur Morris]], "that a national government ought to be established consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive and Judiciary".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=102}} This was the convention's first move towards going beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation and instead produce an entirely new government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=102–104}} Once it had agreed to the idea of a supreme national government, the convention began debating specific parts of the Virginia Plan.
=== Congress ===
[[File:EdmundRandolph.jpeg|thumb|Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia, introduced the Virginia Plan]]
The Virginia Plan called for the unicameral Confederation Congress to be replaced with a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Congress. This would be a truly national legislature with power to make laws "in all cases to which the separate states are incompetent".{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=139}} It would also be able to veto state laws. Representation in both houses of Congress would be [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]] according either to "quotas of contribution" (a state's wealth as reflected in the taxes it paid) or the size of each state's non-slave population. The [[lower house]] of Congress would be directly elected by the people, while the [[upper house]] would be elected by the lower house from candidates nominated by state legislatures.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=139-140}}
==== Proportional representation ====
Immediately after agreeing to form a supreme national government, the delegates turned to the Virginia Plan's proposal for proportional representation in Congress.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=105}} Virginia, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the most populous states, were unhappy with the one-vote-per-state rule in the Confederation Congress because they could be outvoted by the smaller states despite representing more than half of the nation's population.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=56, 66}} Nevertheless, the delegates were divided over the best way to apportion representatives. Quotas of contribution appealed to southern delegates because they would include [[Slavery in the United States|slave]] property, but [[Rufus King]] of Massachusetts highlighted the impractical side of such a scheme. If the national government did not impose [[direct tax]]es (which, for the next century, it rarely did), he noted, representatives could not be assigned. Calculating such quotas would also be difficult due to lack of reliable data. Basing representation on the number of "free inhabitants" was unpopular with delegates from the South, where forty percent of the population was enslaved.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=56-58, 77|p=}} In addition, the small states were opposed to any change that decreased their own influence. Delaware's delegation threatened to leave the Convention if proportional representation replaced equal representation, so debate on apportionment was postponed.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=109}}
On June 9, [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]] of New Jersey reminded the delegates that they were sent to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, not to establish a national government. While he agreed that the Confederation Congress needed new powers, including the power to coerce the states, he was adamant that a confederation required equal representation for states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=149}} James Madison records his words as follows:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=178}}
{{quote|[The Articles of the Confederation] were therefore the proper basis of all the proceedings of the Convention. We ought to keep within its limits, or we should be charged by our constituents with usurpation . . . the Commissions under which we acted were not only the measure of our power. [T]hey denoted also the sentiments of the States on the subject of our deliberation. The idea of a national [Government] as contradistinguished from a federal one, never entered into the mind of any of them, and to the public mind we must accommodate ourselves. We have no power to go beyond the federal scheme, and if we had the people are not ripe for any other. We must follow the people; the people will not follow us.}}
==== Bicameralism and elections ====
{{quote box
| quote = In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.
| salign = right
| source = —James Madison, as recorded by Robert Yates, Tuesday June 26, 1787{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=431}}
| align = right
| width = 25%
}}
On May 31, the delegates discussed the structure of Congress and how its members would be selected. The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was familiar and had wide support. The [[British Parliament]] had an elected [[House of Commons]] and a hereditary [[House of Lords]]. All the states had bicameral legislatures except for Pennsylvania.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=89, 110}} The delegates quickly agreed that each house of Congress should be able to originate bills. They also agreed that the new Congress would have all the legislative powers of the Confederation Congress and veto power over state laws.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=121}}
There was some opposition to the popular election of the lower house or [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. [[Elbridge Gerry]] of Massachusetts and [[Roger Sherman]] of Connecticut feared the people were too easily misled by [[demagogue]]s and that popular election could lead to mob rule and anarchy. [[Pierce Butler]] of South Carolina believed that only wealthy men of property could be trusted with political power. The majority of the convention, however, supported popular election.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=110–116}} [[George Mason]] of Virginia said the lower house was "to be the grand depository of the democratic principle of the government."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=117}}
There was general agreement that the upper house or [[United States Senate|Senate]] should be smaller and more selective than the lower house. Its members should be [[gentlemen]] drawn from the most intelligent and virtuous among the citizenry.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=122}} Experience had convinced the delegates that such an upper house was necessary to tame the excesses of the democratically elected lower house.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=89, 110}} The Virginia Plan's method of selecting the Senate was more controversial. Members concerned with preserving state power wanted state legislatures to select senators, while [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]] of Pennsylvania proposed direct election by the people.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=119}} It was not until June 7 that the delegates unanimously decided that state legislatures would choose senators.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=64-65}}
==== Three-Fifths ratio ====
On the question of proportional representation, the three large states still faced opposition from the eight small states. James Wilson realized that the large states needed the support of the [[Deep South]] states of Georgia and the Carolinas. For these southern delegates, the main priority was protection of [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]].{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=67}} Working with [[John Rutledge]] of South Carolina, Wilson proposed the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]] on June 11. This resolution apportioned seats in the House of Representatives based on a state's free population plus three-fifths of its slave population. Nine states voted in favor, with only New Jersey and Delaware against.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=75-78}} This compromise would give the South at least a dozen additional congressmen and electoral college votes.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=79}} That same day, the large-state/slave-state alliance also succeeded in applying the three-fifths ratio to Senate seats (though this was later overturned).{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=80}}
=== Executive branch ===
As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions—law making embodied in the legislature and law executing embodied in the king and his courts—the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Even so, the form the executive should take, its powers and its selection would be sources of constant dispute through the summer of 1787.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=124}} At the time, few nations had nonhereditary executives that could serve as models. The [[Dutch Republic]] was led by a [[stadtholder]], but this office was usually inherited by members of the [[House of Orange]]. The [[Swiss Confederacy]] had no single leader, and the [[elective monarchies]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were viewed as corrupt.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=154}}
As a result of their colonial experience, Americans distrusted a strong chief executive. Under the Articles of Confederation, the closest thing to an executive was the [[Committee of the States]], which was empowered to transact government business while Congress was in recess. However, this body was largely inactive. The revolutionary state constitutions made the governors subordinate to the legislatures, denying them executive veto power over legislation. Without veto power, governors were unable to block legislation that threatened minority rights.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=125–126}} States chose governors in different ways. Many state constitutions empowered legislatures to select them, but several allowed direct election by the people. In Pennsylvania, the people elected an [[Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania|executive council]] and the legislature appointed one of its members to be chief executive.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=154}}
The Virginia Plan proposed a national executive chosen by Congress. It would have power to execute national laws and be vested with the power to make war and treaties.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=140}} Whether the executive would be a single person or a group of people was not defined.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=90}} The executive together with a "convenient number" of federal judges would form a [[Council of Revision]] with the power to veto any act of Congress. This veto could be overridden by an unspecified number of votes in both houses of Congress.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=140}}
==== Unitary executive ====
[[File:James-wilson.png|thumb|James Wilson's ideas shaped the American presidency more than any other delegate{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}}]]
James Wilson feared that the Virginia Plan made the executive too dependent on Congress. He argued that there should be a single, [[Unitary executive theory|unitary executive]]. Members of a multiple executive would most likely be chosen from different regions and represent regional interests. In Wilson's view, only a single executive could represent the entire nation while giving "energy, dispatch, and responsibility" to the government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}}
Wilson used his understanding of civic virtue as defined by the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] to help design the presidency. The challenge was to design a properly constituted executive that was fit for a republic and based on civic virtue by the general citizenry. He spoke 56 times calling for a chief executive who would be energetic, independent, and accountable. He believed that the moderate level of class conflict in American society produced a level of sociability and inter-class friendships that could make the presidency the symbolic leader of the entire American people. Wilson did not consider the possibility of bitterly polarized [[Political parties in the United States|political parties]]. He saw [[popular sovereignty]] as the cement that held America together linking the interests of the people and of the presidential administration. The president should be a man of the people who embodied the national responsibility for the public good and provided transparency and accountability by being a highly visible national leader, as opposed to numerous largely anonymous congressmen.{{Sfn|Taylor|Hardwick|2009|pp=331–346.}}{{Sfn|McCarthy|1987|pp=689–696}}{{Sfn|DiClerico|1987|pp=301–317}}
On June 1, Wilson proposed that "the Executive consist of a single person." This motion was seconded by Charles Pinckney, whose plan called for a single executive and specifically named this official a "president".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}} Roger Sherman objected in favor of something similar to a [[parliamentary system]] in which the executive should be appointed by and directly accountable to the legislature. Edmund Randolph agreed with Wilson that the executive needed "vigor", but he disapproved of a unitary executive, which he feared was "the [[foetus]] of monarchy".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=128}} Randolph and George Mason led the opposition against a unitary executive, but most delegates agreed with Wilson. The prospect that George Washington would be the first president may have allowed the proponents of a unitary executive to accumulate a large coalition. Wilson's motion for a single executive passed on June 4.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=128, 134}} Initially, the convention set the executive's term of office to seven years, but this would be revisited.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=136}}
==== Election, removal and the veto ====
Wilson also argued that the executive should be directly elected by the people. Only through direct election could the executive be independent of both Congress and the states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=129}} This view was unpopular. A few delegates such as Roger Sherman, Elbridge Gerry, and Pierce Butler opposed the direct election of the executive because they considered the people too easily manipulated. However, most delegates did not question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century. Due to a lack of information, the average voter would be too ignorant about the candidates to make an informed decision.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=130}}
A majority of delegates favored the president's election by Congress for a seven-year term; though there was concern that this would give the legislature too much power. Southern delegates supported selection by state legislatures, but this was opposed by nationalists such as Madison who feared that such a president would become a [[Power broker (politics)|power broker]] between different states interests rather than a symbol of national unity. Realizing that direct election was impossible, Wilson proposed what would become the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]]—the states would be divided into districts in which voters would choose electors who would then elect the president. This would preserve the separation of powers and keep the state legislatures out of the selection process. Initially, however, this scheme received little support.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=135-136}}
The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved. Resolution was achieved by adjustment to the electoral college proposal. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem, therefore, was a contested issue. Most thought that the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] should then choose the president since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the House would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=136}}
The Virginia Plan made no provision for removing the executive. On June 2, [[John Dickinson]] of Delaware proposed that the president be removed from office by Congress at the request of a majority of state legislatures. Madison and Wilson opposed this state interference in the national executive branch. Sherman argued that Congress should be able to remove the president for any reason in what was essentially a [[vote of no-confidence]]. George Mason worried that would make the president a "mere creature of the legislature" and violate the separation of powers. Dickinson's motion was rejected, but in the aftermath of the vote there was still no consensus over how an unfit president should be removed from office.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=141-142}}
On June 4, the delegates debated the Council of Revision. Wilson and [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York disagreed with the mixing of executive and judicial branches. They wanted the president to have an absolute veto to guarantee his independence from the legislative branch. Remembering how colonial governors used their veto to "extort money" from the legislature, [[Benjamin Franklin]] of Pennsylvania opposed giving the president an absolute veto. Gerry proposed that a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress be able to overrule any veto of the Council of Revision. This was amended to replace the council with the president alone, but Madison insisted on retaining a Council of Revision and consideration of the veto power was postponed.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=138-140}}
The office of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term but also to provide presidential electors with an incentive to vote for at least one out of state candidate in addition to a "favorite son" from their own state or region.
=== Judiciary ===
In the English tradition, judges were seen as agents of the king and his court who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through [[patronage]], and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch" of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}
On June 4, delegates unanimously agreed to a national judiciary "of one supreme tribunal and one or more inferior tribunals". The delegates disagreed on how federal judges should be chosen. The Virginia Plan called for the national legislature to appoint judges. James Wilson wanted the president to appoint judges to increase the power of that office.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=236}}
On June 13, the revised report on the Virginia Plan was issued. This report summarized the decisions made by the delegates in the first two weeks of the convention. It was agreed that a "national judiciary be established, to consist of one supreme tribunal". Congress would have the power to create and appoint inferior courts. Judges were to hold office [[Good Behavior Clause|"during good behavior"]], and the Senate would appoint them.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=159}}
=== Alternative plans ===
[[File:New Jersey Plan.png|thumb|New Jersey Plan]]
The small state delegates were alarmed at the plan taking shape: a supreme national government that could override state laws and proportional representation in both houses of Congress.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=88}} William Paterson and other delegates from New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland and New York created an alternative plan that consisted of several amendments to the Articles of Confederation. Under the [[New Jersey Plan]], as it was called, the Confederation Congress would remain unicameral with each state having one vote. Congress would be allowed to levy tariffs and other taxes as well as regulate trade and commerce. Congress would elect a plural "federal executive" whose members would serve a single term and could be removed by Congress at the request of a majority of state governors. There would also be a federal judiciary to apply US law. Federal judges would serve for life and be appointed by the executives. Laws enacted by Congress would take precedence over state laws. This plan was introduced on June 15.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=161-162}}{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=90-91}}{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
[[File:Hamilton Plan.png|thumb|Hamilton's Plan]]
On June 18, [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York presented his own plan that was at odds with both the Virginia and New Jersey plans. It called for the constitution to be modeled on the [[British Government|British government]]. The bicameral legislature included a lower house called the Assembly elected by the people for three year terms. The people would choose electors who would elect the members of a Senate who served for life. Electors would also choose a single executive called the governor who would also serve for life. The governor would have an absolute veto over bills. There would also be a national judiciary whose members would serve for life. Hamilton called for the abolition of the states (or at least their reduction to sub-jurisdictions with limited powers). Some scholars have suggested that Hamilton presented this radical plan to help secure passage of the Virginia Plan by making it seem moderate by comparison. The plan was so out of step with political reality that it was not even debated, and Hamilton would be troubled for years by accusations that he was a [[Monarchism|monarchist]].{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=94-95}}{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
On June 19, the delegates voted on the New Jersey Plan. With the support of the slave states and Connecticut, the large states defeated the plan by a 7–3 margin. Maryland's delegation was divided, so it did not vote.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=96}} This did not end the debate over representation. Rather, the delegates found themselves in a stalemate that lasted into July.
==Compromising on apportionment==
===Connecticut Compromise===
{{Main|Connecticut Compromise}}
[[File:Roger Sherman 1721-1793 by Ralph Earl.jpeg|thumb|Roger Sherman of Connecticut]]
On several occasions, the Connecticut delegation—Roger Sherman, [[Oliver Ellsworth]] and [[William Samuel Johnson]]—proposed a compromise that the House would have proportional representation and the Senate equal representation.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=164}} A version of this compromise had originally been crafted and proposed by Sherman on June 11. He agreed with Madison that the Senate should be composed of the wisest and most virtuous citizens, but he also saw its role as defending the rights and interests of the states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=150}} James Madison recorded Sherman's June 11 speech as follows:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=196}}
{{quote|Mr. Sherman proposed that the proportion of suffrage in the 1st branch should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. He said as the States would remain possessed of certain individual rights, each State ought to be able to protect itself: otherwise a few large States will rule the rest. The House of Lords in England he observed had certain particular rights under the Constitution, and hence they have an equal vote with the House of Commons that they may be able to defend their rights.}}
On June 29, Johnson made a similar point: "that in one branch, the people ought to be represented; in the other, the states."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=181}} Neither side was ready yet to embrace the concept of [[divided sovereignty]] between the states and a federal government, however.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=173}} The distrust between large and small state delegates had reached a low point, exemplified by comments made on June 30 by [[Gunning Bedford Jr]]. As reported by Robert Yates, Bedford stated:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|pp=500–501}}
{{quote|I do not, gentlemen, trust you. If you possess the power, the abuse of it could not be checked; and what then would prevent you from exercising it to our destruction? . . . Yes, sir, the larger states will be rivals but not against each other—they will be rivals against the rest of the states . . . Will you crush the smaller states, or must they be left unmolested? Sooner than be ruined, there are foreign powers who will take us by the hand.}}
=== Grand Committee ===
[[File:Benjamin Franklin by Joseph Siffrein Duplessis.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania]]
As the convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states present at that time at the convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included William Paterson of New Jersey, [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]] of New York, [[Luther Martin]] of Maryland, Gunning Bedford, Jr. of Delaware, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, [[Abraham Baldwin]] of Georgia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, George Mason of Virginia, [[William Davie]] of North Carolina, [[John Rutledge]] of South Carolina and [[Benjamin Franklin]] of Pennsylvania.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=200}} The committee's composition heavily favored the smaller states, as even the large state delegates tended to be more moderate.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=110}}
While the Convention took a three-day recess in observance of the [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]] holiday, the Grand Committee began its work.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=110}} Franklin proposed and the committee adopted a compromise similar to the Connecticut plan. Membership in the House would be apportioned by population, with members elected from districts of forty thousand people. Each state would have an equal vote in the Senate. To gain large state support, however, Franklin proposed that the House of Representatives have exclusive power to originate bills concerned with raising money or government salaries (this would become the [[Origination Clause]]).{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=201}}
=== Revisiting the three-fifths ratio ===
The committee presented its report on July 5, but the compromise was not immediately adopted by the convention. For the next eleven days, the Convention stalled as delegates attempted to gain as many votes for their states as possible.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=115}} On July 6, a five-man committee was appointed to allocate specific numbers of representatives to each state. It called for a 56–member House of Representatives and used "[t]he number of blacks and whites with some regard to supposed wealth" as a basis of allocating representatives to each state. The Northern states had 30 representatives while the Southern states had 26. Delegates from non-slave states objected to counting slaves as they could not vote.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=116–117}}{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=208}}
On July 9, a new committee was chosen to reconsider the allocation of representatives. This time there were eleven members, one from each state. It recommended a 65–member House with allocation of representatives based on the number of free inhabitants and three-fifths of slaves. Under this new scheme, Northern states had 35 representatives and the South had 30. Southern delegates protested the North's greater representation and argued that their growing populations had been underestimated. The Committee of Eleven's report was approved, but the divergent interests of the Northern and Southern states remained obstacles to reaching consensus.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=208}}
On July 10, Edmund Randolph called for a regular [[United States Census|census]] on which to base future reallocation of House seats.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=118}} During the debate on the census, South Carolina delegates Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney sought to replace the three-fifths ratio with a full count of the slave population. They argued that slave property contributed to the wealth of the Southern states and as such should be used in calculating representation. This irritated Northern delegates already reluctant to support the three-fifths compromise. James Wilson, one of the authors of the three-fifths compromise, asked, "Are slaves to be admitted as Citizens? Then why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens? Are they admitted as property? Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?"{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=209–210}}
After fierce debate, the delegates voted to apportion representation and [[direct tax]]ation based on all white inhabitants and three-fifths of the slave population. This formula would apply to the existing states as well as any states created in the future. The first census would occur six years after the new federal government began operations and every ten years afterwards.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=211–213}}
=== Great Compromise adopted ===
On July 14, John Rutledge and James Wilson attempted to secure proportional representation in the Senate. Charles Pinckney proposed a form of semi-proportional representation in which the smaller states would gain more representation than under a completely proportional system. This proposal was defeated.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=123–124}}
In a close vote on July 16, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise) as recommended by the Grand Committee.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=124}} On July 23, the convention decided that each state should have two senators rather than three. It rejected a proposal by Luther Martin of Maryland that senators from the same state cast a single joint vote, which was the practice in the Confederation Congress. Martin believed this was necessary if the Senate was to represent the interests of the states. Instead, the convention gave senators individual voting power.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=208}} This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress's choice to make national laws. <ref>Laurence Claus, The Framers' Compromise, 67 American Journal of Comparative Law, 677 (2019) https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492 https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext</ref>The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=199}}
==Further debate==
===Federal supremacy===
On July 17, the delegates worked to define the powers of Congress. The Virginia Plan asserted the supremacy of the national government, giving Congress authority "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" and stating that congressional legislation would take precedence over conflicting state laws. In a motion introduced by Gunning Bedford, the Convention approved this provision with only South Carolina and Georgia voting against. Four small states—Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland—accepted the expansion of congressional power. Later in life, Madison explained that this was a result of the Great Compromise. Once the small states were assured they would be represented in the new government, they "exceeded all others in zeal" for a strong national government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=227–228}}
The Virginia Plan also gave Congress veto power over state laws. Madison believed this provision was crucial to prevent the states from engaging in irresponsible behavior, such as had occurred under the Confederation government. Gouverneur Morris feared the congressional veto would alienate states that might otherwise support the Constitution. Luther Martin argued that it would be too impractical and time-consuming, asking "Shall the laws of the states be sent up to the general legislature before they shall be permitted to operate?"{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=228}}
The Convention rejected the congressional veto. In its place, Martin proposed language taken from the New Jersey Plan that was unanimously approved by the convention: "that the Legislative acts of the US made by virtue and pursuance of the articles of Union, and all treaties made and ratified under the authority of the US shall be the supreme law of the respective States . . . and that the . . . States shall be bound thereby in their decisions".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=229}}
===Selecting and removing the president===
In June, the delegates voted to let Congress appoint the executive, but there remained concerns that this would make the executive branch subservient to the legislature. On July 17, the Convention returned to the topic. Direct election by the people was defeated by a nine to one vote. Luther Martin then proposed an amended version of James Wilson's idea for an electoral college, first introduced in June. Wilson had proposed that people vote for electors who would then select the president. Martin's version called for state legislatures to choose electors, but this was also defeated.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=232}} Later, on July 19, Elbridge Gerry unsuccessfully proposed that governors choose electors, a policy that would have increased state influence over the presidency.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=241}}
After reaffirming Congressional selection, the delegates voted to allow the president to serve multiple terms, a reversal of their earlier decision to limit the president to serving a single, seven–year term. [[James McClurg]] of Virginia went further and proposed that the president serve a lifelong term "during good behavior". McClurg believed this would protect the independence of the executive branch, but this was rejected for being too close to monarchy.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=232–234}}
The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]]. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's [[Minister of the Crown|ministers]] (see [[Impeachment in the United Kingdom]]).{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=154–155}}
===Appointing judges===
Needing a break from discussing the presidency, the delegates once again considered the judicial branch on July 18. They were still divided over the method of appointment. Half of the Convention wanted the Senate to choose judges, while the other half wanted the president to do it. Luther Martin supported Senate appointment because he thought that body's members would defend the interests of the individual states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=237}}
Nathaniel Gorham suggested a compromise—appointment by the president with the "[[advice and consent]] of the Senate". While the meaning of "advice and consent" was still undefined, the proposal gained some support. On July 21, Madison offered an alternative compromise—the president would appoint judges but the Senate could veto an appointment by a two-thirds majority. This proposal would have made it very hard for the Senate to block judicial appointments. Madison's proposal failed to garner support, and the delegates ended by reaffirming that the Senate would appoint judges.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=238}}
On July 21, Wilson and Madison tried unsuccessfully to revive Madison's council of revision. While judges had a role in reviewing the constitutionality of laws, argued Gorham, mixing the policy judgments of the president with the legal judgments of a court would violate separation of powers. John Rutledge agreed, saying "judges ought never to give their opinion on a law till it comes before them".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=237–238}}
==First draft==
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the [[Committee of Detail]], which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by [[John Rutledge]], with the other members including [[Edmund Randolph]], [[Oliver Ellsworth]], [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]], and [[Nathaniel Gorham]].
Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge's edits, and the committee's final report to the convention.<ref name="Stewart">{{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|title= The Summer of 1787|year= 2007|publisher= Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3}}</ref>{{rp|168}} From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the [[Articles of Confederation]], provisions of the state constitutions, and even [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney's]] plan, to produce the first full draft,{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=269–70}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}} which author [[David O. Stewart]] has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}}
Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=270}}
Much of what was included in the committee's report consisted of numerous details that the convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|169}} Examples of these details included the [[Speech and Debate Clause]], which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.
However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge's urging, the committee went beyond what the convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the convention had never discussed.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}}
The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union" that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated" powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=273–74}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|170–71}} Rutledge, however, was not able to convince all the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "[[Necessary and Proper Clause]]") was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=274}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|171–72}} Another revision of Wilson's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge's list of enumerated powers.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=274–75}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}} In addition, Wilson's draft modified the language of the [[Supremacy Clause]] adopted by the convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}}
These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}}
Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee's report was presented to the convention. On the day the convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=269, 275}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|173}} In response to Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates, the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's "[[Navigation Acts]]") pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals provoked outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=275}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|173–74}}
The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.
==Further modifications and concluding debate==
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|187}} Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.
One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the [[Fugitive Slave Clause]] in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|196}}
Once the convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to ''[[habeas corpus]]'', [[freedom of the press]], and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.
A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|207}} The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with indigenous tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|209}} They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty".
The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment trials]] from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie-breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|212}} One controversial issue throughout much of the convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be [[term limit]]ed. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.
Near the end of the convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|235}} Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival [[Patrick Henry]] in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|236}} Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.
Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment that required two-thirds of the states to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|238}} All amendments to the Constitution, save the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|21st amendment]], have been made through this latter method.
Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the convention's business to an end and return home. As the convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a [[bill of rights]], which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|241}}
Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the [[anti-Federalist]]s against ratification. Most of the convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|243}}
==Drafting and signing==
{{further|Signing of the United States Constitution}}[[File:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.jpg|upright=1.6|thumb|''[[Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States]]'', by [[Howard Chandler Christy]] (1940)]]
Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members mostly supported a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|229–30}} They were [[William Samuel Johnson]] (Connecticut), [[Alexander Hamilton]] (New York), [[Gouverneur Morris]] (Pennsylvania), [[James Madison]] (Virginia), and [[Rufus King]] (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the [[contract clause]].<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|243}}
Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: [[Edmund Randolph]] of [[Virginia]], [[George Mason]] of [[Virginia]], and [[Elbridge Gerry]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[George Mason]] demanded a [[Bill of rights|Bill of Rights]] if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow.<ref name="bor">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html|author=National Archives|title=Bill of Rights|accessdate=March 7, 2016|date=October 30, 2015}}</ref> Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. [[George Washington]] spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|112}} Ultimately, 39 of the 55 delegates who attended (74 had been chosen from 12 states) ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who said, "I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies ..."<ref>[http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html Speech of Benjamin Franklin – The U_S_ Constitution Online – USConstitution_net]</ref>[[File:Constitution Sesquicentennial 1937 Issue-3c.jpg|thumb|U.S. Postage, Issue of 1937, depicting Delegates at the signing of the Constitution, engraving after a painting by [[Junius Brutus Stearns]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm |title=United States Postage Stamps |access-date=May 27, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721173825/http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm |archive-date=July 21, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton."<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|244}} Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.
At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an [[anecdote]] on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's [[Chippendale furniture|Chippendale chair]].<ref name="RisingSun">"Rising Sun" in ''The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding'', Vol. 1 (ed. John R. Vile: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 681.</ref> As recounted in Madison's notes:
<blockquote>Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.<ref name="RisingSun"/><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp Madison Notes for September 17, 1787].</ref></blockquote>
The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own [[United States Constitution#Article Seven: Ratification|Article VII]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Akhil Reed Amar|title=America's Constitution: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC|year=2006|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-8129-7272-6|page=29}}</ref>
==Slavery==
[[Slavery in the United States|Slavery]] was one of the most difficult issues confronting the delegates. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the convention.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68}} At least a third of the convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68–69}} Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states,<ref name=USDLCB>{{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=D.C. |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit}}</ref>{{rp|139}} and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived in all regions of the country.<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} However, more than 90% of the slaves<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families).<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|135}} The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the convention were unwilling to accept any proposal that they believed would threaten the institution.
===Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise===
[[File:JohnDickinson4.gif|thumb|upright|Quaker [[John Dickinson (politician)|John Dickinson]] argued forcefully against slavery during the convention. Once Delaware's largest slaveholder, he had freed all of his slaves by 1787.]]
Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states{{which|date=September 2019}} refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery be outlawed within the new nation. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=318–29}}
===Three-Fifths Compromise===
{{Main|Three-Fifths Compromise}}
Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation.<ref name="crf">{{cite web|url=http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm |author=Constitutional Rights Foundation |title=The Constitution and Slavery |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm |archivedate=February 25, 2004 |accessdate=September 15, 2016 }}</ref> Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population.<ref name="crf"/> Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.<ref name="crf"/> Finally, delegate [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]] proposed the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]].{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}} This was eventually adopted by the convention.
{{Anchor|Framers}}
==Framers of the Constitution==
<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor. If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. This template is {{subst:Anchor comment}} -->
Fifty-five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, and are considered the Framers of the Constitution, although only 39 delegates actually signed.<ref name=Nara70/><ref name=Rodell1986>{{cite book |last=Rodell |first=Fred |title=55 Men: The Story of the Constitution, Based on the Day-by-Day Notes of James Madison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4 |year=1986 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-4409-6 |page=4}}</ref> The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who would ultimately craft the Constitution.<ref name=Nara70>{{cite web |title=Meet the Framers of the Constitution |website=America's Founding Documents |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |year=2017 |url=https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers |archivedate=2017-08-27 }}</ref>
Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command.<ref name=Nara29>{{cite web |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |website=The Charters of Freedom |title=The Founding Fathers: A Brief Overview |url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html |archivedate=2016-10-06 |date=October 30, 2015 }}</ref> All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}} The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|25}} Several had been state governors.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}}<ref name=Nara29/> Only two delegates, [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], would sign all three of the nation's founding documents: the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[Articles of Confederation]], and the Constitution.<ref name=Nara29/>
More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. Others were merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers. Several were physicians or small farmers, and one was a minister.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=65–68}}<ref name=Nara29/> Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, except for Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=66–67}} George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.<ref name=Nara29/>
Their depth of knowledge and experience in self-government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris semi-seriously wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Webb |first1=Derek A.
|title=Doubting a little of one's infallibility: The real miracle at Philadelphia – National Constitution Center
|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/
|website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org
|accessdate=15 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jefferson |first1=Thomas
|title=Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, August 30, 1787
|url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/
|website=The Library of Congress |accessdate=15 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
Delegates used two streams of intellectual tradition,{{clarify|date=March 2019}} and any one delegate could be found using both or a mixture depending on the subject under discussion: foreign affairs, the economy, national government, or federal relationships among the states.
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
*'''[[Connecticut]]'''
** [[Oliver Ellsworth]]*
** [[William Samuel Johnson]]
** [[Roger Sherman]]
*'''[[Delaware]]'''
** [[Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)|Richard Bassett]]
** [[Gunning Bedford, Jr.]]
** [[Jacob Broom]]
** [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]]
** [[George Read (signer)|George Read]]
*'''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]'''
** [[Abraham Baldwin]]
** [[William Few]]
** [[William Houstoun (lawyer)|William Houstoun]]*
** [[William Pierce (politician)|William Pierce]]*
*'''[[Maryland]]'''
** [[Daniel Carroll]]
** [[Luther Martin]]*
** [[James McHenry]]
** [[John Francis Mercer]]*
** [[Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer]]
*'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
** [[Elbridge Gerry]]*
** [[Nathaniel Gorham]]
** [[Rufus King]]
** [[Caleb Strong]]*
*'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
** [[Nicholas Gilman]]
** [[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]
*'''[[New Jersey]]'''
** [[David Brearley]]
** [[Jonathan Dayton]]
** [[William Houston]]*
** [[William Livingston]]
** [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]
*'''[[New York (state)|New York]]'''
** [[Alexander Hamilton]]
** [[John Lansing Jr.]]*
** [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]]*
*'''[[North Carolina]]'''
** [[William Blount]]
** [[William Richardson Davie]]*
** [[Alexander Martin]]*
** [[Richard Dobbs Spaight]]
** [[Hugh Williamson]]
*'''[[Pennsylvania]]'''
** [[George Clymer]]
** [[Thomas Fitzsimons]]
** [[Benjamin Franklin]]
** [[Jared Ingersoll]]
** [[Thomas Mifflin]]
** [[Gouverneur Morris]]
** [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]]
** [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]]
*'''[[South Carolina]]'''
** [[Pierce Butler]]
** [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]
** [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]]
** [[John Rutledge]]
*'''[[Virginia]]'''
** [[John Blair Jr.|John Blair]]
** [[James Madison]]
** [[George Mason]]*
** [[James McClurg]]*
** [[Edmund Randolph]]*
** [[George Washington]]
** [[George Wythe]]*
*'''[[Rhode Island]]'''
**''Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.''
{{colend}}
(*) ''Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.''
Several prominent [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] are notable for ''not'' participating in the Constitutional Convention. [[Thomas Jefferson]] was abroad, serving as the minister to France.{{Sfn|Farrand|1913|p=13}} [[John Adams]] was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. [[Patrick Henry]] refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were [[John Hancock]] and [[Samuel Adams]]. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention,{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}} which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.
==In popular culture==
* The 1989 film ''[[A More Perfect Union (film)|A More Perfect Union]]'', which portrays the events and discussions of the Constitutional Convention, was largely filmed in Independence Hall.
* In the 2015 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway musical]] ''[[Hamilton (musical)|Hamilton]]'', Alexander Hamilton's proposal of his own plan during the Constitutional Convention was featured in the song "Non-Stop", which concluded the first act.
==See also==
* [[Constitution Day (United States)]]
* [[Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution]]
* ''[[The Federalist Papers]]''
*[[History of the United States Constitution]]
* [[National Constitution Center]]
*[[Syng inkstand]]
* [[Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution]]
* [[United States Bill of Rights]]
{{reflist|group=History Alive!}}
==References==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|20em}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Beeman|first=Richard|title=Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution|year=2009|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7|ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC}}
* {{cite book | last = Bowen | first = Catherine Drinker | author-link = Catherine Drinker Bowen | title = [[Miracle at Philadelphia|Miracle At Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention]] | publisher = [[Little, Brown]] | year = 1966 | isbn = 978-0316103985 | ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Claus|first=Laurence|date=2019|title=The Framers' Compromise|journal=American Journal of Comparative Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=67|issue=3|pages=677–84|doi=10.1093/ajcl/avz022}}
*{{Cite journal|last=DiClerico|first=Robert E.|date=Spring 1987|title=James Wilson's Presidency|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|publisher=Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress|volume=17|issue=2|pages=301–317|jstor=40574453|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Farrand|first= Max|title= The Framing of the Constitution of the United States|year= 1913|publisher= Yale University Press|location= New Haven|isbn= |url=https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Jillson|first= Calvin C. |title= American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)|year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location= |isbn= 978-0-203-88702-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kaminski | first1 = John P. | last2 = Leffler | first2 = Richard | title = Creating the Constitution: A History in Documents | publisher = Center for the Study of the American Constitution | year = 1991 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Klarman | first = Michael J. | author-link = Michael Klarman | title = The Framers' Coup: The Making of the United States Constitution | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2016 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I-DeDAAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0190865962 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1= Larson|first1= Edward J.|last2= Winship |first2=Michael P.|title= The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison|year= 2005|publisher= The Modern Library|location= New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ|isbn= 0-8129-7517-0|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=McCarthy|first=Daniel J.|date=Fall 1987|title=James Wilson and the Creation of the Presidency|url=|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|publisher=Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress|volume=17|issue=4|pages=689–696|jstor=27550478|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Moehn|first=Heather|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37|title=The U.S. Constitution: A Primary Source Investigation Into the Fundamental Law of the United States|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003|isbn=9780823938049|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite web|url=https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html|title=Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention|last=Mount|first=Steve|date=March 12, 2012|website=USConstitution.net|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html|archive-date=November 7, 2019|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Odesser-Torpey|first=Marilyn|title=Insiders' Guide to Philadelphia & Pennsylvania Dutch Country|year=2013|publisher=Morris Book Publishing, LLC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage|isbn=9780762756995|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Padover | first1 = Saul K. | author-link = Saul K. Padover | last2 = Landynski | first2 = Jacob W. | title = The Living U.S. Constitution | publisher = Meridian | edition = 3rd rev. | year = 1995 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0452011472 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Palumbo | first = Arthur E. | title = The Authentic Constitution: An Originalist View of America's Legacy | publisher = Algora Publishing | year = 2009 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC | isbn = 9780875867076 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Richards|first=Leonard|title=Shays's Rebellion:The American Revolution's Final Battle|year=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8122-1870-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Rossiter|first=Clinton|title=1787: The Grand Convention|date=1987|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-30404-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|author-link =David O. Stewart|title= The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution|year= 2007|publisher= Simon and Schuster|location= New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Michael H.|last2=Hardwick|first2=Kevin|date=2009|title=The Presidency of James Wilson|journal=White House Studies|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|volume=9|issue=4|pages=331–346|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=Washington, D.C.|url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Van Cleve | first = George | title = We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 2017 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ | isbn = 9780226480503 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Gordon S. | author-link = Gordon S. Wood | title = The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8078-4723-7 | ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
=== Further reading ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQSAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|editor-link=Max Farrand|volume=Volume 1|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LblWAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|volume=Volume 2}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02sLAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|volume=Volume 3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Houpt |first=D. |title=Securing a Legacy: The Publication of James Madison's Notes from the Constitutional Convention |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=4-39 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163 |date=2010 }}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Ketcham |editor-first=Ralph |title=The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-65134-6 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons category|Constitutional Convention (United States)}}
{{wikisource|Portal:Federal Convention of 1787|the Federal Convention of 1787}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention]
* [http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/ Founders' Blog-Republishing Madison's notes on the convention 220 years later]
* [http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention TeachingAmericanHistory.org – The Constitutional Convention]
* [http://www.footnote.com/page/103 Transcription from the Report from the Grand Compromise Committee]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080118090302/http://www.constitutioncenter.org/ National Constitution Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155836/http://edsitement.neh.gov/ EDSITEment] Lesson Plan: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071005041743/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726 The Constitutional Convention of 1787] (from the National Endowment for the Humanities)
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html Constitution Convention Broadside Collection] in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division] at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://p.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text P]: The Text of the Parchment Signed by the Convention Delegates
* [http://f.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text F]: The Text of the Printed Edition of the Constitution Authorized by the Convention
{{US Constitution}}
{{US history}}
{{Alexander Hamilton}}
{{George Washington}}
{{John Dickinson}}
{{Authority control}}
{{good article}}
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Conventions in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:American constitutional conventions]]
[[Category:Drafting of the United States Constitution]]
[[Category:1787 in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Political compromises in the United States]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{redirect|Federal Convention}}
{{short description|Event in 1787 in Philadelphia creating the United States Constitution}}
{{Use American English|date = April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}}
{{US Constitution article series}}
The '''Constitutional Convention'''{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} (also known as the '''Philadelphia Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} the '''Federal Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} or the '''Grand Convention at Philadelphia'''){{Sfn|Odesser-Torpey|2013|p=26}}{{Sfn|Rossiter|1987}} took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as [[Independence Hall]]) in [[Philadelphia]]. Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the [[Articles of Confederation]], the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them [[James Madison]] of Virginia and [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected [[George Washington]] of Virginia, former commanding general of the [[Continental Army]] in the late [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution of the United States]], placing the Convention among the most significant events in American history.
At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Cons5|p=5}}
Once the immediate task of winning the war had passed, states began to look to their own interests rather than those of the whole country. By the mid-1780s, states were refusing to provide Congress with funding, which meant the Confederation government could not pay the interest on its foreign debt, pay soldiers stationed along the Ohio River or defend American navigation rights on the Mississippi River against Spanish interference.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=20–21}} In 1782, Rhode Island vetoed an amendment that would have allowed Congress to levy taxes on imports to pay off federal debts. A second attempt was made to approve a federal impost in 1785; however, this time it was New York which disapproved.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=15}}
The Confederation Congress also lacked the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. Britain, France and Spain imposed various restrictions on American ships and products, while the US was unable to coordinate retaliatory trade policies. When states like Massachusetts or Pennsylvania placed reciprocal duties on British trade, neighboring states such as Connecticut and Delaware established [[free port]]s to gain an economic advantage. In the 1780s, some states even began applying customs duties against the trade of neighboring states.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=21–23}} In 1784, Congress proposed an amendment to give it powers over foreign trade; however, it failed to receive unanimous approval by the states.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=34}}
Many upper-class Americans complained that state constitutions were too democratic and, as a result, legislators were more concerned with maintaining popular approval than doing what was best for the nation. The most pressing example was the way state legislatures responded to calls for economic relief in the 1780s. Many people were unable to pay taxes and debts due to a post-war economic depression that was exacerbated by a scarcity of gold and silver [[coin]]s. States responded by issuing [[paper currency]], which often [[Currency appreciation and depreciation|depreciated]] in value, and by making it easier to defer tax and debt payments. These policies favored debtors at the expense of creditors, and it was proposed that Congress be given power to prevent such [[Populism|populist]] laws.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=74–88}}
When the government of Massachusetts refused to enact similar relief legislation, rural farmers resorted to violence in [[Shays' Rebellion]] (1786–1787). This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, [[Daniel Shays]], a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the [[Continental Army]]. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.{{Sfn|Richards|2003|pp=132–139}}
These and other issues greatly worried many of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] that the Union as it existed up to that point was in danger of breaking apart.{{Sfn|Palumbo|2009|pp=9–10}}{{Sfn|Kaminski|Leffler|1991|p=3}} In September 1786, delegates from five states met at the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] and invited all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation".{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=6}} Rhode Island was the only state that refused to send delegates, though it would become the last state to ratify the Constitution in May 1790.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html|title=Observing Constitution Day|date=August 21, 2016|website=archives.gov|publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817165833/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html|archive-date=August 17, 2019}}</ref>
== Operations and procedures ==
[[File:Independence_Hall_10.jpg|thumb|Independence Hall's Assembly Room]]
Originally planned to begin on May 14, the convention had to be postponed when very few of the selected delegates were present on that day due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century. On May 14, only delegates from Virginia and Pennsylvania were present.{{Sfn|Moehn|2003|p=37}} It was not until May 25 that a [[quorum]] of seven states was secured and the convention could begin inside the [[Independence Hall (United States)|Pennsylvania State House]].{{Sfn|Moehn|2003|p=37}} New Hampshire delegates would not join the convention until July 23, more than halfway through the proceedings.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=103}}
The first thing the Convention did was choose a presiding officer, unanimously electing [[George Washington]] president of the convention.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} The Convention then adopted rules to govern its proceedings. Each state delegation received a single vote either for or against a proposal in accordance with the majority opinion of the state's delegates.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=83}} This rule increased the power of the smaller states.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=51}}
When a state's delegates divided evenly on a motion, the state did not cast a vote. Throughout the convention, delegates would regularly come and go. Only 30 to 40 delegates were present on a typical day, and each state had its own quorum requirements. Maryland and Connecticut allowed a single delegate to cast its vote. New York required all three of its delegates to be present. If too few of a state's delegates were in attendance, the state did not cast a vote. After two of New York's three delegates abandoned the convention in mid-July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the convention, although [[Alexander Hamilton]] would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=83}}{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=51}}
The rules allowed delegates to demand reconsideration of any decision previously voted on. This allowed the delegates to take [[straw vote]]s to measure the strength of controversial proposals and to change their minds as they worked for consensus.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=82}} It was also agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=11}} Despite the sweltering summer heat, the windows of the meeting hall were nailed shut to keep the proceedings a secret from the public.<ref name="Pursuing American Ideals2">{{cite book|title=History Alive! Pursuing American Ideals|date=April 2013|publisher=Teachers' Curriculum Institute|location=Rancho Cordova, CA|page=56}}</ref> Although [[William Jackson (secretary)|William Jackson]] was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison's ''[[Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787]],'' supplemented by the notes of [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]], remain the most complete record of the convention.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|pp=162–64}} Due to the pledge to secrecy, Madison's account was not published until after his death in 1836.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-10-02-0001|title=Madison at the Federal Convention|website=founders.archives.gov|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration|language=en|accessdate=1 October 2019}}</ref>
== Madison's blueprint ==
[[File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg|thumb|James Madison, the author of the [[Virginia Plan]]]]
[[James Madison]] of Virginia arrived in Philadelphia eleven days early and determined to set the convention's agenda.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=129}} Before the convention, Madison studied republics and confederacies throughout history, such as ancient Greece and contemporary Switzerland.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=29}} In April 1787, he drafted a document entitled "Vices of the Political System of the United States", which systematically evaluated the American political system and offered solutions for its weaknesses.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=27}} Due to his advance preparation, Madison's blueprint for constitutional revision became the starting point for the convention's deliberations.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=128}}
Madison believed the solution to America's problems was to be found in a strong central government.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=29}} Congress needed compulsory taxation authority as well as power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=129}} To prevent state interference with the federal government's authority, Madison believed there needed to be a way to enforce the federal supremacy, such as an explicit right of Congress to use force against non-compliant states and the creation of a federal court system. Madison also believed the method of representation in Congress had to change. Since under Madison's plan, Congress would exercise authority over citizens directly—not simply through the states—representation ought to be apportioned by population, with more populous states having more votes in Congress.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=130}}
Madison was also concerned with preventing a [[tyranny of the majority]]. The government needed to be neutral between the various [[Political faction|factions]] or interest groups that divided society—creditors and debtors, rich and poor, or farmers, merchants and manufacturers. Madison believed that a single faction could more easily control the government within a state but would have a more difficult time dominating a national government comprising many different interest groups. The government could be designed to further insulate officeholders from the pressures of a majority faction. To protect both national authority and minority rights, Madison believed Congress should be granted veto power over state laws.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=131–132}}
== Early debates ==
[[File:Virginia Plan.png|thumb|Virginia Plan]]
[[File:Pinckney Plan.png|thumb|Charles Pinckney Plan]]
While waiting for the convention to formally begin, Madison sketched out his initial proposal, which became known as the [[Virginia Plan]] and reflected his views as a strong [[American nationalism|nationalist]]. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates agreed with Madison's plan and formed what came to be the predominant coalition within the convention.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=52}} The plan was modeled on the state governments and was written in the form of fifteen resolutions outlining basic principles. It lacked the system of [[Checks and Balances|checks and balances]] that would become central to the US Constitution.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=53}} It called for a supreme national government and was a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=91}} On May 29, [[Edmund Randolph]], the governor of Virginia, presented the Virginia Plan to the convention.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=86}}
The same day, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of South Carolina introduced his own plan that also greatly increased the power of the national government; however, the supporters of the Virginia Plan ensured that it, rather than Pinckney's plan, received the most consideration.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=99}} Many of Pinckney's ideas did appear in the final draft of the Constitution. His plan called for a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Delegates and a Senate. The popularly elected House would elect senators who would serve for four-year terms and represent one of four regions. The national legislature would have veto power over state laws. The legislature would elect a chief executive called a president. The president and his cabinet would have veto power over legislation. The plan also included a national judiciary.{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
On May 30, the Convention agreed, at the request of [[Gouverneur Morris]], "that a national government ought to be established consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive and Judiciary".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=102}} This was the convention's first move towards going beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation and instead produce an entirely new government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=102–104}} Once it had agreed to the idea of a supreme national government, the convention began debating specific parts of the Virginia Plan.
=== Congress ===
[[File:EdmundRandolph.jpeg|thumb|Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia, introduced the Virginia Plan]]
The Virginia Plan called for the unicameral Confederation Congress to be replaced with a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Congress. This would be a truly national legislature with power to make laws "in all cases to which the separate states are incompetent".{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=139}} It would also be able to veto state laws. Representation in both houses of Congress would be [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]] according either to "quotas of contribution" (a state's wealth as reflected in the taxes it paid) or the size of each state's non-slave population. The [[lower house]] of Congress would be directly elected by the people, while the [[upper house]] would be elected by the lower house from candidates nominated by state legislatures.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=139-140}}
==== Proportional representation ====
Immediately after agreeing to form a supreme national government, the delegates turned to the Virginia Plan's proposal for proportional representation in Congress.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=105}} Virginia, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the most populous states, were unhappy with the one-vote-per-state rule in the Confederation Congress because they could be outvoted by the smaller states despite representing more than half of the nation's population.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=56, 66}} Nevertheless, the delegates were divided over the best way to apportion representatives. Quotas of contribution appealed to southern delegates because they would include [[Slavery in the United States|slave]] property, but [[Rufus King]] of Massachusetts highlighted the impractical side of such a scheme. If the national government did not impose [[direct tax]]es (which, for the next century, it rarely did), he noted, representatives could not be assigned. Calculating such quotas would also be difficult due to lack of reliable data. Basing representation on the number of "free inhabitants" was unpopular with delegates from the South, where forty percent of the population was enslaved.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=56-58, 77|p=}} In addition, the small states were opposed to any change that decreased their own influence. Delaware's delegation threatened to leave the Convention if proportional representation replaced equal representation, so debate on apportionment was postponed.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=109}}
On June 9, [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]] of New Jersey reminded the delegates that they were sent to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, not to establish a national government. While he agreed that the Confederation Congress needed new powers, including the power to coerce the states, he was adamant that a confederation required equal representation for states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=149}} James Madison records his words as follows:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=178}}
{{quote|[The Articles of the Confederation] were therefore the proper basis of all the proceedings of the Convention. We ought to keep within its limits, or we should be charged by our constituents with usurpation . . . the Commissions under which we acted were not only the measure of our power. [T]hey denoted also the sentiments of the States on the subject of our deliberation. The idea of a national [Government] as contradistinguished from a federal one, never entered into the mind of any of them, and to the public mind we must accommodate ourselves. We have no power to go beyond the federal scheme, and if we had the people are not ripe for any other. We must follow the people; the people will not follow us.}}
==== Bicameralism and elections ====
{{quote box
| quote = In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.
| salign = right
| source = —James Madison, as recorded by Robert Yates, Tuesday June 26, 1787{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=431}}
| align = right
| width = 25%
}}
On May 31, the delegates discussed the structure of Congress and how its members would be selected. The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was familiar and had wide support. The [[British Parliament]] had an elected [[House of Commons]] and a hereditary [[House of Lords]]. All the states had bicameral legislatures except for Pennsylvania.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=89, 110}} The delegates quickly agreed that each house of Congress should be able to originate bills. They also agreed that the new Congress would have all the legislative powers of the Confederation Congress and veto power over state laws.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=121}}
There was some opposition to the popular election of the lower house or [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. [[Elbridge Gerry]] of Massachusetts and [[Roger Sherman]] of Connecticut feared the people were too easily misled by [[demagogue]]s and that popular election could lead to mob rule and anarchy. [[Pierce Butler]] of South Carolina believed that only wealthy men of property could be trusted with political power. The majority of the convention, however, supported popular election.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=110–116}} [[George Mason]] of Virginia said the lower house was "to be the grand depository of the democratic principle of the government."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=117}}
There was general agreement that the upper house or [[United States Senate|Senate]] should be smaller and more selective than the lower house. Its members should be [[gentlemen]] drawn from the most intelligent and virtuous among the citizenry.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=122}} Experience had convinced the delegates that such an upper house was necessary to tame the excesses of the democratically elected lower house.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=89, 110}} The Virginia Plan's method of selecting the Senate was more controversial. Members concerned with preserving state power wanted state legislatures to select senators, while [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]] of Pennsylvania proposed direct election by the people.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=119}} It was not until June 7 that the delegates unanimously decided that state legislatures would choose senators.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=64-65}}
==== Three-Fifths ratio ====
On the question of proportional representation, the three large states still faced opposition from the eight small states. James Wilson realized that the large states needed the support of the [[Deep South]] states of Georgia and the Carolinas. For these southern delegates, the main priority was protection of [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]].{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=67}} Working with [[John Rutledge]] of South Carolina, Wilson proposed the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]] on June 11. This resolution apportioned seats in the House of Representatives based on a state's free population plus three-fifths of its slave population. Nine states voted in favor, with only New Jersey and Delaware against.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=75-78}} This compromise would give the South at least a dozen additional congressmen and electoral college votes.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=79}} That same day, the large-state/slave-state alliance also succeeded in applying the three-fifths ratio to Senate seats (though this was later overturned).{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=80}}
=== Executive branch ===
As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions—law making embodied in the legislature and law executing embodied in the king and his courts—the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Even so, the form the executive should take, its powers and its selection would be sources of constant dispute through the summer of 1787.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=124}} At the time, few nations had nonhereditary executives that could serve as models. The [[Dutch Republic]] was led by a [[stadtholder]], but this office was usually inherited by members of the [[House of Orange]]. The [[Swiss Confederacy]] had no single leader, and the [[elective monarchies]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were viewed as corrupt.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=154}}
As a result of their colonial experience, Americans distrusted a strong chief executive. Under the Articles of Confederation, the closest thing to an executive was the [[Committee of the States]], which was empowered to transact government business while Congress was in recess. However, this body was largely inactive. The revolutionary state constitutions made the governors subordinate to the legislatures, denying them executive veto power over legislation. Without veto power, governors were unable to block legislation that threatened minority rights.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=125–126}} States chose governors in different ways. Many state constitutions empowered legislatures to select them, but several allowed direct election by the people. In Pennsylvania, the people elected an [[Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania|executive council]] and the legislature appointed one of its members to be chief executive.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=154}}
The Virginia Plan proposed a national executive chosen by Congress. It would have power to execute national laws and be vested with the power to make war and treaties.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=140}} Whether the executive would be a single person or a group of people was not defined.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=90}} The executive together with a "convenient number" of federal judges would form a [[Council of Revision]] with the power to veto any act of Congress. This veto could be overridden by an unspecified number of votes in both houses of Congress.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=140}}
==== Unitary executive ====
[[File:James-wilson.png|thumb|James Wilson's ideas shaped the American presidency more than any other delegate{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}}]]
James Wilson feared that the Virginia Plan made the executive too dependent on Congress. He argued that there should be a single, [[Unitary executive theory|unitary executive]]. Members of a multiple executive would most likely be chosen from different regions and represent regional interests. In Wilson's view, only a single executive could represent the entire nation while giving "energy, dispatch, and responsibility" to the government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}}
Wilson used his understanding of civic virtue as defined by the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] to help design the presidency. The challenge was to design a properly constituted executive that was fit for a republic and based on civic virtue by the general citizenry. He spoke 56 times calling for a chief executive who would be energetic, independent, and accountable. He believed that the moderate level of class conflict in American society produced a level of sociability and inter-class friendships that could make the presidency the symbolic leader of the entire American people. Wilson did not consider the possibility of bitterly polarized [[Political parties in the United States|political parties]]. He saw [[popular sovereignty]] as the cement that held America together linking the interests of the people and of the presidential administration. The president should be a man of the people who embodied the national responsibility for the public good and provided transparency and accountability by being a highly visible national leader, as opposed to numerous largely anonymous congressmen.{{Sfn|Taylor|Hardwick|2009|pp=331–346.}}{{Sfn|McCarthy|1987|pp=689–696}}{{Sfn|DiClerico|1987|pp=301–317}}
On June 1, Wilson proposed that "the Executive consist of a single person." This motion was seconded by Charles Pinckney, whose plan called for a single executive and specifically named this official a "president".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=127}} Roger Sherman objected in favor of something similar to a [[parliamentary system]] in which the executive should be appointed by and directly accountable to the legislature. Edmund Randolph agreed with Wilson that the executive needed "vigor", but he disapproved of a unitary executive, which he feared was "the [[foetus]] of monarchy".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=128}} Randolph and George Mason led the opposition against a unitary executive, but most delegates agreed with Wilson. The prospect that George Washington would be the first president may have allowed the proponents of a unitary executive to accumulate a large coalition. Wilson's motion for a single executive passed on June 4.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=128, 134}} Initially, the convention set the executive's term of office to seven years, but this would be revisited.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=136}}
==== Election, removal and the veto ====
Wilson also argued that the executive should be directly elected by the people. Only through direct election could the executive be independent of both Congress and the states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=129}} This view was unpopular. A few delegates such as Roger Sherman, Elbridge Gerry, and Pierce Butler opposed the direct election of the executive because they considered the people too easily manipulated. However, most delegates did not question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century. Due to a lack of information, the average voter would be too ignorant about the candidates to make an informed decision.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=130}}
A majority of delegates favored the president's election by Congress for a seven-year term; though there was concern that this would give the legislature too much power. Southern delegates supported selection by state legislatures, but this was opposed by nationalists such as Madison who feared that such a president would become a [[Power broker (politics)|power broker]] between different states interests rather than a symbol of national unity. Realizing that direct election was impossible, Wilson proposed what would become the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]]—the states would be divided into districts in which voters would choose electors who would then elect the president. This would preserve the separation of powers and keep the state legislatures out of the selection process. Initially, however, this scheme received little support.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=135-136}}
The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved. Resolution was achieved by adjustment to the electoral college proposal. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem, therefore, was a contested issue. Most thought that the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] should then choose the president since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the House would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=136}}
The Virginia Plan made no provision for removing the executive. On June 2, [[John Dickinson]] of Delaware proposed that the president be removed from office by Congress at the request of a majority of state legislatures. Madison and Wilson opposed this state interference in the national executive branch. Sherman argued that Congress should be able to remove the president for any reason in what was essentially a [[vote of no-confidence]]. George Mason worried that would make the president a "mere creature of the legislature" and violate the separation of powers. Dickinson's motion was rejected, but in the aftermath of the vote there was still no consensus over how an unfit president should be removed from office.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=141-142}}
On June 4, the delegates debated the Council of Revision. Wilson and [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York disagreed with the mixing of executive and judicial branches. They wanted the president to have an absolute veto to guarantee his independence from the legislative branch. Remembering how colonial governors used their veto to "extort money" from the legislature, [[Benjamin Franklin]] of Pennsylvania opposed giving the president an absolute veto. Gerry proposed that a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress be able to overrule any veto of the Council of Revision. This was amended to replace the council with the president alone, but Madison insisted on retaining a Council of Revision and consideration of the veto power was postponed.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=138-140}}
The office of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term but also to provide presidential electors with an incentive to vote for at least one out of state candidate in addition to a "favorite son" from their own state or region.
=== Judiciary ===
In the English tradition, judges were seen as agents of the king and his court who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through [[patronage]], and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch" of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point.{{Sfn|Padover|Landynski|1995|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}
On June 4, delegates unanimously agreed to a national judiciary "of one supreme tribunal and one or more inferior tribunals". The delegates disagreed on how federal judges should be chosen. The Virginia Plan called for the national legislature to appoint judges. James Wilson wanted the president to appoint judges to increase the power of that office.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=236}}
On June 13, the revised report on the Virginia Plan was issued. This report summarized the decisions made by the delegates in the first two weeks of the convention. It was agreed that a "national judiciary be established, to consist of one supreme tribunal". Congress would have the power to create and appoint inferior courts. Judges were to hold office [[Good Behavior Clause|"during good behavior"]], and the Senate would appoint them.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=159}}
=== Alternative plans ===
[[File:New Jersey Plan.png|thumb|New Jersey Plan]]
The small state delegates were alarmed at the plan taking shape: a supreme national government that could override state laws and proportional representation in both houses of Congress.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=88}} William Paterson and other delegates from New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland and New York created an alternative plan that consisted of several amendments to the Articles of Confederation. Under the [[New Jersey Plan]], as it was called, the Confederation Congress would remain unicameral with each state having one vote. Congress would be allowed to levy tariffs and other taxes as well as regulate trade and commerce. Congress would elect a plural "federal executive" whose members would serve a single term and could be removed by Congress at the request of a majority of state governors. There would also be a federal judiciary to apply US law. Federal judges would serve for life and be appointed by the executives. Laws enacted by Congress would take precedence over state laws. This plan was introduced on June 15.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=|pp=161-162}}{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=90-91}}{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
[[File:Hamilton Plan.png|thumb|Hamilton's Plan]]
On June 18, [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York presented his own plan that was at odds with both the Virginia and New Jersey plans. It called for the constitution to be modeled on the [[British Government|British government]]. The bicameral legislature included a lower house called the Assembly elected by the people for three year terms. The people would choose electors who would elect the members of a Senate who served for life. Electors would also choose a single executive called the governor who would also serve for life. The governor would have an absolute veto over bills. There would also be a national judiciary whose members would serve for life. Hamilton called for the abolition of the states (or at least their reduction to sub-jurisdictions with limited powers). Some scholars have suggested that Hamilton presented this radical plan to help secure passage of the Virginia Plan by making it seem moderate by comparison. The plan was so out of step with political reality that it was not even debated, and Hamilton would be troubled for years by accusations that he was a [[Monarchism|monarchist]].{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=|pp=94-95}}{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}}
On June 19, the delegates voted on the New Jersey Plan. With the support of the slave states and Connecticut, the large states defeated the plan by a 7–3 margin. Maryland's delegation was divided, so it did not vote.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=96}} This did not end the debate over representation. Rather, the delegates found themselves in a stalemate that lasted into July.
==Compromising on apportionment==
===Connecticut Compromise===
{{Main|Connecticut Compromise}}
[[File:Roger Sherman 1721-1793 by Ralph Earl.jpeg|thumb|Roger Sherman of Connecticut]]
On several occasions, the Connecticut delegation—Roger Sherman, [[Oliver Ellsworth]] and [[William Samuel Johnson]]—proposed a compromise that the House would have proportional representation and the Senate equal representation.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=164}} A version of this compromise had originally been crafted and proposed by Sherman on June 11. He agreed with Madison that the Senate should be composed of the wisest and most virtuous citizens, but he also saw its role as defending the rights and interests of the states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=150}} James Madison recorded Sherman's June 11 speech as follows:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|p=196}}
{{quote|Mr. Sherman proposed that the proportion of suffrage in the 1st branch should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. He said as the States would remain possessed of certain individual rights, each State ought to be able to protect itself: otherwise a few large States will rule the rest. The House of Lords in England he observed had certain particular rights under the Constitution, and hence they have an equal vote with the House of Commons that they may be able to defend their rights.}}
On June 29, Johnson made a similar point: "that in one branch, the people ought to be represented; in the other, the states."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=181}} Neither side was ready yet to embrace the concept of [[divided sovereignty]] between the states and a federal government, however.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=173}} The distrust between large and small state delegates had reached a low point, exemplified by comments made on June 30 by [[Gunning Bedford Jr]]. As reported by Robert Yates, Bedford stated:{{Sfn|Farrand|1911|pp=500–501}}
{{quote|I do not, gentlemen, trust you. If you possess the power, the abuse of it could not be checked; and what then would prevent you from exercising it to our destruction? . . . Yes, sir, the larger states will be rivals but not against each other—they will be rivals against the rest of the states . . . Will you crush the smaller states, or must they be left unmolested? Sooner than be ruined, there are foreign powers who will take us by the hand.}}
=== Grand Committee ===
[[File:Benjamin Franklin by Joseph Siffrein Duplessis.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania]]
As the convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states present at that time at the convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included William Paterson of New Jersey, [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]] of New York, [[Luther Martin]] of Maryland, Gunning Bedford, Jr. of Delaware, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, [[Abraham Baldwin]] of Georgia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, George Mason of Virginia, [[William Davie]] of North Carolina, [[John Rutledge]] of South Carolina and [[Benjamin Franklin]] of Pennsylvania.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=200}} The committee's composition heavily favored the smaller states, as even the large state delegates tended to be more moderate.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=110}}
While the Convention took a three-day recess in observance of the [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]] holiday, the Grand Committee began its work.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=110}} Franklin proposed and the committee adopted a compromise similar to the Connecticut plan. Membership in the House would be apportioned by population, with members elected from districts of forty thousand people. Each state would have an equal vote in the Senate. To gain large state support, however, Franklin proposed that the House of Representatives have exclusive power to originate bills concerned with raising money or government salaries (this would become the [[Origination Clause]]).{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=201}}
=== Revisiting the three-fifths ratio ===
The committee presented its report on July 5, but the compromise was not immediately adopted by the convention. For the next eleven days, the Convention stalled as delegates attempted to gain as many votes for their states as possible.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=115}} On July 6, a five-man committee was appointed to allocate specific numbers of representatives to each state. It called for a 56–member House of Representatives and used "[t]he number of blacks and whites with some regard to supposed wealth" as a basis of allocating representatives to each state. The Northern states had 30 representatives while the Southern states had 26. Delegates from non-slave states objected to counting slaves as they could not vote.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=116–117}}{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=208}}
On July 9, a new committee was chosen to reconsider the allocation of representatives. This time there were eleven members, one from each state. It recommended a 65–member House with allocation of representatives based on the number of free inhabitants and three-fifths of slaves. Under this new scheme, Northern states had 35 representatives and the South had 30. Southern delegates protested the North's greater representation and argued that their growing populations had been underestimated. The Committee of Eleven's report was approved, but the divergent interests of the Northern and Southern states remained obstacles to reaching consensus.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=208}}
On July 10, Edmund Randolph called for a regular [[United States Census|census]] on which to base future reallocation of House seats.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=118}} During the debate on the census, South Carolina delegates Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney sought to replace the three-fifths ratio with a full count of the slave population. They argued that slave property contributed to the wealth of the Southern states and as such should be used in calculating representation. This irritated Northern delegates already reluctant to support the three-fifths compromise. James Wilson, one of the authors of the three-fifths compromise, asked, "Are slaves to be admitted as Citizens? Then why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens? Are they admitted as property? Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?"{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=209–210}}
After fierce debate, the delegates voted to apportion representation and [[direct tax]]ation based on all white inhabitants and three-fifths of the slave population. This formula would apply to the existing states as well as any states created in the future. The first census would occur six years after the new federal government began operations and every ten years afterwards.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=211–213}}
=== Great Compromise adopted ===
On July 14, John Rutledge and James Wilson attempted to secure proportional representation in the Senate. Charles Pinckney proposed a form of semi-proportional representation in which the smaller states would gain more representation than under a completely proportional system. This proposal was defeated.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=123–124}}
In a close vote on July 16, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise) as recommended by the Grand Committee.{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|p=124}} On July 23, the convention decided that each state should have two senators rather than three. It rejected a proposal by Luther Martin of Maryland that senators from the same state cast a single joint vote, which was the practice in the Confederation Congress. Martin believed this was necessary if the Senate was to represent the interests of the states. Instead, the convention gave senators individual voting power.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=208}} This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress's choice to make national laws. <ref>Laurence Claus, The Framers' Compromise, 67 American Journal of Comparative Law, 677 (2019) https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492 https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext</ref>The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=199}}
==Further debate==
===Federal supremacy===
On July 17, the delegates worked to define the powers of Congress. The Virginia Plan asserted the supremacy of the national government, giving Congress authority "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" and stating that congressional legislation would take precedence over conflicting state laws. In a motion introduced by Gunning Bedford, the Convention approved this provision with only South Carolina and Georgia voting against. Four small states—Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland—accepted the expansion of congressional power. Later in life, Madison explained that this was a result of the Great Compromise. Once the small states were assured they would be represented in the new government, they "exceeded all others in zeal" for a strong national government.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=227–228}}
The Virginia Plan also gave Congress veto power over state laws. Madison believed this provision was crucial to prevent the states from engaging in irresponsible behavior, such as had occurred under the Confederation government. Gouverneur Morris feared the congressional veto would alienate states that might otherwise support the Constitution. Luther Martin argued that it would be too impractical and time-consuming, asking "Shall the laws of the states be sent up to the general legislature before they shall be permitted to operate?"{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=228}}
The Convention rejected the congressional veto. In its place, Martin proposed language taken from the New Jersey Plan that was unanimously approved by the convention: "that the Legislative acts of the US made by virtue and pursuance of the articles of Union, and all treaties made and ratified under the authority of the US shall be the supreme law of the respective States . . . and that the . . . States shall be bound thereby in their decisions".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=229}}
===Selecting and removing the president===
In June, the delegates voted to let Congress appoint the executive, but there remained concerns that this would make the executive branch subservient to the legislature. On July 17, the Convention returned to the topic. Direct election by the people was defeated by a nine to one vote. Luther Martin then proposed an amended version of James Wilson's idea for an electoral college, first introduced in June. Wilson had proposed that people vote for electors who would then select the president. Martin's version called for state legislatures to choose electors, but this was also defeated.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=232}} Later, on July 19, Elbridge Gerry unsuccessfully proposed that governors choose electors, a policy that would have increased state influence over the presidency.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=241}}
After reaffirming Congressional selection, the delegates voted to allow the president to serve multiple terms, a reversal of their earlier decision to limit the president to serving a single, seven–year term. [[James McClurg]] of Virginia went further and proposed that the president serve a lifelong term "during good behavior". McClurg believed this would protect the independence of the executive branch, but this was rejected for being too close to monarchy.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=232–234}}
The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]]. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's [[Minister of the Crown|ministers]] (see [[Impeachment in the United Kingdom]]).{{Sfn|Stewart|2007|pp=154–155}}
===Appointing judges===
Needing a break from discussing the presidency, the delegates once again considered the judicial branch on July 18. They were still divided over the method of appointment. Half of the Convention wanted the Senate to choose judges, while the other half wanted the president to do it. Luther Martin supported Senate appointment because he thought that body's members would defend the interests of the individual states.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=237}}
Nathaniel Gorham suggested a compromise—appointment by the president with the "[[advice and consent]] of the Senate". While the meaning of "advice and consent" was still undefined, the proposal gained some support. On July 21, Madison offered an alternative compromise—the president would appoint judges but the Senate could veto an appointment by a two-thirds majority. This proposal would have made it very hard for the Senate to block judicial appointments. Madison's proposal failed to garner support, and the delegates ended by reaffirming that the Senate would appoint judges.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=238}}
On July 21, Wilson and Madison tried unsuccessfully to revive Madison's council of revision. While judges had a role in reviewing the constitutionality of laws, argued Gorham, mixing the policy judgments of the president with the legal judgments of a court would violate separation of powers. John Rutledge agreed, saying "judges ought never to give their opinion on a law till it comes before them".{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=237–238}}
==First draft==
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the [[Committee of Detail]], which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by [[John Rutledge]], with the other members including [[Edmund Randolph]], [[Oliver Ellsworth]], [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]], and [[Nathaniel Gorham]].
Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge's edits, and the committee's final report to the convention.<ref name="Stewart">{{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|title= The Summer of 1787|year= 2007|publisher= Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3}}</ref>{{rp|168}} From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the [[Articles of Confederation]], provisions of the state constitutions, and even [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney's]] plan, to produce the first full draft,{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=269–70}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}} which author [[David O. Stewart]] has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}}
Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=270}}
Much of what was included in the committee's report consisted of numerous details that the convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|169}} Examples of these details included the [[Speech and Debate Clause]], which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.
However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge's urging, the committee went beyond what the convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the convention had never discussed.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|165}}
The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union" that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated" powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=273–74}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|170–71}} Rutledge, however, was not able to convince all the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "[[Necessary and Proper Clause]]") was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=274}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|171–72}} Another revision of Wilson's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge's list of enumerated powers.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=274–75}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}} In addition, Wilson's draft modified the language of the [[Supremacy Clause]] adopted by the convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}}
These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|172}}
Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee's report was presented to the convention. On the day the convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=269, 275}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|173}} In response to Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates, the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's "[[Navigation Acts]]") pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals provoked outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=275}}<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|173–74}}
The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.
==Further modifications and concluding debate==
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|187}} Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.
One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the [[Fugitive Slave Clause]] in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|196}}
Once the convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to ''[[habeas corpus]]'', [[freedom of the press]], and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.
A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|207}} The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with indigenous tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|209}} They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty".
The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment trials]] from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie-breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|212}} One controversial issue throughout much of the convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be [[term limit]]ed. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.
Near the end of the convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|235}} Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival [[Patrick Henry]] in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|236}} Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.
Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment that required two-thirds of the states to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|238}} All amendments to the Constitution, save the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|21st amendment]], have been made through this latter method.
Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the convention's business to an end and return home. As the convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a [[bill of rights]], which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|241}}
Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the [[anti-Federalist]]s against ratification. Most of the convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|243}}
==Drafting and signing==
{{further|Signing of the United States Constitution}}[[File:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.jpg|upright=1.6|thumb|''[[Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States]]'', by [[Howard Chandler Christy]] (1940)]]
Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members mostly supported a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|229–30}} They were [[William Samuel Johnson]] (Connecticut), [[Alexander Hamilton]] (New York), [[Gouverneur Morris]] (Pennsylvania), [[James Madison]] (Virginia), and [[Rufus King]] (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the [[contract clause]].<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|243}}
Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: [[Edmund Randolph]] of [[Virginia]], [[George Mason]] of [[Virginia]], and [[Elbridge Gerry]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[George Mason]] demanded a [[Bill of rights|Bill of Rights]] if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow.<ref name="bor">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html|author=National Archives|title=Bill of Rights|accessdate=March 7, 2016|date=October 30, 2015}}</ref> Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. [[George Washington]] spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years.<ref name="Stewart" />{{rp|112}} Ultimately, 39 of the 55 delegates who attended (74 had been chosen from 12 states) ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who said, "I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies ..."<ref>[http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html Speech of Benjamin Franklin – The U_S_ Constitution Online – USConstitution_net]</ref>[[File:Constitution Sesquicentennial 1937 Issue-3c.jpg|thumb|U.S. Postage, Issue of 1937, depicting Delegates at the signing of the Constitution, engraving after a painting by [[Junius Brutus Stearns]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm |title=United States Postage Stamps |access-date=May 27, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721173825/http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm |archive-date=July 21, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton."<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|244}} Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.
At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an [[anecdote]] on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's [[Chippendale furniture|Chippendale chair]].<ref name="RisingSun">"Rising Sun" in ''The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding'', Vol. 1 (ed. John R. Vile: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 681.</ref> As recounted in Madison's notes:
<blockquote>Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.<ref name="RisingSun"/><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp Madison Notes for September 17, 1787].</ref></blockquote>
The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own [[United States Constitution#Article Seven: Ratification|Article VII]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Akhil Reed Amar|title=America's Constitution: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC|year=2006|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-8129-7272-6|page=29}}</ref>
==Slavery==
[[Slavery in the United States|Slavery]] was one of the most difficult issues confronting the delegates. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the convention.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68}} At least a third of the convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68–69}} Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states,<ref name=USDLCB>{{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=D.C. |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit}}</ref>{{rp|139}} and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived in all regions of the country.<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} However, more than 90% of the slaves<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families).<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|135}} The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the convention were unwilling to accept any proposal that they believed would threaten the institution.
===Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise===
[[File:JohnDickinson4.gif|thumb|upright|Quaker [[John Dickinson (politician)|John Dickinson]] argued forcefully against slavery during the convention. Once Delaware's largest slaveholder, he had freed all of his slaves by 1787.]]
Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states{{which|date=September 2019}} refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery be outlawed within the new nation. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=318–29}}
===Three-Fifths Compromise===
{{Main|Three-Fifths Compromise}}
Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation.<ref name="crf">{{cite web|url=http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm |author=Constitutional Rights Foundation |title=The Constitution and Slavery |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm |archivedate=February 25, 2004 |accessdate=September 15, 2016 }}</ref> Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population.<ref name="crf"/> Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.<ref name="crf"/> Finally, delegate [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]] proposed the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]].{{Sfn|Mount|2012|p=}} This was eventually adopted by the convention.
{{Anchor|Framers}}
==Framers of the Constitution==
<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor. If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. This template is {{subst:Anchor comment}} -->
Fifty-five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, and are considered the Framers of the Constitution, although only 39 delegates actually signed.<ref name=Nara70/><ref name=Rodell1986>{{cite book |last=Rodell |first=Fred |title=55 Men: The Story of the Constitution, Based on the Day-by-Day Notes of James Madison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4 |year=1986 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-4409-6 |page=4}}</ref> The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who would ultimately craft the Constitution.<ref name=Nara70>{{cite web |title=Meet the Framers of the Constitution |website=America's Founding Documents |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |year=2017 |url=https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers |archivedate=2017-08-27 }}</ref>
Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command.<ref name=Nara29>{{cite web |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |website=The Charters of Freedom |title=The Founding Fathers: A Brief Overview |url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html |archivedate=2016-10-06 |date=October 30, 2015 }}</ref> All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}} The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|25}} Several had been state governors.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}}<ref name=Nara29/> Only two delegates, [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], would sign all three of the nation's founding documents: the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[Articles of Confederation]], and the Constitution.<ref name=Nara29/>
More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. Others were merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers. Several were physicians or small farmers, and one was a minister.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=65–68}}<ref name=Nara29/> Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, except for Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|pp=66–67}} George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.<ref name=Nara29/>
Their depth of knowledge and experience in self-government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris semi-seriously wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Webb |first1=Derek A.
|title=Doubting a little of one's infallibility: The real miracle at Philadelphia – National Constitution Center
|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/
|website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org
|accessdate=15 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jefferson |first1=Thomas
|title=Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, August 30, 1787
|url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/
|website=The Library of Congress |accessdate=15 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
Delegates used two streams of intellectual tradition,{{clarify|date=March 2019}} and any one delegate could be found using both or a mixture depending on the subject under discussion: foreign affairs, the economy, national government, or federal relationships among the states.
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
*'''[[Connecticut]]'''
** [[Oliver Ellsworth]]*
** [[William Samuel Johnson]]
** [[Roger Sherman]]
*'''[[Delaware]]'''
** [[Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)|Richard Bassett]]
** [[Gunning Bedford, Jr.]]
** [[Jacob Broom]]
** [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]]
** [[George Read (signer)|George Read]]
*'''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]'''
** [[Abraham Baldwin]]
** [[William Few]]
** [[William Houstoun (lawyer)|William Houstoun]]*
** [[William Pierce (politician)|William Pierce]]*
*'''[[Maryland]]'''
** [[Daniel Carroll]]
** [[Luther Martin]]*
** [[James McHenry]]
** [[John Francis Mercer]]*
** [[Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer]]
*'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
** [[Elbridge Gerry]]*
** [[Nathaniel Gorham]]
** [[Rufus King]]
** [[Caleb Strong]]*
*'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
** [[Nicholas Gilman]]
** [[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]
*'''[[New Jersey]]'''
** [[David Brearley]]
** [[Jonathan Dayton]]
** [[William Houston]]*
** [[William Livingston]]
** [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]
*'''[[New York (state)|New York]]'''
** [[Alexander Hamilton]]
** [[John Lansing Jr.]]*
** [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]]*
*'''[[North Carolina]]'''
** [[William Blount]]
** [[William Richardson Davie]]*
** [[Alexander Martin]]*
** [[Richard Dobbs Spaight]]
** [[Hugh Williamson]]
*'''[[Pennsylvania]]'''
** [[George Clymer]]
** [[Thomas Fitzsimons]]
** [[Benjamin Franklin]]
** [[Jared Ingersoll]]
** [[Thomas Mifflin]]
** [[Gouverneur Morris]]
** [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]]
** [[James Wilson (justice)|James Wilson]]
*'''[[South Carolina]]'''
** [[Pierce Butler]]
** [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]
** [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]]
** [[John Rutledge]]
*'''[[Virginia]]'''
** [[John Blair Jr.|John Blair]]
** [[James Madison]]
** [[George Mason]]*
** [[James McClurg]]*
** [[Edmund Randolph]]*
** [[George Washington]]
** [[George Wythe]]*
*'''[[Rhode Island]]'''
**''Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.''
{{colend}}
(*) ''Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.''
Several prominent [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] are notable for ''not'' participating in the Constitutional Convention. [[Thomas Jefferson]] was abroad, serving as the minister to France.{{Sfn|Farrand|1913|p=13}} [[John Adams]] was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. [[Patrick Henry]] refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were [[John Hancock]] and [[Samuel Adams]]. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention,{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=65}} which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.
==In popular culture==
* The 1989 film ''[[A More Perfect Union (film)|A More Perfect Union]]'', which portrays the events and discussions of the Constitutional Convention, was largely filmed in Independence Hall.
* In the 2015 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway musical]] ''[[Hamilton (musical)|Hamilton]]'', Alexander Hamilton's proposal of his own plan during the Constitutional Convention was featured in the song "Non-Stop", which concluded the first act.
==See also==
* [[Constitution Day (United States)]]
* [[Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution]]
* ''[[The Federalist Papers]]''
*[[History of the United States Constitution]]
* [[National Constitution Center]]
*[[Syng inkstand]]
* [[Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution]]
* [[United States Bill of Rights]]
{{reflist|group=History Alive!}}
==References==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|20em}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Beeman|first=Richard|title=Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution|year=2009|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7|ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC}}
* {{cite book | last = Bowen | first = Catherine Drinker | author-link = Catherine Drinker Bowen | title = [[Miracle at Philadelphia|Miracle At Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention]] | publisher = [[Little, Brown]] | year = 1966 | isbn = 978-0316103985 | ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Claus|first=Laurence|date=2019|title=The Framers' Compromise|journal=American Journal of Comparative Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=67|issue=3|pages=677–84|doi=10.1093/ajcl/avz022}}
*{{Cite journal|last=DiClerico|first=Robert E.|date=Spring 1987|title=James Wilson's Presidency|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|publisher=Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress|volume=17|issue=2|pages=301–317|jstor=40574453|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Farrand|first= Max|title= The Framing of the Constitution of the United States|year= 1913|publisher= Yale University Press|location= New Haven|isbn= |url=https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Jillson|first= Calvin C. |title= American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)|year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location= |isbn= 978-0-203-88702-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kaminski | first1 = John P. | last2 = Leffler | first2 = Richard | title = Creating the Constitution: A History in Documents | publisher = Center for the Study of the American Constitution | year = 1991 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Klarman | first = Michael J. | author-link = Michael Klarman | title = The Framers' Coup: The Making of the United States Constitution | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2016 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I-DeDAAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0190865962 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1= Larson|first1= Edward J.|last2= Winship |first2=Michael P.|title= The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison|year= 2005|publisher= The Modern Library|location= New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ|isbn= 0-8129-7517-0|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=McCarthy|first=Daniel J.|date=Fall 1987|title=James Wilson and the Creation of the Presidency|url=|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|publisher=Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress|volume=17|issue=4|pages=689–696|jstor=27550478|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Moehn|first=Heather|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37|title=The U.S. Constitution: A Primary Source Investigation Into the Fundamental Law of the United States|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003|isbn=9780823938049|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite web|url=https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html|title=Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention|last=Mount|first=Steve|date=March 12, 2012|website=USConstitution.net|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html|archive-date=November 7, 2019|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Odesser-Torpey|first=Marilyn|title=Insiders' Guide to Philadelphia & Pennsylvania Dutch Country|year=2013|publisher=Morris Book Publishing, LLC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage|isbn=9780762756995|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Padover | first1 = Saul K. | author-link = Saul K. Padover | last2 = Landynski | first2 = Jacob W. | title = The Living U.S. Constitution | publisher = Meridian | edition = 3rd rev. | year = 1995 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0452011472 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Palumbo | first = Arthur E. | title = The Authentic Constitution: An Originalist View of America's Legacy | publisher = Algora Publishing | year = 2009 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC | isbn = 9780875867076 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Richards|first=Leonard|title=Shays's Rebellion:The American Revolution's Final Battle|year=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8122-1870-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Rossiter|first=Clinton|title=1787: The Grand Convention|date=1987|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-30404-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|author-link =David O. Stewart|title= The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution|year= 2007|publisher= Simon and Schuster|location= New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Michael H.|last2=Hardwick|first2=Kevin|date=2009|title=The Presidency of James Wilson|journal=White House Studies|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|volume=9|issue=4|pages=331–346|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=Washington, D.C.|url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Van Cleve | first = George | title = We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 2017 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ | isbn = 9780226480503 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Gordon S. | author-link = Gordon S. Wood | title = The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8078-4723-7 | ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
=== Further reading ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQSAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|editor-link=Max Farrand|volume=Volume 1|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LblWAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|volume=Volume 2}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02sLAAAAYAAJ|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1911|editor-last=Farrand|editor-first=Max|volume=Volume 3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Houpt |first=D. |title=Securing a Legacy: The Publication of James Madison's Notes from the Constitutional Convention |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=4-39 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163 |date=2010 }}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Ketcham |editor-first=Ralph |title=The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-65134-6 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons category|Constitutional Convention (United States)}}
{{wikisource|Portal:Federal Convention of 1787|the Federal Convention of 1787}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention]
* [http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/ Founders' Blog-Republishing Madison's notes on the convention 220 years later]
* [http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention TeachingAmericanHistory.org – The Constitutional Convention]
* [http://www.footnote.com/page/103 Transcription from the Report from the Grand Compromise Committee]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080118090302/http://www.constitutioncenter.org/ National Constitution Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155836/http://edsitement.neh.gov/ EDSITEment] Lesson Plan: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071005041743/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726 The Constitutional Convention of 1787] (from the National Endowment for the Humanities)
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html Constitution Convention Broadside Collection] in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division] at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://p.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text P]: The Text of the Parchment Signed by the Convention Delegates
* [http://f.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text F]: The Text of the Printed Edition of the Constitution Authorized by the Convention
{{US Constitution}}
{{US history}}
{{Alexander Hamilton}}
{{George Washington}}
{{John Dickinson}}
{{Authority control}}
{{good article}}
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Conventions in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:American constitutional conventions]]
[[Category:Drafting of the United States Constitution]]
[[Category:1787 in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Political compromises in the United States]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -6,16 +6,5 @@
The '''Constitutional Convention'''{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} (also known as the '''Philadelphia Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} the '''Federal Convention''',{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=31}} or the '''Grand Convention at Philadelphia'''){{Sfn|Odesser-Torpey|2013|p=26}}{{Sfn|Rossiter|1987}} took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as [[Independence Hall]]) in [[Philadelphia]]. Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the [[Articles of Confederation]], the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them [[James Madison]] of Virginia and [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected [[George Washington]] of Virginia, former commanding general of the [[Continental Army]] in the late [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution of the United States]], placing the Convention among the most significant events in American history.
-At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Constitutional" convention, nor did most of the delegates arrive intending to draft a new constitution. Many assumed that the purpose of the convention was to discuss and draft improvements to the existing Articles of Confederation, and would have not agreed to participate otherwise. Once the convention began, however, most of the delegates – though not all – came to agree in general terms that the goal would be a new system of government, not simply a revised version of the Articles of Confederation.
-
-Several broad outlines were proposed and debated, most notably James Madison's [[Virginia Plan]] and [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]'s [[New Jersey Plan]]. The Virginia Plan was selected as the basis for the new government. While the concept of a federal government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) and the general role of each branch was not heavily disputed, several issues delayed further progress and threatened the success of the convention. The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] as the upper legislative house of a [[bicameral]] [[United States Congress|Congress]]; whether "proportional representation" was to be defined by a state's geography or by its population, and whether slaves were to be counted; whether to divide the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] among three people or vest the power in a single chief executive to be called the President; how a president would be elected, for what term, and whether to limit each president to a single term; what offenses should be impeachable; the nature of a fugitive slave clause, and whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade; and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or the executive. Most of the time during the convention was spent on deciding these issues.
-
-Progress was slow until mid-July when the [[Connecticut Compromise]] resolved enough lingering arguments for a draft written by the [[Committee of Detail]] to gain acceptance. Though more modifications and compromises were made over the following weeks, most of the rough draft remained in place and can be found in the finished version of the Constitution. After several more issues were resolved, the Committee of Style produced the final version in early September. It was voted on by the delegates, inscribed on parchment with engraving for printing, and signed by thirty-nine of fifty-five delegates on September 17, 1787. The completed proposed Constitution was then released to the public to begin the debate and [[History of the United States Constitution#Ratification of the Constitution|ratification process]].
-
-==Historical context==
-{{Further|History of the United States (1776–1789)}}
-[[File:United States 1789-03 to 1789-08 eastern.jpg|thumb]]
-During the [[American Revolution]], the [[Thirteen states|thirteen American states]] replaced their [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial governments]] with [[republic]]an constitutions based on the principle of [[separation of powers]], organizing government into [[legislative]], [[Executive (government)|executive]] and [[judicial]] branches. These revolutionary constitutions endorsed [[legislative supremacy]] by placing most power in the legislature—since it was viewed as most representative of the people—including power traditionally considered as belonging to the executive and judicial branches. State [[Governor (United States)|governors]] lacked significant authority, and state courts and judges were under the control of the legislative branch.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=155–156}}
-
-After [[United States Declaration of Independence|declaring independence]] from Britain in 1776, the thirteen states created a permanent alliance to coordinate American efforts to win the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. This alliance, the [[United States]], was to be governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]], which was more of a treaty between independent countries than a national constitution.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=13–14}} The Articles were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] in 1777 but not finally ratified by all states until 1781.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|p=1}} During the [[Confederation Period]], the United States was essentially a federation of independent republics, with the Articles guaranteeing state sovereignty and independence. The Confederation was governed by the [[Congress of the Confederation]], a [[unicameral]] legislature whose members were chosen by the state legislatures and in which each state cast a single vote.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=4}} Congress was given a limited set of powers, mainly in the area of waging war and foreign affairs. It could not levy taxes or tariffs, and it could only request money from the states, with no power to force delinquent states to pay.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|pp=4–5}} Since the Articles could only be amended by a unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective [[veto]] power over any proposed change.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}} A [[super majority]] (nine of thirteen state delegations) was required for Congress to pass major legislation such as declaring war, making treaties, or borrowing money.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=41}} The Confederation had no executive or judicial branches, which meant the Confederation government lacked effective means to enforce its own laws and treaties against state non-compliance.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=47}} It soon became evident to nearly all that the Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various problems confronting the United States.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}}
+At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Cons5|p=5}}
Once the immediate task of winning the war had passed, states began to look to their own interests rather than those of the whole country. By the mid-1780s, states were refusing to provide Congress with funding, which meant the Confederation government could not pay the interest on its foreign debt, pay soldiers stationed along the Ohio River or defend American navigation rights on the Mississippi River against Spanish interference.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=20–21}} In 1782, Rhode Island vetoed an amendment that would have allowed Congress to levy taxes on imports to pay off federal debts. A second attempt was made to approve a federal impost in 1785; however, this time it was New York which disapproved.{{Sfn|Beeman|2009|p=15}}
' |
New page size (new_size) | 92454 |
Old page size (old_size) | 98165 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | -5711 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => 'At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Cons5|p=5}}'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => 'At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Constitutional" convention, nor did most of the delegates arrive intending to draft a new constitution. Many assumed that the purpose of the convention was to discuss and draft improvements to the existing Articles of Confederation, and would have not agreed to participate otherwise. Once the convention began, however, most of the delegates – though not all – came to agree in general terms that the goal would be a new system of government, not simply a revised version of the Articles of Confederation.',
1 => '',
2 => 'Several broad outlines were proposed and debated, most notably James Madison's [[Virginia Plan]] and [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]'s [[New Jersey Plan]]. The Virginia Plan was selected as the basis for the new government. While the concept of a federal government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) and the general role of each branch was not heavily disputed, several issues delayed further progress and threatened the success of the convention. The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] as the upper legislative house of a [[bicameral]] [[United States Congress|Congress]]; whether "proportional representation" was to be defined by a state's geography or by its population, and whether slaves were to be counted; whether to divide the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] among three people or vest the power in a single chief executive to be called the President; how a president would be elected, for what term, and whether to limit each president to a single term; what offenses should be impeachable; the nature of a fugitive slave clause, and whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade; and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or the executive. Most of the time during the convention was spent on deciding these issues.',
3 => '',
4 => 'Progress was slow until mid-July when the [[Connecticut Compromise]] resolved enough lingering arguments for a draft written by the [[Committee of Detail]] to gain acceptance. Though more modifications and compromises were made over the following weeks, most of the rough draft remained in place and can be found in the finished version of the Constitution. After several more issues were resolved, the Committee of Style produced the final version in early September. It was voted on by the delegates, inscribed on parchment with engraving for printing, and signed by thirty-nine of fifty-five delegates on September 17, 1787. The completed proposed Constitution was then released to the public to begin the debate and [[History of the United States Constitution#Ratification of the Constitution|ratification process]].',
5 => '',
6 => '==Historical context==',
7 => '{{Further|History of the United States (1776–1789)}}',
8 => '[[File:United States 1789-03 to 1789-08 eastern.jpg|thumb]]',
9 => 'During the [[American Revolution]], the [[Thirteen states|thirteen American states]] replaced their [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial governments]] with [[republic]]an constitutions based on the principle of [[separation of powers]], organizing government into [[legislative]], [[Executive (government)|executive]] and [[judicial]] branches. These revolutionary constitutions endorsed [[legislative supremacy]] by placing most power in the legislature—since it was viewed as most representative of the people—including power traditionally considered as belonging to the executive and judicial branches. State [[Governor (United States)|governors]] lacked significant authority, and state courts and judges were under the control of the legislative branch.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=155–156}}',
10 => '',
11 => 'After [[United States Declaration of Independence|declaring independence]] from Britain in 1776, the thirteen states created a permanent alliance to coordinate American efforts to win the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. This alliance, the [[United States]], was to be governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]], which was more of a treaty between independent countries than a national constitution.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|pp=13–14}} The Articles were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] in 1777 but not finally ratified by all states until 1781.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|p=1}} During the [[Confederation Period]], the United States was essentially a federation of independent republics, with the Articles guaranteeing state sovereignty and independence. The Confederation was governed by the [[Congress of the Confederation]], a [[unicameral]] legislature whose members were chosen by the state legislatures and in which each state cast a single vote.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=4}} Congress was given a limited set of powers, mainly in the area of waging war and foreign affairs. It could not levy taxes or tariffs, and it could only request money from the states, with no power to force delinquent states to pay.{{Sfn|Van Cleve|2017|pp=4–5}} Since the Articles could only be amended by a unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective [[veto]] power over any proposed change.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}} A [[super majority]] (nine of thirteen state delegations) was required for Congress to pass major legislation such as declaring war, making treaties, or borrowing money.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=41}} The Confederation had no executive or judicial branches, which meant the Confederation government lacked effective means to enforce its own laws and treaties against state non-compliance.{{Sfn|Klarman|2016|p=47}} It soon became evident to nearly all that the Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various problems confronting the United States.{{Sfn|Larson|Winship|2005|p=5}}'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [] |
All external links in the new text (all_links) | [
0 => 'https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html',
1 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190817165833/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html',
2 => 'https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-10-02-0001',
3 => 'https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html',
4 => 'http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html',
5 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130721173825/http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm',
6 => 'http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm',
7 => 'http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp',
8 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC',
9 => 'https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit',
10 => 'https://archive.is/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm',
11 => 'http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm',
12 => 'https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers',
13 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers',
14 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4',
15 => 'https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html',
16 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html',
17 => 'https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/',
18 => 'https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/',
19 => 'https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492',
20 => 'https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext',
21 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers',
22 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC',
23 => '//doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022',
24 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/40574453',
25 => 'https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods',
26 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ',
27 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=I-DeDAAAQBAJ',
28 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ',
29 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/27550478',
30 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37',
31 => 'https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
32 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
33 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage',
34 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC',
35 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia',
36 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC',
37 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ',
38 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ',
39 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQSAAAAYAAJ',
40 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=LblWAAAAYAAJ',
41 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=02sLAAAAYAAJ',
42 => 'http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163',
43 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC',
44 => 'http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
45 => 'http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/',
46 => 'http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention',
47 => 'http://www.footnote.com/page/103',
48 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20080118090302/http://www.constitutioncenter.org/',
49 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155836/http://edsitement.neh.gov/',
50 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20071005041743/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726',
51 => 'https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html',
52 => 'https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/',
53 => 'http://p.variorumconstitution.com/',
54 => 'http://f.variorumconstitution.com/',
55 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/16192277-6',
56 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80039711',
57 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=vse2016914674&CON_LNG=ENG',
58 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/2262145857126922922775',
59 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80039711'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => '//doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022',
1 => '//doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022',
2 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/27550478',
3 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/27550478',
4 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/40574453',
5 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/40574453',
6 => 'http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp',
7 => 'http://f.variorumconstitution.com/',
8 => 'http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/',
9 => 'http://p.variorumconstitution.com/',
10 => 'http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention',
11 => 'http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm',
12 => 'http://www.footnote.com/page/103',
13 => 'http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163',
14 => 'http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm',
15 => 'http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
16 => 'http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html',
17 => 'https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext',
18 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=vse2016914674&CON_LNG=ENG',
19 => 'https://archive.is/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm',
20 => 'https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit',
21 => 'https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods',
22 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=02sLAAAAYAAJ',
23 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC',
24 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4',
25 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=I-DeDAAAQBAJ',
26 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQSAAAAYAAJ',
27 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=LblWAAAAYAAJ',
28 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ',
29 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC',
30 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC',
31 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ',
32 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ',
33 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC',
34 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage',
35 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC',
36 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37',
37 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ',
38 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia',
39 => 'https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/',
40 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/16192277-6',
41 => 'https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-10-02-0001',
42 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80039711',
43 => 'https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492',
44 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/2262145857126922922775',
45 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20071005041743/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726',
46 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20080118090302/http://www.constitutioncenter.org/',
47 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155836/http://edsitement.neh.gov/',
48 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130721173825/http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm',
49 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html',
50 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers',
51 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190817165833/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html',
52 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
53 => 'https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html',
54 => 'https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html',
55 => 'https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html',
56 => 'https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers',
57 => 'https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/',
58 => 'https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/',
59 => 'https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html',
60 => 'https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html',
61 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers',
62 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80039711'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Federal Convention" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Convention_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Federal Convention (disambiguation)">Federal Convention (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Event in 1787 in Philadelphia creating the United States Constitution</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">This article is part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution of the<br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="image"><img alt="Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/160px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/240px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/320px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:lavender;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul>
</div></td>
</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:lavender;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></b></li></ul>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul>
</div></td>
</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:lavender;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul>
</div></td>
</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:lavender;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul>
</div></td>
</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:lavender;">
<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments XI–XXVII</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Unsuccessful_attempts_to_amend_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of the United States.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg" class="image"><img alt="Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/16px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/24px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/32px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="442" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="image"><img alt="A coloured voting box.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book:United_States_Constitution" title="Book:United States Constitution">Wikipedia book</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top:0;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:US_Constitution_article_series&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Constitutional Convention</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-1">[1]</a></sup> (also known as the <b>Philadelphia Convention</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-1">[1]</a></sup> the <b>Federal Convention</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-1">[1]</a></sup> or the <b>Grand Convention at Philadelphia</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossiter1987_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter1987-3">[3]</a></sup> took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>. Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of Virginia and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> of Virginia, former commanding general of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> in the late <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution of the United States</a>, placing the Convention among the most significant events in American history.
</p><p>At the time, the convention was not referred to as a "Cons5|p=5}}
</p><p>Once the immediate task of winning the war had passed, states began to look to their own interests rather than those of the whole country. By the mid-1780s, states were refusing to provide Congress with funding, which meant the Confederation government could not pay the interest on its foreign debt, pay soldiers stationed along the Ohio River or defend American navigation rights on the Mississippi River against Spanish interference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21-4">[4]</a></sup> In 1782, Rhode Island vetoed an amendment that would have allowed Congress to levy taxes on imports to pay off federal debts. A second attempt was made to approve a federal impost in 1785; however, this time it was New York which disapproved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Confederation Congress also lacked the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. Britain, France and Spain imposed various restrictions on American ships and products, while the US was unable to coordinate retaliatory trade policies. When states like Massachusetts or Pennsylvania placed reciprocal duties on British trade, neighboring states such as Connecticut and Delaware established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Free port">free ports</a> to gain an economic advantage. In the 1780s, some states even began applying customs duties against the trade of neighboring states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23-6">[6]</a></sup> In 1784, Congress proposed an amendment to give it powers over foreign trade; however, it failed to receive unanimous approval by the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many upper-class Americans complained that state constitutions were too democratic and, as a result, legislators were more concerned with maintaining popular approval than doing what was best for the nation. The most pressing example was the way state legislatures responded to calls for economic relief in the 1780s. Many people were unable to pay taxes and debts due to a post-war economic depression that was exacerbated by a scarcity of gold and silver <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a>. States responded by issuing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paper_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper currency">paper currency</a>, which often <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Currency_appreciation_and_depreciation" title="Currency appreciation and depreciation">depreciated</a> in value, and by making it easier to defer tax and debt payments. These policies favored debtors at the expense of creditors, and it was proposed that Congress be given power to prevent such <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>When the government of Massachusetts refused to enact similar relief legislation, rural farmers resorted to violence in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a> (1786–1787). This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daniel_Shays" title="Daniel Shays">Daniel Shays</a>, a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>These and other issues greatly worried many of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founders</a> that the Union as it existed up to that point was in danger of breaking apart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913-11">[11]</a></sup> In September 1786, delegates from five states met at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a> and invited all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056-12">[12]</a></sup> Rhode Island was the only state that refused to send delegates, though it would become the last state to ratify the Constitution in May 1790.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Operations_and_procedures"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Operations and procedures</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Madison's_blueprint"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Madison's blueprint</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_debates"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Early debates</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Congress"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Congress</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Proportional_representation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Proportional representation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Bicameralism_and_elections"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bicameralism and elections</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Three-Fifths_ratio"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Three-Fifths ratio</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Executive_branch"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Executive branch</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Unitary_executive"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Unitary executive</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Election,_removal_and_the_veto"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Election, removal and the veto</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Judiciary"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Judiciary</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Alternative_plans"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Alternative plans</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Compromising_on_apportionment"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Compromising on apportionment</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Connecticut_Compromise"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Connecticut Compromise</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Grand_Committee"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Grand Committee</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Revisiting the three-fifths ratio</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Great_Compromise_adopted"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Great Compromise adopted</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Further_debate"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Further debate</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Federal_supremacy"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Federal supremacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Selecting_and_removing_the_president"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Selecting and removing the president</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Appointing_judges"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Appointing judges</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#First_draft"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">First draft</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further modifications and concluding debate</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Drafting_and_signing"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Drafting and signing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Slavery"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Three-Fifths_Compromise"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Three-Fifths Compromise</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Framers_of_the_Constitution"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Framers of the Constitution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#In_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">In popular culture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">13.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">13.3</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Operations_and_procedures">Operations and procedures</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Operations and procedures">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Independence_Hall_10.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/220px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/330px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/440px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Independence_Hall_10.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Independence Hall's Assembly Room</div></div></div>
<p>Originally planned to begin on May 14, the convention had to be postponed when very few of the selected delegates were present on that day due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century. On May 14, only delegates from Virginia and Pennsylvania were present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337-14">[14]</a></sup> It was not until May 25 that a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> of seven states was secured and the convention could begin inside the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Hall_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Hall (United States)">Pennsylvania State House</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337-14">[14]</a></sup> New Hampshire delegates would not join the convention until July 23, more than halfway through the proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first thing the Convention did was choose a presiding officer, unanimously electing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> president of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Convention then adopted rules to govern its proceedings. Each state delegation received a single vote either for or against a proposal in accordance with the majority opinion of the state's delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583-17">[17]</a></sup> This rule increased the power of the smaller states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200751-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>When a state's delegates divided evenly on a motion, the state did not cast a vote. Throughout the convention, delegates would regularly come and go. Only 30 to 40 delegates were present on a typical day, and each state had its own quorum requirements. Maryland and Connecticut allowed a single delegate to cast its vote. New York required all three of its delegates to be present. If too few of a state's delegates were in attendance, the state did not cast a vote. After two of New York's three delegates abandoned the convention in mid-July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the convention, although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200751-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The rules allowed delegates to demand reconsideration of any decision previously voted on. This allowed the delegates to take <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Straw_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Straw vote">straw votes</a> to measure the strength of controversial proposals and to change their minds as they worked for consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982-19">[19]</a></sup> It was also agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511-20">[20]</a></sup> Despite the sweltering summer heat, the windows of the meeting hall were nailed shut to keep the proceedings a secret from the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Pursuing_American_Ideals2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pursuing_American_Ideals2-21">[21]</a></sup> Although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a> was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison's <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a>,</i> supplemented by the notes of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a>, remain the most complete record of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64-22">[22]</a></sup> Due to the pledge to secrecy, Madison's account was not published until after his death in 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Madison.27s_blueprint"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Madison's_blueprint">Madison's blueprint</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Madison's blueprint">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/220px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/330px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/440px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="1044" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>James Madison, the author of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></div></div></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of Virginia arrived in Philadelphia eleven days early and determined to set the convention's agenda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129-24">[24]</a></sup> Before the convention, Madison studied republics and confederacies throughout history, such as ancient Greece and contemporary Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200729-25">[25]</a></sup> In April 1787, he drafted a document entitled "Vices of the Political System of the United States", which systematically evaluated the American political system and offered solutions for its weaknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927-26">[26]</a></sup> Due to his advance preparation, Madison's blueprint for constitutional revision became the starting point for the convention's deliberations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Madison believed the solution to America's problems was to be found in a strong central government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200729-25">[25]</a></sup> Congress needed compulsory taxation authority as well as power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129-24">[24]</a></sup> To prevent state interference with the federal government's authority, Madison believed there needed to be a way to enforce the federal supremacy, such as an explicit right of Congress to use force against non-compliant states and the creation of a federal court system. Madison also believed the method of representation in Congress had to change. Since under Madison's plan, Congress would exercise authority over citizens directly—not simply through the states—representation ought to be apportioned by population, with more populous states having more votes in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>Madison was also concerned with preventing a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>. The government needed to be neutral between the various <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">factions</a> or interest groups that divided society—creditors and debtors, rich and poor, or farmers, merchants and manufacturers. Madison believed that a single faction could more easily control the government within a state but would have a more difficult time dominating a national government comprising many different interest groups. The government could be designed to further insulate officeholders from the pressures of a majority faction. To protect both national authority and minority rights, Madison believed Congress should be granted veto power over state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_debates">Early debates</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early debates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Virginia_Plan.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/220px-Virginia_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/330px-Virginia_Plan.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/440px-Virginia_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="809" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Virginia_Plan.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Virginia Plan</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pinckney_Plan.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/220px-Pinckney_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/330px-Pinckney_Plan.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/440px-Pinckney_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1439" data-file-height="905" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pinckney_Plan.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Charles Pinckney Plan</div></div></div>
<p>While waiting for the convention to formally begin, Madison sketched out his initial proposal, which became known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a> and reflected his views as a strong <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalist</a>. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates agreed with Madison's plan and formed what came to be the predominant coalition within the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952-30">[30]</a></sup> The plan was modeled on the state governments and was written in the form of fifteen resolutions outlining basic principles. It lacked the system of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Checks_and_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and Balances">checks and balances</a> that would become central to the US Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200753_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200753-31">[31]</a></sup> It called for a supreme national government and was a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991-32">[32]</a></sup> On May 29, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, the governor of Virginia, presented the Virginia Plan to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>The same day, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a> of South Carolina introduced his own plan that also greatly increased the power of the national government; however, the supporters of the Virginia Plan ensured that it, rather than Pinckney's plan, received the most consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999-34">[34]</a></sup> Many of Pinckney's ideas did appear in the final draft of the Constitution. His plan called for a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Delegates and a Senate. The popularly elected House would elect senators who would serve for four-year terms and represent one of four regions. The national legislature would have veto power over state laws. The legislature would elect a chief executive called a president. The president and his cabinet would have veto power over legislation. The plan also included a national judiciary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>On May 30, the Convention agreed, at the request of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a>, "that a national government ought to be established consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive and Judiciary".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102-36">[36]</a></sup> This was the convention's first move towards going beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation and instead produce an entirely new government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104-37">[37]</a></sup> Once it had agreed to the idea of a supreme national government, the convention began debating specific parts of the Virginia Plan.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Congress">Congress</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Congress">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:EdmundRandolph.jpeg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/EdmundRandolph.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="224" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:EdmundRandolph.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia, introduced the Virginia Plan</div></div></div>
<p>The Virginia Plan called for the unicameral Confederation Congress to be replaced with a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> Congress. This would be a truly national legislature with power to make laws "in all cases to which the separate states are incompetent".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-38">[38]</a></sup> It would also be able to veto state laws. Representation in both houses of Congress would be <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">apportioned</a> according either to "quotas of contribution" (a state's wealth as reflected in the taxes it paid) or the size of each state's non-slave population. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">lower house</a> of Congress would be directly elected by the people, while the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">upper house</a> would be elected by the lower house from candidates nominated by state legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Proportional_representation">Proportional representation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Proportional representation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Immediately after agreeing to form a supreme national government, the delegates turned to the Virginia Plan's proposal for proportional representation in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105-40">[40]</a></sup> Virginia, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the most populous states, were unhappy with the one-vote-per-state rule in the Confederation Congress because they could be outvoted by the smaller states despite representing more than half of the nation's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66-41">[41]</a></sup> Nevertheless, the delegates were divided over the best way to apportion representatives. Quotas of contribution appealed to southern delegates because they would include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slave</a> property, but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> of Massachusetts highlighted the impractical side of such a scheme. If the national government did not impose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxes</a> (which, for the next century, it rarely did), he noted, representatives could not be assigned. Calculating such quotas would also be difficult due to lack of reliable data. Basing representation on the number of "free inhabitants" was unpopular with delegates from the South, where forty percent of the population was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756-58,_77_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756-58,_77-42">[42]</a></sup> In addition, the small states were opposed to any change that decreased their own influence. Delaware's delegation threatened to leave the Convention if proportional representation replaced equal representation, so debate on apportionment was postponed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>On June 9, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> of New Jersey reminded the delegates that they were sent to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, not to establish a national government. While he agreed that the Confederation Congress needed new powers, including the power to coerce the states, he was adamant that a confederation required equal representation for states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149-44">[44]</a></sup> James Madison records his words as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911178_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911178-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r960796168">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[The Articles of the Confederation] were therefore the proper basis of all the proceedings of the Convention. We ought to keep within its limits, or we should be charged by our constituents with usurpation . . . the Commissions under which we acted were not only the measure of our power. [T]hey denoted also the sentiments of the States on the subject of our deliberation. The idea of a national [Government] as contradistinguished from a federal one, never entered into the mind of any of them, and to the public mind we must accommodate ourselves. We have no power to go beyond the federal scheme, and if we had the people are not ripe for any other. We must follow the people; the people will not follow us.</p></blockquote>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Bicameralism_and_elections">Bicameralism and elections</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bicameralism and elections">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r887775652">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{margin:0.5em auto 0.8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft p,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright p{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{background-color:#F9F9F9;text-align:center;font-size:larger;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:360px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{min-width:100%;margin:0 0 0.8em!important;float:none!important}}</style>
<div class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.</div>
<p><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—James Madison, as recorded by Robert Yates, Tuesday June 26, 1787<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911431_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911431-46">[46]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>On May 31, the delegates discussed the structure of Congress and how its members would be selected. The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was familiar and had wide support. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> had an elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a> and a hereditary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. All the states had bicameral legislatures except for Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110-47">[47]</a></sup> The delegates quickly agreed that each house of Congress should be able to originate bills. They also agreed that the new Congress would have all the legislative powers of the Confederation Congress and veto power over state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>There was some opposition to the popular election of the lower house or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut feared the people were too easily misled by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">demagogues</a> and that popular election could lead to mob rule and anarchy. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierce_Butler" title="Pierce Butler">Pierce Butler</a> of South Carolina believed that only wealthy men of property could be trusted with political power. The majority of the convention, however, supported popular election.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116-49">[49]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of Virginia said the lower house was "to be the grand depository of the democratic principle of the government."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>There was general agreement that the upper house or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> should be smaller and more selective than the lower house. Its members should be <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gentlemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentlemen">gentlemen</a> drawn from the most intelligent and virtuous among the citizenry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122-51">[51]</a></sup> Experience had convinced the delegates that such an upper house was necessary to tame the excesses of the democratically elected lower house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110-47">[47]</a></sup> The Virginia Plan's method of selecting the Senate was more controversial. Members concerned with preserving state power wanted state legislatures to select senators, while <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Wilson_(justice)" title="James Wilson (justice)">James Wilson</a> of Pennsylvania proposed direct election by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119-52">[52]</a></sup> It was not until June 7 that the delegates unanimously decided that state legislatures would choose senators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200764-65_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200764-65-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Three-Fifths_ratio">Three-Fifths ratio</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Three-Fifths ratio">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>On the question of proportional representation, the three large states still faced opposition from the eight small states. James Wilson realized that the large states needed the support of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> states of Georgia and the Carolinas. For these southern delegates, the main priority was protection of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200767_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200767-54">[54]</a></sup> Working with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> of South Carolina, Wilson proposed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a> on June 11. This resolution apportioned seats in the House of Representatives based on a state's free population plus three-fifths of its slave population. Nine states voted in favor, with only New Jersey and Delaware against.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200775-78_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200775-78-55">[55]</a></sup> This compromise would give the South at least a dozen additional congressmen and electoral college votes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200779_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200779-56">[56]</a></sup> That same day, the large-state/slave-state alliance also succeeded in applying the three-fifths ratio to Senate seats (though this was later overturned).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200780_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200780-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Executive_branch">Executive branch</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Executive branch">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions—law making embodied in the legislature and law executing embodied in the king and his courts—the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Even so, the form the executive should take, its powers and its selection would be sources of constant dispute through the summer of 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124-58">[58]</a></sup> At the time, few nations had nonhereditary executives that could serve as models. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> was led by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stadtholder" title="Stadtholder">stadtholder</a>, but this office was usually inherited by members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Orange">House of Orange</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swiss_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a> had no single leader, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elective_monarchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Elective monarchies">elective monarchies</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> were viewed as corrupt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a result of their colonial experience, Americans distrusted a strong chief executive. Under the Articles of Confederation, the closest thing to an executive was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_the_States" title="Committee of the States">Committee of the States</a>, which was empowered to transact government business while Congress was in recess. However, this body was largely inactive. The revolutionary state constitutions made the governors subordinate to the legislatures, denying them executive veto power over legislation. Without veto power, governors were unable to block legislation that threatened minority rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126-60">[60]</a></sup> States chose governors in different ways. Many state constitutions empowered legislatures to select them, but several allowed direct election by the people. In Pennsylvania, the people elected an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">executive council</a> and the legislature appointed one of its members to be chief executive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Virginia Plan proposed a national executive chosen by Congress. It would have power to execute national laws and be vested with the power to make war and treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140-61">[61]</a></sup> Whether the executive would be a single person or a group of people was not defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990-62">[62]</a></sup> The executive together with a "convenient number" of federal judges would form a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Revision" title="Council of Revision">Council of Revision</a> with the power to veto any act of Congress. This veto could be overridden by an unspecified number of votes in both houses of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Unitary_executive">Unitary executive</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Unitary executive">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:James-wilson.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/James-wilson.png/220px-James-wilson.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/James-wilson.png/330px-James-wilson.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/7/78/James-wilson.png 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="492" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:James-wilson.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>James Wilson's ideas shaped the American presidency more than any other delegate<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-63">[63]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>James Wilson feared that the Virginia Plan made the executive too dependent on Congress. He argued that there should be a single, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">unitary executive</a>. Members of a multiple executive would most likely be chosen from different regions and represent regional interests. In Wilson's view, only a single executive could represent the entire nation while giving "energy, dispatch, and responsibility" to the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Wilson used his understanding of civic virtue as defined by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a> to help design the presidency. The challenge was to design a properly constituted executive that was fit for a republic and based on civic virtue by the general citizenry. He spoke 56 times calling for a chief executive who would be energetic, independent, and accountable. He believed that the moderate level of class conflict in American society produced a level of sociability and inter-class friendships that could make the presidency the symbolic leader of the entire American people. Wilson did not consider the possibility of bitterly polarized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">political parties</a>. He saw <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> as the cement that held America together linking the interests of the people and of the presidential administration. The president should be a man of the people who embodied the national responsibility for the public good and provided transparency and accountability by being a highly visible national leader, as opposed to numerous largely anonymous congressmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346._64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346.-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>On June 1, Wilson proposed that "the Executive consist of a single person." This motion was seconded by Charles Pinckney, whose plan called for a single executive and specifically named this official a "president".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-63">[63]</a></sup> Roger Sherman objected in favor of something similar to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a> in which the executive should be appointed by and directly accountable to the legislature. Edmund Randolph agreed with Wilson that the executive needed "vigor", but he disapproved of a unitary executive, which he feared was "the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetus">foetus</a> of monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128-67">[67]</a></sup> Randolph and George Mason led the opposition against a unitary executive, but most delegates agreed with Wilson. The prospect that George Washington would be the first president may have allowed the proponents of a unitary executive to accumulate a large coalition. Wilson's motion for a single executive passed on June 4.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134-68">[68]</a></sup> Initially, the convention set the executive's term of office to seven years, but this would be revisited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Election.2C_removal_and_the_veto"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Election,_removal_and_the_veto">Election, removal and the veto</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Election, removal and the veto">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Wilson also argued that the executive should be directly elected by the people. Only through direct election could the executive be independent of both Congress and the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129-70">[70]</a></sup> This view was unpopular. A few delegates such as Roger Sherman, Elbridge Gerry, and Pierce Butler opposed the direct election of the executive because they considered the people too easily manipulated. However, most delegates did not question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century. Due to a lack of information, the average voter would be too ignorant about the candidates to make an informed decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>A majority of delegates favored the president's election by Congress for a seven-year term; though there was concern that this would give the legislature too much power. Southern delegates supported selection by state legislatures, but this was opposed by nationalists such as Madison who feared that such a president would become a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Power_broker_(politics)" title="Power broker (politics)">power broker</a> between different states interests rather than a symbol of national unity. Realizing that direct election was impossible, Wilson proposed what would become the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral college</a>—the states would be divided into districts in which voters would choose electors who would then elect the president. This would preserve the separation of powers and keep the state legislatures out of the selection process. Initially, however, this scheme received little support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135-136_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135-136-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved. Resolution was achieved by adjustment to the electoral college proposal. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem, therefore, was a contested issue. Most thought that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> should then choose the president since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the House would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Virginia Plan made no provision for removing the executive. On June 2, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a> of Delaware proposed that the president be removed from office by Congress at the request of a majority of state legislatures. Madison and Wilson opposed this state interference in the national executive branch. Sherman argued that Congress should be able to remove the president for any reason in what was essentially a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vote_of_no-confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no-confidence">vote of no-confidence</a>. George Mason worried that would make the president a "mere creature of the legislature" and violate the separation of powers. Dickinson's motion was rejected, but in the aftermath of the vote there was still no consensus over how an unfit president should be removed from office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141-142_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141-142-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>On June 4, the delegates debated the Council of Revision. Wilson and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York disagreed with the mixing of executive and judicial branches. They wanted the president to have an absolute veto to guarantee his independence from the legislative branch. Remembering how colonial governors used their veto to "extort money" from the legislature, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> of Pennsylvania opposed giving the president an absolute veto. Gerry proposed that a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress be able to overrule any veto of the Council of Revision. This was amended to replace the council with the president alone, but Madison insisted on retaining a Council of Revision and consideration of the veto power was postponed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138-140_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138-140-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>The office of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a> was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term but also to provide presidential electors with an incentive to vote for at least one out of state candidate in addition to a "favorite son" from their own state or region.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Judiciary">Judiciary</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Judiciary">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In the English tradition, judges were seen as agents of the king and his court who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>, and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch" of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>On June 4, delegates unanimously agreed to a national judiciary "of one supreme tribunal and one or more inferior tribunals". The delegates disagreed on how federal judges should be chosen. The Virginia Plan called for the national legislature to appoint judges. James Wilson wanted the president to appoint judges to increase the power of that office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>On June 13, the revised report on the Virginia Plan was issued. This report summarized the decisions made by the delegates in the first two weeks of the convention. It was agreed that a "national judiciary be established, to consist of one supreme tribunal". Congress would have the power to create and appoint inferior courts. Judges were to hold office <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Good_Behavior_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Behavior Clause">"during good behavior"</a>, and the Senate would appoint them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Alternative_plans">Alternative plans</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alternative plans">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:New_Jersey_Plan.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/220px-New_Jersey_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/330px-New_Jersey_Plan.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/440px-New_Jersey_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="934" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:New_Jersey_Plan.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>New Jersey Plan</div></div></div>
<p>The small state delegates were alarmed at the plan taking shape: a supreme national government that could override state laws and proportional representation in both houses of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200788_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200788-77">[77]</a></sup> William Paterson and other delegates from New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland and New York created an alternative plan that consisted of several amendments to the Articles of Confederation. Under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a>, as it was called, the Confederation Congress would remain unicameral with each state having one vote. Congress would be allowed to levy tariffs and other taxes as well as regulate trade and commerce. Congress would elect a plural "federal executive" whose members would serve a single term and could be removed by Congress at the request of a majority of state governors. There would also be a federal judiciary to apply US law. Federal judges would serve for life and be appointed by the executives. Laws enacted by Congress would take precedence over state laws. This plan was introduced on June 15.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161-162_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161-162-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200790-91_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200790-91-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Hamilton_Plan.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/220px-Hamilton_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/330px-Hamilton_Plan.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/440px-Hamilton_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1439" data-file-height="806" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Hamilton_Plan.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Hamilton's Plan</div></div></div>
<p>On June 18, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York presented his own plan that was at odds with both the Virginia and New Jersey plans. It called for the constitution to be modeled on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="British Government">British government</a>. The bicameral legislature included a lower house called the Assembly elected by the people for three year terms. The people would choose electors who would elect the members of a Senate who served for life. Electors would also choose a single executive called the governor who would also serve for life. The governor would have an absolute veto over bills. There would also be a national judiciary whose members would serve for life. Hamilton called for the abolition of the states (or at least their reduction to sub-jurisdictions with limited powers). Some scholars have suggested that Hamilton presented this radical plan to help secure passage of the Virginia Plan by making it seem moderate by comparison. The plan was so out of step with political reality that it was not even debated, and Hamilton would be troubled for years by accusations that he was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">monarchist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200794-95_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200794-95-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>On June 19, the delegates voted on the New Jersey Plan. With the support of the slave states and Connecticut, the large states defeated the plan by a 7–3 margin. Maryland's delegation was divided, so it did not vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200796_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200796-81">[81]</a></sup> This did not end the debate over representation. Rather, the delegates found themselves in a stalemate that lasted into July.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Compromising_on_apportionment">Compromising on apportionment</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Compromising on apportionment">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Connecticut_Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Connecticut Compromise">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/220px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/330px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/440px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="700" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Roger Sherman of Connecticut</div></div></div>
<p>On several occasions, the Connecticut delegation—Roger Sherman, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a>—proposed a compromise that the House would have proportional representation and the Senate equal representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164-82">[82]</a></sup> A version of this compromise had originally been crafted and proposed by Sherman on June 11. He agreed with Madison that the Senate should be composed of the wisest and most virtuous citizens, but he also saw its role as defending the rights and interests of the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150-83">[83]</a></sup> James Madison recorded Sherman's June 11 speech as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911196_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911196-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Mr. Sherman proposed that the proportion of suffrage in the 1st branch should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. He said as the States would remain possessed of certain individual rights, each State ought to be able to protect itself: otherwise a few large States will rule the rest. The House of Lords in England he observed had certain particular rights under the Constitution, and hence they have an equal vote with the House of Commons that they may be able to defend their rights.</p></blockquote>
<p>On June 29, Johnson made a similar point: "that in one branch, the people ought to be represented; in the other, the states."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181-85">[85]</a></sup> Neither side was ready yet to embrace the concept of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divided_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Divided sovereignty">divided sovereignty</a> between the states and a federal government, however.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173-86">[86]</a></sup> The distrust between large and small state delegates had reached a low point, exemplified by comments made on June 30 by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunning Bedford Jr">Gunning Bedford Jr</a>. As reported by Robert Yates, Bedford stated:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911500–501_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911500–501-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I do not, gentlemen, trust you. If you possess the power, the abuse of it could not be checked; and what then would prevent you from exercising it to our destruction? . . . Yes, sir, the larger states will be rivals but not against each other—they will be rivals against the rest of the states . . . Will you crush the smaller states, or must they be left unmolested? Sooner than be ruined, there are foreign powers who will take us by the hand.</p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Grand_Committee">Grand Committee</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Grand Committee">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2967" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania</div></div></div>
<p>As the convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states present at that time at the convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included William Paterson of New Jersey, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a> of New York, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a> of Maryland, Gunning Bedford, Jr. of Delaware, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a> of Georgia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, George Mason of Virginia, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Davie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Davie">William Davie</a> of North Carolina, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> of South Carolina and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> of Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200-88">[88]</a></sup> The committee's composition heavily favored the smaller states, as even the large state delegates tended to be more moderate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110-89">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>While the Convention took a three-day recess in observance of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Fourth of July</a> holiday, the Grand Committee began its work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110-89">[89]</a></sup> Franklin proposed and the committee adopted a compromise similar to the Connecticut plan. Membership in the House would be apportioned by population, with members elected from districts of forty thousand people. Each state would have an equal vote in the Senate. To gain large state support, however, Franklin proposed that the House of Representatives have exclusive power to originate bills concerned with raising money or government salaries (this would become the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination Clause</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio">Revisiting the three-fifths ratio</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Revisiting the three-fifths ratio">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The committee presented its report on July 5, but the compromise was not immediately adopted by the convention. For the next eleven days, the Convention stalled as delegates attempted to gain as many votes for their states as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115-91">[91]</a></sup> On July 6, a five-man committee was appointed to allocate specific numbers of representatives to each state. It called for a 56–member House of Representatives and used "[t]he number of blacks and whites with some regard to supposed wealth" as a basis of allocating representatives to each state. The Northern states had 30 representatives while the Southern states had 26. Delegates from non-slave states objected to counting slaves as they could not vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117-92">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 9, a new committee was chosen to reconsider the allocation of representatives. This time there were eleven members, one from each state. It recommended a 65–member House with allocation of representatives based on the number of free inhabitants and three-fifths of slaves. Under this new scheme, Northern states had 35 representatives and the South had 30. Southern delegates protested the North's greater representation and argued that their growing populations had been underestimated. The Committee of Eleven's report was approved, but the divergent interests of the Northern and Southern states remained obstacles to reaching consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 10, Edmund Randolph called for a regular <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Census" title="United States Census">census</a> on which to base future reallocation of House seats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118-94">[94]</a></sup> During the debate on the census, South Carolina delegates Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney sought to replace the three-fifths ratio with a full count of the slave population. They argued that slave property contributed to the wealth of the Southern states and as such should be used in calculating representation. This irritated Northern delegates already reluctant to support the three-fifths compromise. James Wilson, one of the authors of the three-fifths compromise, asked, "Are slaves to be admitted as Citizens? Then why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens? Are they admitted as property? Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>After fierce debate, the delegates voted to apportion representation and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxation</a> based on all white inhabitants and three-fifths of the slave population. This formula would apply to the existing states as well as any states created in the future. The first census would occur six years after the new federal government began operations and every ten years afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Great_Compromise_adopted">Great Compromise adopted</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Great Compromise adopted">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On July 14, John Rutledge and James Wilson attempted to secure proportional representation in the Senate. Charles Pinckney proposed a form of semi-proportional representation in which the smaller states would gain more representation than under a completely proportional system. This proposal was defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124-97">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a close vote on July 16, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise) as recommended by the Grand Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124-98">[98]</a></sup> On July 23, the convention decided that each state should have two senators rather than three. It rejected a proposal by Luther Martin of Maryland that senators from the same state cast a single joint vote, which was the practice in the Confederation Congress. Martin believed this was necessary if the Senate was to represent the interests of the states. Instead, the convention gave senators individual voting power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208-99">[99]</a></sup> This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress's choice to make national laws. <sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_debate">Further debate</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further debate">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Federal_supremacy">Federal supremacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Federal supremacy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On July 17, the delegates worked to define the powers of Congress. The Virginia Plan asserted the supremacy of the national government, giving Congress authority "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" and stating that congressional legislation would take precedence over conflicting state laws. In a motion introduced by Gunning Bedford, the Convention approved this provision with only South Carolina and Georgia voting against. Four small states—Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland—accepted the expansion of congressional power. Later in life, Madison explained that this was a result of the Great Compromise. Once the small states were assured they would be represented in the new government, they "exceeded all others in zeal" for a strong national government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Virginia Plan also gave Congress veto power over state laws. Madison believed this provision was crucial to prevent the states from engaging in irresponsible behavior, such as had occurred under the Confederation government. Gouverneur Morris feared the congressional veto would alienate states that might otherwise support the Constitution. Luther Martin argued that it would be too impractical and time-consuming, asking "Shall the laws of the states be sent up to the general legislature before they shall be permitted to operate?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Convention rejected the congressional veto. In its place, Martin proposed language taken from the New Jersey Plan that was unanimously approved by the convention: "that the Legislative acts of the US made by virtue and pursuance of the articles of Union, and all treaties made and ratified under the authority of the US shall be the supreme law of the respective States . . . and that the . . . States shall be bound thereby in their decisions".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Selecting_and_removing_the_president">Selecting and removing the president</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Selecting and removing the president">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In June, the delegates voted to let Congress appoint the executive, but there remained concerns that this would make the executive branch subservient to the legislature. On July 17, the Convention returned to the topic. Direct election by the people was defeated by a nine to one vote. Luther Martin then proposed an amended version of James Wilson's idea for an electoral college, first introduced in June. Wilson had proposed that people vote for electors who would then select the president. Martin's version called for state legislatures to choose electors, but this was also defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232-105">[105]</a></sup> Later, on July 19, Elbridge Gerry unsuccessfully proposed that governors choose electors, a policy that would have increased state influence over the presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241-106">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>After reaffirming Congressional selection, the delegates voted to allow the president to serve multiple terms, a reversal of their earlier decision to limit the president to serving a single, seven–year term. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_McClurg" title="James McClurg">James McClurg</a> of Virginia went further and proposed that the president serve a lifelong term "during good behavior". McClurg believed this would protect the independence of the executive branch, but this was rejected for being too close to monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a>. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minister_of_the_Crown" title="Minister of the Crown">ministers</a> (see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Impeachment in the United Kingdom">Impeachment in the United Kingdom</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155-108">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Appointing_judges">Appointing judges</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Appointing judges">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Needing a break from discussing the presidency, the delegates once again considered the judicial branch on July 18. They were still divided over the method of appointment. Half of the Convention wanted the Senate to choose judges, while the other half wanted the president to do it. Luther Martin supported Senate appointment because he thought that body's members would defend the interests of the individual states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237-109">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nathaniel Gorham suggested a compromise—appointment by the president with the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a> of the Senate". While the meaning of "advice and consent" was still undefined, the proposal gained some support. On July 21, Madison offered an alternative compromise—the president would appoint judges but the Senate could veto an appointment by a two-thirds majority. This proposal would have made it very hard for the Senate to block judicial appointments. Madison's proposal failed to garner support, and the delegates ended by reaffirming that the Senate would appoint judges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238-110">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 21, Wilson and Madison tried unsuccessfully to revive Madison's council of revision. While judges had a role in reviewing the constitutionality of laws, argued Gorham, mixing the policy judgments of the president with the legal judgments of a court would violate separation of powers. John Rutledge agreed, saying "judges ought never to give their opinion on a law till it comes before them".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="First_draft">First draft</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: First draft">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a>, which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a>, with the other members including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Wilson_(justice)" title="James Wilson (justice)">James Wilson</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a>.
</p><p>Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge's edits, and the committee's final report to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>168</span></sup> From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, provisions of the state constitutions, and even <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney's</a> plan, to produce the first full draft,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70-113">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>165</span></sup> which author <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_O._Stewart" title="David O. Stewart">David O. Stewart</a> has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>165</span></sup>
</p><p>Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270-114">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>Much of what was included in the committee's report consisted of numerous details that the convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>169</span></sup> Examples of these details included the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speech_and_Debate_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech and Debate Clause">Speech and Debate Clause</a>, which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.
</p><p>However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge's urging, the committee went beyond what the convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the convention had never discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>165</span></sup>
</p><p>The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union" that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated" powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>170–71</span></sup> Rutledge, however, was not able to convince all the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>") was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>171–72</span></sup> Another revision of Wilson's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge's list of enumerated powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>172</span></sup> In addition, Wilson's draft modified the language of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> adopted by the convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>172</span></sup>
</p><p>These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>172</span></sup>
</p><p>Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee's report was presented to the convention. On the day the convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>173</span></sup> In response to Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates, the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a>") pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals provoked outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>173–74</span></sup>
</p><p>The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate">Further modifications and concluding debate</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further modifications and concluding debate">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>187</span></sup> Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.
</p><p>One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trade</a> starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a> in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>196</span></sup>
</p><p>Once the convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>, and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.
</p><p>A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>207</span></sup> The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with indigenous tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>209</span></sup> They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty".
</p><p>The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment in the United States">impeachment trials</a> from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie-breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>212</span></sup> One controversial issue throughout much of the convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Term_limit" title="Term limit">term limited</a>. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.
</p><p>Near the end of the convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>235</span></sup> Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>236</span></sup> Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.
</p><p>Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment that required two-thirds of the states to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>238</span></sup> All amendments to the Constitution, save the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21st amendment</a>, have been made through this latter method.
</p><p>Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the convention's business to an end and return home. As the convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a>, which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>241</span></sup>
</p><p>Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Federalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Federalist">anti-Federalists</a> against ratification. Most of the convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>243</span></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Drafting_and_signing">Drafting and signing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Drafting and signing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing of the United States Constitution</a></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/350px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="226" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/525px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/700px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1933" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States</a></i>, by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Howard_Chandler_Christy" title="Howard Chandler Christy">Howard Chandler Christy</a> (1940)</div></div></div>
<p>Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members mostly supported a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>229–30</span></sup> They were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a> (Connecticut), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> (New York), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> (Pennsylvania), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (Virginia), and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contract_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract clause">contract clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>243</span></sup>
</p><p>
Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> demanded a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">Bill of Rights</a> if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow.<sup id="cite_ref-bor_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bor-120">[120]</a></sup> Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>112</span></sup> Ultimately, 39 of the 55 delegates who attended (74 had been chosen from 12 states) ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, who said, "I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies ..."<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/220px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/330px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/440px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1324" data-file-height="846" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>U.S. Postage, Issue of 1937, depicting Delegates at the signing of the Constitution, engraving after a painting by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Junius_Brutus_Stearns" title="Junius Brutus Stearns">Junius Brutus Stearns</a><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton."<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>244</span></sup> Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.
</p><p>At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">anecdote</a> on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chippendale_furniture" class="mw-redirect" title="Chippendale furniture">Chippendale chair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RisingSun_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisingSun-123">[123]</a></sup> As recounted in Madison's notes:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-RisingSun_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisingSun-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution#Article_Seven:_Ratification" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Article VII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery">Slavery</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Slavery">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> was one of the most difficult issues confronting the delegates. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>68</span></sup> At least a third of the convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>68–69</span></sup> Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states,<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-126">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>139</span></sup> and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived in all regions of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-126">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>132</span></sup> However, more than 90% of the slaves<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-126">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>132</span></sup> lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families).<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_126-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-126">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>135</span></sup> The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the convention were unwilling to accept any proposal that they believed would threaten the institution.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise">Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:JohnDickinson4.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/JohnDickinson4.gif/170px-JohnDickinson4.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/0/09/JohnDickinson4.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="274" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:JohnDickinson4.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Quaker <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (politician)">John Dickinson</a> argued forcefully against slavery during the convention. Once Delaware's largest slaveholder, he had freed all of his slaves by 1787.</div></div></div>
<p>Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2019)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery be outlawed within the new nation. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Three-Fifths_Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Three-Fifths Compromise">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a></div>
<p>Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation.<sup id="cite_ref-crf_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crf-128">[128]</a></sup> Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population.<sup id="cite_ref-crf_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crf-128">[128]</a></sup> Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.<sup id="cite_ref-crf_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crf-128">[128]</a></sup> Finally, delegate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Wilson_(justice)" title="James Wilson (justice)">James Wilson</a> proposed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-35">[35]</a></sup> This was eventually adopted by the convention.
</p><p><span id="Framers"></span>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Framers_of_the_Constitution">Framers of the Constitution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Framers of the Constitution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Fifty-five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, and are considered the Framers of the Constitution, although only 39 delegates actually signed.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara70_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara70-129">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rodell1986_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodell1986-130">[130]</a></sup> The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who would ultimately craft the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara70_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara70-129">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-131">[131]</a></sup> All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-132">[132]</a></sup> The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_112-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-112">[112]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>25</span></sup> Several had been state governors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-132">[132]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-131">[131]</a></sup> Only two delegates, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a>, would sign all three of the nation's founding documents: the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, and the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_131-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-131">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. Others were merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers. Several were physicians or small farmers, and one was a minister.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68-133">[133]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_131-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-131">[131]</a></sup> Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, except for Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67-134">[134]</a></sup> George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_131-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-131">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>Their depth of knowledge and experience in self-government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris semi-seriously wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p>Delegates used two streams of intellectual tradition,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and any one delegate could be found using both or a mixture depending on the subject under discussion: foreign affairs, the economy, national government, or federal relationships among the states.
</p>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 15em; -webkit-column-width: 15em; column-width: 15em;">
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gunning_Bedford,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Gunning Bedford, Jr.">Gunning Bedford, Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson_(delegate)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (delegate)">John Dickinson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Read_(signer)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Read (signer)">George Read</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Houstoun_(lawyer)" title="William Houstoun (lawyer)">William Houstoun</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Pierce_(politician)" title="William Pierce (politician)">William Pierce</a>*</li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Francis_Mercer" title="John Francis Mercer">John Francis Mercer</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caleb_Strong" title="Caleb Strong">Caleb Strong</a>*</li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Houston" title="William Houston">William Houston</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Lansing_Jr." title="John Lansing Jr.">John Lansing Jr.</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a>*</li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Richardson_Davie" title="William Richardson Davie">William Richardson Davie</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Martin" title="Alexander Martin">Alexander Martin</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Morris_(merchant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Morris (merchant)">Robert Morris</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Wilson_(justice)" title="James Wilson (justice)">James Wilson</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierce_Butler" title="Pierce Butler">Pierce Butler</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_McClurg" title="James McClurg">James McClurg</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>*</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a>*</li></ul></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></b>
<ul><li><i>Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.</i></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<p>(*) <i>Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.</i>
</p><p>Several prominent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founders</a> are notable for <i>not</i> participating in the Constitutional Convention. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> was abroad, serving as the minister to France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313-137">[137]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-132">[132]</a></sup> which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>The 1989 film <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i>, which portrays the events and discussions of the Constitutional Convention, was largely filmed in Independence Hall.</li>
<li>In the 2015 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway musical</a> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a></i>, Alexander Hamilton's proposal of his own plan during the Constitutional Convention was featured in the song "Non-Stop", which concluded the first act.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_Day_(United_States)" title="Constitution Day (United States)">Constitution Day (United States)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a></li></ul>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJillson2009">Jillson 2009</a>, p. 31.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOdesser-Torpey2013">Odesser-Torpey 2013</a>, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter1987-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossiter1987_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossiter1987">Rossiter 1987</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, pp. 20–21.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, pp. 21–23.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, pp. 74–88.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichards2003">Richards 2003</a>, pp. 132–139.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPalumbo2009">Palumbo 2009</a>, pp. 9–10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaminskiLeffler1991">Kaminski & Leffler 1991</a>, p. 3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html">"Observing Constitution Day"</a>. <i>archives.gov</i>. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. August 21, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190817165833/https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 17, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=Observing+Constitution+Day&rft.date=2016-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Feducation%2Flessons%2Fconstitution-day%2Fratification.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r951705291">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoehn2003">Moehn 2003</a>, p. 37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 103.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPadoverLandynski1995">Padover & Landynski 1995</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 83.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200751-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 51.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Pursuing_American_Ideals2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pursuing_American_Ideals2_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>History Alive! Pursuing American Ideals</i>. Rancho Cordova, CA: Teachers' Curriculum Institute. April 2013. p. 56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Alive%21+Pursuing+American+Ideals&rft.place=Rancho+Cordova%2C+CA&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Teachers%27+Curriculum+Institute&rft.date=2013-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, pp. 162–64.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-10-02-0001">"Madison at the Federal Convention"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. National Archives and Records Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=founders.archives.gov&rft.atitle=Madison+at+the+Federal+Convention&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FMadison%2F01-10-02-0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 129.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200729-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 29.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 130.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 131–132.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200753-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200753_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 53.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 91.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 86.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 99.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMount2012">Mount 2012</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 102.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 102–104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 139.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 139-140.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 105.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 56, 66.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756-58,_77-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756-58,_77_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 56-58, 77.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 109.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 149.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911178-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911178_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1911">Farrand 1911</a>, p. 178.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFFarrand1911 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911431-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911431_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1911">Farrand 1911</a>, p. 431.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFFarrand1911 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 89, 110.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 121.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 110–116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 117.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 122.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 119.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200764-65-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200764-65_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 64-65.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200767-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200767_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 67.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200775-78-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200775-78_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 75-78.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200779-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200779_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 79.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200780-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200780_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 80.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 124.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 154.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 125–126.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 140.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 90.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 127.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346.-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346._64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylorHardwick2009">Taylor & Hardwick 2009</a>, pp. 331–346..</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy1987">McCarthy 1987</a>, pp. 689–696.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiClerico1987">DiClerico 1987</a>, pp. 301–317.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 128, 134.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 136.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 129.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 130.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135-136-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135-136_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 135-136.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141-142-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141-142_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 141-142.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138-140-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138-140_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 138-140.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 236.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 159.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200788-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200788_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 88.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161-162-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161-162_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 161-162.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200790-91-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200790-91_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 90-91.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200794-95-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200794-95_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 94-95.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200796-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200796_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 96.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 164.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 150.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911196-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911196_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1911">Farrand 1911</a>, p. 196.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFFarrand1911 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 181.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 173.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911500–501-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911500–501_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1911">Farrand 1911</a>, pp. 500–501.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFFarrand1911 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 200.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 110.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 201.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 116–117.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 208.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 118.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 209–210.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 211–213.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 123–124.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, p. 124.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 208.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence Claus, The Framers' Compromise, 67 American Journal of Comparative Law, 677 (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492">https://ssrn.com/abstract=3591492</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext">https://academic.oup.com/ajcl/article-abstract/67/3/677/5579327?redirectedFrom=fulltext</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 199.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 227–228.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 228.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 229.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 232.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 241.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 232–234.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2007">Stewart 2007</a>, pp. 154–155.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStewart2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 237.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 238.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 237–238.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stewart-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_112-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2007" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, David O. (2007). <i>The Summer of 1787</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3"><bdi>978-0-7432-8692-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Summer+of+1787&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-8692-3&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=David+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 269–70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 270.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 273–74.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 274.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 274–75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 269, 275.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 275.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-bor-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bor_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Archives2015" class="citation web cs1">National Archives (October 30, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights.html">"Bill of Rights"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bill+of+Rights&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft.au=National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fbill_of_rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html">Speech of Benjamin Franklin – The U_S_ Constitution Online – USConstitution_net</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130721173825/http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm">"United States Postage Stamps"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm">the original</a> on July 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+Postage+Stamps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.junior-philatelists.com%2FUSStampsHistory37.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RisingSun-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RisingSun_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RisingSun_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rising Sun" in <i>The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding</i>, Vol. 1 (ed. John R. Vile: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 681.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp">Madison Notes for September 17, 1787</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAkhil_Reed_Amar2006" class="citation book cs1">Akhil Reed Amar (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC"><i>America's Constitution: A Biography</i></a>. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 29. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7272-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7272-6"><bdi>978-0-8129-7272-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Constitution%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7272-6&rft.au=Akhil+Reed+Amar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4bVBs5OOkFEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-USDLCB-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_126-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Department_of_Labor_and_Commerce_Bureau_of_the_Census1909" class="citation book cs1">United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit"><i>A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900</i></a>. D.C.: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Population+Growth%3A+From+the+First+Census+of+the+United+States+to+the+Twelfth%2C+1790%E2%80%931900&rft.place=D.C.&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1909&rft.au=United+States+Department+of+Labor+and+Commerce+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofpopulat00unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 318–29.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-crf-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crf_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crf_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crf_128-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFConstitutional_Rights_Foundation" class="citation web cs1">Constitutional Rights Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm">"The Constitution and Slavery"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm">the original</a> on February 25, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+and+Slavery&rft.au=Constitutional+Rights+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crf-usa.org%2Flessons%2Fslavery_const.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nara70-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nara70_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara70_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers">"Meet the Framers of the Constitution"</a>. <i>America's Founding Documents</i>. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers">Archived</a> from the original on August 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=America%27s+Founding+Documents&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Framers+of+the+Constitution&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffounding-docs%2Ffounding-fathers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rodell1986-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rodell1986_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRodell1986" class="citation book cs1">Rodell, Fred (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4"><i>55 Men: The Story of the Constitution, Based on the Day-by-Day Notes of James Madison</i></a>. Stackpole Books. p. 4. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-4409-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-4409-6"><bdi>978-0-8117-4409-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=55+Men%3A+The+Story+of+the+Constitution%2C+Based+on+the+Day-by-Day+Notes+of+James+Madison&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-4409-6&rft.aulast=Rodell&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7-GycyFrxpAC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nara29-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_131-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_131-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_131-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html">"The Founding Fathers: A Brief Overview"</a>. <i>The Charters of Freedom</i>. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. October 30, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Charters+of+Freedom&rft.atitle=The+Founding+Fathers%3A+A+Brief+Overview&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fconstitution_founding_fathers_overview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_132-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 65.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 65–68.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 66–67.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWebb" class="citation web cs1">Webb, Derek A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/">"Doubting a little of one's infallibility: The real miracle at Philadelphia – National Constitution Center"</a>. <i>National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Constitution+Center+%E2%80%93+constitutioncenter.org&rft.atitle=Doubting+a+little+of+one%27s+infallibility%3A+The+real+miracle+at+Philadelphia+%E2%80%93+National+Constitution+Center&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Derek+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Fblog%2Fdoubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson" class="citation web cs1">Jefferson, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/">"Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, August 30, 1787"</a>. <i>The Library of Congress</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Letter+of+Thomas+Jefferson+to+John+Adams%2C+August+30%2C+1787&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fresource%2Fmtj1.007_1057_1060%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1913">Farrand 1913</a>, p. 13.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBeeman2009" class="citation book cs1">Beeman, Richard (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC"><i>Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-6570-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plain+Honest+Men%3A+The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7&rft.aulast=Beeman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYz_68SNGKuMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBowen1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catherine_Drinker_Bowen" title="Catherine Drinker Bowen">Bowen, Catherine Drinker</a> (1966). <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miracle_at_Philadelphia" title="Miracle at Philadelphia">Miracle At Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention</a></i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Little,_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown">Little, Brown</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316103985" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316103985"><bdi>978-0316103985</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miracle+At+Philadelphia%3A+The+Story+of+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0316103985&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Drinker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFClaus2019" class="citation journal cs1">Claus, Laurence (2019). "The Framers' Compromise". <i>American Journal of Comparative Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <b>67</b> (3): 677–84. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022">10.1093/ajcl/avz022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=The+Framers%27+Compromise&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=677-84&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFDiClerico1987" class="citation journal cs1">DiClerico, Robert E. (Spring 1987). "James Wilson's Presidency". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress. <b>17</b> (2): 301–317. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/40574453">40574453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=James+Wilson%27s+Presidency&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=301-317&rft.date=1987&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40574453&rft.aulast=DiClerico&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1913" class="citation book cs1">Farrand, Max (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods"><i>The Framing of the Constitution of the United States</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Framing+of+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Farrand&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fframingofconstit00farruoft%23page%2F38%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2Fdemigods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFJillson2009" class="citation book cs1">Jillson, Calvin C. (2009). <i>American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-88702-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-88702-8"><bdi>978-0-203-88702-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Government%3A+Political+Development+and+Institutional+Change+%285th+ed.%29&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-203-88702-8&rft.aulast=Jillson&rft.aufirst=Calvin+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKaminskiLeffler1991" class="citation book cs1">Kaminski, John P.; Leffler, Richard (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ"><i>Creating the Constitution: A History in Documents</i></a>. Center for the Study of the American Constitution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+the+Constitution%3A+A+History+in+Documents&rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Kaminski&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft.au=Leffler%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZuUgAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKlarman2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Klarman, Michael J.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I-DeDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Framers' Coup: The Making of the United States Constitution</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190865962" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190865962"><bdi>978-0190865962</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Framers%27+Coup%3A+The+Making+of+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0190865962&rft.aulast=Klarman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI-DeDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLarsonWinship2005" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Edward J.; Winship, Michael P. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ"><i>The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison</i></a>. New York: The Modern Library. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-7517-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-7517-0"><bdi>0-8129-7517-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+Convention%3A+A+Narrative+History+from+the+Notes+of+James+Madison&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Modern+Library&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8129-7517-0&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft.au=Winship%2C+Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMKk_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1987" class="citation journal cs1">McCarthy, Daniel J. (Fall 1987). "James Wilson and the Creation of the Presidency". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress. <b>17</b> (4): 689–696. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/27550478">27550478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=James+Wilson+and+the+Creation+of+the+Presidency&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=689-696&rft.date=1987&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27550478&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMoehn2003" class="citation book cs1">Moehn, Heather (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37"><i>The U.S. Constitution: A Primary Source Investigation Into the Fundamental Law of the United States</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823938049" title="Special:BookSources/9780823938049"><bdi>9780823938049</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Constitution%3A+A+Primary+Source+Investigation+Into+the+Fundamental+Law+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780823938049&rft.aulast=Moehn&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumfzUobPvk0C%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMount2012" class="citation web cs1">Mount, Steve (March 12, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html">"Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention"</a>. <i>USConstitution.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USConstitution.net&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Topic%3A+The+Constitutional+Convention&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft.aulast=Mount&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usconstitution.net%2Fconsttop_ccon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFOdesser-Torpey2013" class="citation book cs1">Odesser-Torpey, Marilyn (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage"><i>Insiders' Guide to Philadelphia & Pennsylvania Dutch Country</i></a>. Morris Book Publishing, LLC. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780762756995" title="Special:BookSources/9780762756995"><bdi>9780762756995</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insiders%27+Guide+to+Philadelphia+%26+Pennsylvania+Dutch+Country&rft.pub=Morris+Book+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780762756995&rft.aulast=Odesser-Torpey&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrCpelbKPeKcC%26lpg%3DPA26%26dq%3DGrand%2520Convention%2520at%2520Philadelphia%26pg%3DPA26%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPadoverLandynski1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saul_K._Padover" title="Saul K. Padover">Padover, Saul K.</a>; Landynski, Jacob W. (1995). <i>The Living U.S. Constitution</i> (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Meridian. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0452011472" title="Special:BookSources/978-0452011472"><bdi>978-0452011472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Living+U.S.+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd+rev.&rft.pub=Meridian&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0452011472&rft.aulast=Padover&rft.aufirst=Saul+K.&rft.au=Landynski%2C+Jacob+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPalumbo2009" class="citation book cs1">Palumbo, Arthur E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC"><i>The Authentic Constitution: An Originalist View of America's Legacy</i></a>. Algora Publishing. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875867076" title="Special:BookSources/9780875867076"><bdi>9780875867076</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authentic+Constitution%3A+An+Originalist+View+of+America%27s+Legacy&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780875867076&rft.aulast=Palumbo&rft.aufirst=Arthur+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPBZ1K1nX6QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRichards2003" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Leonard (2003). <i>Shays's Rebellion:The American Revolution's Final Battle</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1870-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1870-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-1870-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shays%27s+Rebellion%3AThe+American+Revolution%27s+Final+Battle&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1870-1&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRossiter1987" class="citation book cs1">Rossiter, Clinton (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia"><i>1787: The Grand Convention</i></a>. W.W. Norton. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30404-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30404-6"><bdi>978-0-393-30404-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1787%3A+The+Grand+Convention&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30404-6&rft.aulast=Rossiter&rft.aufirst=Clinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzzViQgAACAAJ%26dq%3DGrand%2BConvention%2Bat%2BPhiladelphia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFStewart2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_O._Stewart" title="David O. Stewart">Stewart, David O.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC"><i>The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3"><bdi>978-0-7432-8692-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Summer+of+1787%3A+The+Men+Who+Invented+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-8692-3&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=David+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNveNQBMwpLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHardwick2009" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Michael H.; Hardwick, Kevin (2009). "The Presidency of James Wilson". <i>White House Studies</i>. Nova Science Publishers. <b>9</b> (4): 331–346.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=White+House+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Presidency+of+James+Wilson&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=331-346&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft.au=Hardwick%2C+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Department_of_Labor_and_Commerce_Bureau_of_the_Census1909" class="citation book cs1">United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit"><i>A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Population+Growth%3A+From+the+First+Census+of+the+United+States+to+the+Twelfth%2C+1790%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1909&rft.au=United+States+Department+of+Labor+and+Commerce+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofpopulat00unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFVan_Cleve2017" class="citation book cs1">Van Cleve, George (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ"><i>We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226480503" title="Special:BookSources/9780226480503"><bdi>9780226480503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Have+Not+a+Government%3A+The+Articles+of+Confederation+and+the+Road+to+the+Constitution&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780226480503&rft.aulast=Van+Cleve&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxNI4DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFWood1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ"><i>The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-4723-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+American+Republic%2C+1776-1787&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbLzqCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style="">
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Farrand" title="Max Farrand">Farrand, Max</a>, ed. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQSAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Volume 1. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJVQSAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911" class="citation book cs1">Farrand, Max, ed. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LblWAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Volume 2. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLblWAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911" class="citation book cs1">Farrand, Max, ed. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=02sLAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Volume 3. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D02sLAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHoupt2010" class="citation journal cs1">Houpt, D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163">"Securing a Legacy: The Publication of James Madison's Notes from the Constitutional Convention"</a>. <i>The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>. <b>118</b> (1): 4–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Virginia+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=Securing+a+Legacy%3A+The+Publication+of+James+Madison%27s+Notes+from+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-39&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Houpt&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40601163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKetcham2003" class="citation book cs1">Ketcham, Ralph, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC"><i>The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates</i></a>. Penguin Publishing Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-65134-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-65134-6"><bdi>978-1-101-65134-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anti-Federalist+Papers+and+the+Constitutional+Convention+Debates&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-101-65134-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt6Ynu-b9vrUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Constitutional Convention (United States)"><span style="">Constitutional Convention (United States)</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Federal_Convention_of_1787" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:Federal Convention of 1787">the Federal Convention of 1787</a></b></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention (United States)</a></b></i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html">Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/">Founders' Blog-Republishing Madison's notes on the convention 220 years later</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention">TeachingAmericanHistory.org – The Constitutional Convention</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.footnote.com/page/103">Transcription from the Report from the Grand Compromise Committee</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080118090302/http://www.constitutioncenter.org/">National Constitution Center</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090208155836/http://edsitement.neh.gov/">EDSITEment</a> Lesson Plan: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071005041743/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726">The Constitutional Convention of 1787</a> (from the National Endowment for the Humanities)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html">Constitution Convention Broadside Collection</a> in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/">Rare Book and Special Collections Division</a> at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://p.variorumconstitution.com/">Variorum Constitution, Text P</a>: The Text of the Parchment Signed by the Convention Delegates</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://f.variorumconstitution.com/">Variorum Constitution, Text F</a>: The Text of the Printed Edition of the Constitution Authorized by the Convention</li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ratified</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pending</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past deadline</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendment proposals in Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philadelphia Convention</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Compact_Clause" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Compact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex post facto</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Freedom_of_speech" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">Free Speech</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause" title="Natural-born-citizen clause">Natural-born citizen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">New States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the President of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Petition_and_assembly" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">Petition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Title_of_Nobility_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Title of Nobility Clause">Title of Nobility</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_constitutional_law" title="United States constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Charters of Freedom Rotunda</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_Day_(United_States)" title="Constitution Day (United States)">Constitution Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/USS_Constitution" title="USS Constitution">USS <i>Constitution</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution_and_worldwide_influence" title="United States Constitution and worldwide influence">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States Portal</a></b> • <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law Portal</a></b> • <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book:United_States_Constitution" title="Book:United States Constitution">Wikipedia book</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:US_history" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:US_history&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_United_States" title="Prehistory of the United States">Prehistory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1789–1849)">1789–1849</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">1865–1918</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1918%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1918–1945)">1918–1945</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_diplomatic_history" title="Timeline of United States diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medical</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Musical</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">Southern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Region</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Category" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alexander_Hamilton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Template:Alexander Hamilton"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Template talk:Alexander Hamilton"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Alexander_Hamilton&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alexander_Hamilton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Senior_Officer_of_the_United_States_Army,_1799–1800_*_1st_Secretary_of_the_Treasury,_1789–1795_*_Delegate,_Congress_of_the_Confederation,_1782–1783,_1788–1789">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Senior Officer of the United States Army, 1799–1800</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">1st Secretary of the Treasury, 1789–1795</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Delegate, Congress of the Confederation, 1782–1783, 1788–1789</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">United States<br />founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Full_Vindication_of_the_Measures_of_Congress" title="A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress"><i>A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress</i> (1774)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Farmer_Refuted" title="The Farmer Refuted"><i>The Farmer Refuted</i> (1775)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Delegate, 1786 Annapolis Convention</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">Initiated, main author, <i>The Federalist Papers</i></a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Federalist_Papers_by_Alexander_Hamilton" title="Category:Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton">written by Hamilton</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Father</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton#Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="Alexander Hamilton">Secretary of<br />the Treasury</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="First Bank of the United States">First Bank of the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Revenue Marine (U.S. Coast Guard)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service" title="United States Customs Service">U.S. Customs Service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamiltonian_economic_program" title="Hamiltonian economic program">Hamiltonian economic program</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compromise_of_1790" title="Compromise of 1790">Compromise of 1790</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Funding_Act_of_1790" title="Funding Act of 1790">Funding Act of 1790</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariff_of_1790" title="Tariff of 1790">Tariff of 1790</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariff_of_1791" title="Tariff of 1791">Tariff of 1791</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariff_of_1792" title="Tariff of 1792">Tariff of 1792</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1792" title="Coinage Act of 1792">Coinage Act of 1792</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">U.S. Mint</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">Jay Treaty</a></li>
<li>Reports
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Report_on_the_Public_Credit" title="First Report on the Public Credit">"First Report on the Public Credit"</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Report_on_Public_Credit" title="Second Report on Public Credit">"Second Report on Public Credit"</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">"Report On Manufactures"</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Report_on_a_Plan_for_the_Further_Support_of_Public_Credit" title="Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit">"Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit"</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Society_for_Establishing_Useful_Manufactures" title="Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures">Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military career</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Provincial_Company_of_Artillery" title="New York Provincial Company of Artillery">New York Provincial Company of Artillery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington%27s_Aides-de-Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington's Aides-de-Camp">Washington's <i>aide-de-camp</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton#During_the_Revolutionary_War" title="Alexander Hamilton">In the Revolutionary War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Harlem_Heights" title="Battle of Harlem Heights">Battle of Harlem Heights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_White_Plains" title="Battle of White Plains">White Plains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton" title="Battle of Trenton">Trenton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton" title="Battle of Princeton">Princeton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine" title="Battle of Brandywine">Brandywine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown" title="Battle of Germantown">Germantown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth" title="Battle of Monmouth">Monmouth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burr%E2%80%93Hamilton_duel" title="Burr–Hamilton duel">Burr–Hamilton duel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Founder, Federalist Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bank_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank of New York">Founder, Bank of New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bank_of_North_America#Congressional_Charter" title="Bank of North America">Bank of North America</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Advisor, George Washington's Farewell Address</a></li>
<li>President General of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">Founder, <i>New-York Evening Post</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Reynolds_affair" title="Hamilton–Reynolds affair">Hamilton–Reynolds affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rutgers_v._Waddington" title="Rutgers v. Waddington"><i>Rutgers v. Waddington</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Hamilton and slavery">Relationship with slavery</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Depictions</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(Trumbull)" title="Alexander Hamilton (Trumbull)">Trumbull portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(Ceracchi)" title="Alexander Hamilton (Ceracchi)">Ceracchi bust</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Central_Park)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Central Park)">Central Park statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Washington, D.C.)">U.S. Treasury statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Columbia_University)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Columbia University)">Columbia University statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Boston)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Chicago)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Chicago)">Chicago statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton#Hamilton_on_U.S._postage" title="Alexander Hamilton">U.S. postage stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_ten-dollar_bill" title="United States ten-dollar bill">U.S. $10 bill</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Garden_of_American_Heroes" title="National Garden of American Heroes">National Garden of American Heroes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nevis_Historical_and_Conservation_Society#Alexander_Hamilton_Museum" title="Nevis Historical and Conservation Society">Boyhood home and museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_U.S._Custom_House" title="Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House">Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Bridge" title="Alexander Hamilton Bridge">Alexander Hamilton Bridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Alexander Hamilton High School (Los Angeles)">Alexander Hamilton High School</a> (Los Angeles)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort_Hamilton" title="Fort Hamilton">Fort Hamilton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_Grange_National_Memorial" title="Hamilton Grange National Memorial">Hamilton Grange National Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_Hall_(Columbia_University)" title="Hamilton Hall (Columbia University)">Hamilton Hall</a> (Columbia University)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_Hall_(Salem,_Massachusetts)" title="Hamilton Hall (Salem, Massachusetts)">Hamilton Hall</a> (Salem)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_Heights,_Manhattan" title="Hamilton Heights, Manhattan">Hamilton Heights, Manhattan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton,_Ohio" title="Hamilton, Ohio">Hamilton, Ohio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_College_(New_York)#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamilton College (New York)">Hamilton-Oneida Academy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trinity_Church_Cemetery" title="Trinity Church Cemetery">Trinity Church Cemetery</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(play)" title="Hamilton (play)">Hamilton</a></i> (1917 play)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(film)" title="Alexander Hamilton (film)">Alexander Hamilton</a></i> (1931 film)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!">Liberty!</a></i> (1997 documentary series)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids">Liberty's Kids</a></i> (2002 animated series)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(book)" title="Alexander Hamilton (book)">Alexander Hamilton</a></i> (2004 book)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">John Adams</a></i> (2008 miniseries)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)"><i>Hamilton</i> (2015 musical</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">2020 film</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)">Washington</a></i> (2020 miniseries)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberty_Hall_(New_Jersey)" title="Liberty Hall (New Jersey)">Liberty Hall</a> (N.J.)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Manumission_Society" title="New York Manumission Society">New York Manumission Society</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Free_School" title="African Free School">African Free School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">"American System" economic plan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler_Hamilton" title="Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton">Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton</a> (wife)
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Schuyler_family" title="Schuyler family">Schuyler family</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_Hamilton" title="Philip Hamilton">Philip Hamilton</a> (oldest son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angelica_Hamilton" title="Angelica Hamilton">Angelica Hamilton</a> (daughter)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr." title="Alexander Hamilton Jr.">Alexander Hamilton Jr.</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Alexander_Hamilton" title="James Alexander Hamilton">James Alexander Hamilton</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton" title="John Church Hamilton">John Church Hamilton</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_S._Hamilton" title="William S. Hamilton">William S. Hamilton</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eliza_Hamilton_Holly" title="Eliza Hamilton Holly">Eliza Hamilton Holly</a> (daughter)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_Hamilton_(the_second)" title="Philip Hamilton (the second)">Philip Hamilton</a> (youngest son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Schuyler_Hamilton" title="Schuyler Hamilton">Schuyler Hamilton</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr._(1816%E2%80%931889)" title="Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1816–1889)">Alexander Hamilton Jr.</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allan_McLane_Hamilton" title="Allan McLane Hamilton">Allan McLane Hamilton</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Ray_Hamilton" title="Robert Ray Hamilton">Robert Ray Hamilton</a> (great-grandson)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Category:Alexander Hamilton">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Book:Alexander Hamilton">Book</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_Washington" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:George_Washington" title="Template:George Washington"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:George_Washington" title="Template talk:George Washington"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:George_Washington&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="George_Washington" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_1st_President_of_the_United_States,_1789–1797_*_Senior_Officer_of_the_Army,_1798–1799_*_Commander-in-Chief_of_the_Continental_Army,_1775–1783_*_Second_Continental_Congress,_1775_*_First_Continental_Congress,_1774">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the United States">1st</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, 1789–1797</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Senior Officer of the Army, 1798–1799</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Commander-in-Chief of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>, 1775–1783</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress, 1775</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress, 1774</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_career_of_George_Washington" title="Military career of George Washington">Military career</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Revolutionary War</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_career_of_George_Washington" title="Military career of George Washington">Military career</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_in_the_French_and_Indian_War" title="George Washington in the French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Jumonville_Glen" title="Battle of Jumonville Glen">Jumonville Glen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Necessity" title="Battle of Fort Necessity">Battle of Fort Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_the_Monongahela" title="Battle of the Monongahela">Battle of the Monongahela</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forbes_Expedition" title="Forbes Expedition">Forbes Expedition</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_in_the_American_Revolution" title="George Washington in the American Revolution">Washington and the American Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Commander-in-chief, Continental Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington%27s_aides-de-camp" title="Washington's aides-de-camp">Aides-de-camp</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Washington%27s_Headquarters_during_the_Revolutionary_War" title="List of Washington's Headquarters during the Revolutionary War">Washington's headquarters</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_tent" title="George Washington's tent">office and sleeping tent</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boston_campaign" title="Boston campaign">Boston campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Boston" title="Siege of Boston">Siege of Boston</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_and_New_Jersey_campaign" title="New York and New Jersey campaign">New York and New Jersey campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_crossing_of_the_Delaware_River" title="George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River">Delaware River crossing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton" title="Battle of Trenton">Battle of Trenton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_the_Assunpink_Creek" title="Battle of the Assunpink Creek">Battle of the Assunpink Creek</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton" title="Battle of Princeton">Battle of Princeton</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign" title="Philadelphia campaign">Philadelphia campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine" title="Battle of Brandywine">Battle of Brandywine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown" title="Battle of Germantown">Battle of Germantown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_White_Marsh" title="Battle of White Marsh">Battle of White Marsh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valley_Forge" title="Valley Forge">Valley Forge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth" title="Battle of Monmouth">Battle of Monmouth</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battles_of_Saratoga" title="Battles of Saratoga">Battles of Saratoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yorktown_campaign" title="Yorktown campaign">Yorktown campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown_(1781)" title="Siege of Yorktown (1781)">Siege of Yorktown</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culper_Ring" title="Culper Ring">Culper spy ring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Newburgh_Conspiracy" title="Newburgh Conspiracy">Newburgh Conspiracy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Newburgh_letter" title="Newburgh letter">Newburgh letter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief" title="George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief">Resignation as commander-in-chief</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Badge_of_Military_Merit" title="Badge of Military Merit">Badge of Military Merit</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Before_Boston_Medal" title="Washington Before Boston Medal">Washington Before Boston Medal</a></li>
<li>Horses: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_(horse)" title="Nelson (horse)">Nelson</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blueskin_(horse)" title="Blueskin (horse)">Blueskin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Other U.S.<br />founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">1769 Virginia Association</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">1774 Fairfax Resolves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Court_of_Appeals_in_Cases_of_Capture" title="Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture">Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">1785 Mount Vernon Conference</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chairman, 1787 Constitutional Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_political_evolution" title="George Washington's political evolution">George Washington's political evolution</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">1788–89 United States presidential election</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_reception_at_Trenton" title="George Washington's reception at Trenton">Reception at Trenton</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Inaugural_Bible" title="George Washington Inaugural Bible">inaugural bible</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mr._President_(title)" title="Mr. President (title)">Title of "Mr. President"</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet of the United States</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Militia_Acts_of_1792" title="Militia Acts of 1792">Militia Acts of 1792</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1792" title="Coinage Act of 1792">Coinage Act of 1792</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proclamation_of_Neutrality" title="Proclamation of Neutrality">Proclamation of Neutrality</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutrality_Act_of_1794" title="Neutrality Act of 1794">Neutrality Act of 1794</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">Jay Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinckney%27s_Treaty" title="Pinckney's Treaty">Pinckney's Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Thanksgiving_Proclamation" title="National Thanksgiving Proclamation">Thanksgiving Proclamation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Farewell Address</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1790_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1790 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1790</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1791_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1791 State of the Union Address">1791</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1792_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1792 State of the Union Address">1792</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1793_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1793 State of the Union Address">1793</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1796_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1796 State of the Union Address">1796</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington#Administration,_Cabinet_and_Supreme_Court_appointments" title="Presidency of George Washington">Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_Washington" title="List of federal judges appointed by George Washington">Federal judicial appointments</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Views and<br />public image</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fred_W._Smith_National_Library_for_the_Study_of_George_Washington" title="Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington">Presidential library</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Washington_Papers" title="The Washington Papers">The Washington Papers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_views_of_George_Washington" title="Religious views of George Washington">Religious views</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington and slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Town_Destroyer" title="Town Destroyer">Town Destroyer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legacy_of_George_Washington" title="Legacy of George Washington">Legacy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington#Early_life_(1732–1753)" title="George Washington">Early life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Birthplace_National_Monument" title="George Washington Birthplace National Monument">Birthplace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ferry_Farm" title="Ferry Farm">Ferry Farm boyhood home</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Gristmill" title="George Washington's Gristmill">Gristmill</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woodlawn_(Alexandria,_Virginia)" title="Woodlawn (Alexandria, Virginia)">Woodlawn Plantation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samuel_Osgood_House" title="Samuel Osgood House">Samuel Osgood House, First Presidential Mansion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Macomb_House" title="Alexander Macomb House">Alexander Macomb House, Second Presidential Mansion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President%27s_House_(Philadelphia)" title="President's House (Philadelphia)">President's House, Philadelphia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germantown_White_House" title="Germantown White House">Germantown White House</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daniel_Parke_Custis#Death_and_estate" title="Daniel Parke Custis">Custis estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Potomac_Company" title="Potomac Company">Potomac Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_River_and_Kanawha_Canal" title="James River and Kanawha Canal">James River and Kanawha Canal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mountain_Road_Lottery" title="Mountain Road Lottery">Mountain Road Lottery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thanks_of_Congress" title="Thanks of Congress">Thanks of Congress</a></li>
<li>President General of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_College" title="Washington College">Washington College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electoral_history_of_George_Washington" title="Electoral history of George Washington">Electoral history of George Washington</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_George_Washington" title="List of memorials to George Washington">Memorials</a><br />and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_George_Washington" title="Cultural depictions of George Washington">depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Monument" title="Washington Monument">Washington Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington%27s_Birthday" title="Washington's Birthday">Washington's Birthday</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Apotheosis_of_Washington" title="The Apotheosis of Washington">The Apotheosis of Washington</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Houdon)" title="George Washington (Houdon)"><i>George Washington</i> (Houdon)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Ceracchi)" title="George Washington (Ceracchi)"><i>George Washington</i> (Ceracchi)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Canova)" title="George Washington (Canova)"><i>George Washington</i> (Canova)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Greenough)" title="George Washington (Greenough)"><i>George Washington</i> (Greenough)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Trumbull)" title="George Washington (Trumbull)"><i>George Washington</i> (Trumbull)</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_(1851_painting)" title="Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851 painting)">Washington Crossing the Delaware</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Passage_of_the_Delaware" title="The Passage of the Delaware">The Passage of the Delaware</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_George_Washington_at_Trenton" title="General George Washington at Trenton">General George Washington at Trenton</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_at_Verplanck%27s_Point" title="Washington at Verplanck's Point">Washington at Verplanck's Point</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_George_Washington_Resigning_His_Commission" title="General George Washington Resigning His Commission">General George Washington Resigning His Commission</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis" title="Surrender of Lord Cornwallis">Surrender of Lord Cornwallis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athenaeum_Portrait" title="Athenaeum Portrait">Unfinished portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lansdowne_portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="Lansdowne portrait">Lansdowne portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Washington_Family" title="The Washington Family">The Washington Family portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_at_Princeton" title="Washington at Princeton"><i>Washington at Princeton</i> paintings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reception_to_Washington_on_April_21,_1789,_at_Trenton_on_his_way_to_New_York_to_Assume_the_Duties_of_the_Presidency_of_the_United_States" title="Reception to Washington on April 21, 1789, at Trenton on his way to New York to Assume the Duties of the Presidency of the United States">Reception at Trenton painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Princeton_Battle_Monument" title="Princeton Battle Monument">Princeton Battle Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Point_of_View_(West)" title="Point of View (West)"><i>Point of View</i> sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Austin,_Texas)" title="Statue of George Washington (Austin, Texas)">Austin statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Bartholomew)" title="George Washington (Bartholomew)">Baltimore statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Boston)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(Bailly)" title="George Washington (Bailly)">Philadelphia statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="Statue of George Washington (Portland, Oregon)">Portland statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Washington_Circle)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Washington Circle)">Washington, D.C. statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Monument_(West_Point)" title="Washington Monument (West Point)">West Point monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Mexico_City)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statue of George Washington (Mexico City)">Mexico City statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Garden_of_American_Heroes" title="National Garden of American Heroes">National Garden of American Heroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Masonic_National_Memorial" title="George Washington Masonic National Memorial">Washington Masonic National Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway" title="George Washington Memorial Parkway">George Washington Memorial Parkway</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge" title="George Washington Bridge">George Washington Bridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_and_Jefferson_National_Forests" title="George Washington and Jefferson National Forests">Washington and Jefferson National Forests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Monument_(Baltimore)" title="Washington Monument (Baltimore)">Washington Monument, Baltimore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Square_Park" title="Washington Square Park">Washington Square Park</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Square_Arch" title="Washington Square Arch">Arch</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_George_Washington" title="List of memorials to George Washington">List of memorials</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington-Franklin_Issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington-Franklin Issues">Washington-Franklin Issues</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_Bicentennial_stamps_of_1932" title="Washington Bicentennial stamps of 1932">1932 bicentennial</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_currency#George_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the United States on currency">Currency</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_quarter" title="Washington quarter">Washington quarter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/50_State_Quarters" class="mw-redirect" title="50 State Quarters">50 State Quarters</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/District_of_Columbia_and_United_States_Territories_Quarters" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia and United States Territories Quarters">D.C. and territories quarters</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_Quarters" class="mw-redirect" title="America the Beautiful Quarters">America the Beautiful quarters</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill" title="United States one-dollar bill">Washington dollar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lafayette_dollar" title="Lafayette dollar">Lafayette dollar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_silver_bullion_coins" title="America the Beautiful silver bullion coins">Silver bullion coins</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_nickel" title="Washington nickel">Washington nickel</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Washington_(New_Hampshire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Washington (New Hampshire)">Mount Washington</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_George_Washington" title="Cultural depictions of George Washington">Cultural depictions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_(miniseries)" title="George Washington (miniseries)"><i>George Washington</i> (1984 miniseries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_II:_The_Forging_of_a_Nation" title="George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation">1986 sequel)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)"><i>A More Perfect Union</i> (1989 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/We_Fight_to_Be_Free" title="We Fight to Be Free"><i>We Fight to Be Free</i> (2006 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turn:_Washington%27s_Spies" title="Turn: Washington's Spies"><i>Turn: Washington's Spies</i> (2014–2017 series)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)"><i>Washington</i> (2020 miniseries)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)"><i>Hamilton</i></a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">film</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_George_Washington" title="Bibliography of George Washington">Bibliography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_George_Washington_articles" title="List of George Washington articles">List of articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_dynasty" title="Virginia dynasty">Virginia dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Washington_family" title="Coat of arms of the Washington family">Coat of arms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mason_Locke_Weems#The_cherry-tree_anecdote" title="Mason Locke Weems">Cherry-tree anecdote</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/River_Farm#Washington_at_River_Farm" title="River Farm">River Farm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington%27s_Crossing" title="Washington's Crossing">Washington's Crossing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Rochambeau_Revolutionary_Route" title="Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route">Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_House_(Barbados)" title="George Washington House (Barbados)">1751 Barbados trip</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:George_Washington" title="Category:George Washington">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_of_the_Armies" title="General of the Armies">General of the Armies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Betsy_Ross_flag" title="Betsy Ross flag">Betsy Ross flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Ladies%27_Association" title="Mount Vernon Ladies' Association">Mount Vernon Ladies' Association</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Washington_family" title="Template:Washington family">Ancestry</a><br />and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_family" title="Washington family">family</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martha_Washington" title="Martha Washington">Martha Washington</a> (wife)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Parke_Custis" title="John Parke Custis">John Parke Custis</a> (stepson)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_Parke_Custis" title="George Washington Parke Custis">George Washington Parke Custis</a> (step-grandson, adopted son)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleanor_Parke_Custis_Lewis" title="Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis">Eleanor Parke Custis</a> (step-granddaughter, adopted daughter)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_Washington" title="Augustine Washington">Augustine Washington</a> (father)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mary_Ball_Washington" title="Mary Ball Washington">Mary Ball Washington</a> (mother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lawrence_Washington_(1718%E2%80%931752)" title="Lawrence Washington (1718–1752)">Lawrence Washington</a> (half-brother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_Washington_Jr." title="Augustine Washington Jr.">Augustine Washington Jr.</a> (half-brother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Betty_Washington_Lewis" title="Betty Washington Lewis">Betty Washington Lewis</a> (sister)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samuel_Washington" title="Samuel Washington">Samuel Washington</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Augustine_Washington" title="John Augustine Washington">John A. Washington</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Washington" title="Charles Washington">Charles Washington</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lawrence_Washington_(1659%E2%80%931698)" title="Lawrence Washington (1659–1698)">Lawrence Washington</a> (grandfather)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Washington" title="John Washington">John Washington</a> (great-grandfather)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a> (nephew)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams →</a></b></li></ul>
<ul><li><b><img alt="Category" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:George_Washington" title="Category:George Washington">Category</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Dickinson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:John_Dickinson" title="Template:John Dickinson"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:John_Dickinson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:John Dickinson (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:John_Dickinson&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Dickinson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_5th_President_of_Pennsylvania,_1782–1785_*_5th_President_of_Delaware,_1781–1783_*_Second_Continental_Congress,_1775–1776,_1779–1781_*_First_Continental_Congress,_1774_*_Stamp_Act_Congress,_1765">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Governor_of_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of Pennsylvania">5th President of Pennsylvania, 1782–1785</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Delaware" class="mw-redirect" title="President of Delaware">5th President of Delaware, 1781–1783</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress, 1775–1776, 1779–1781</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress, 1774</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress, 1765</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding of the</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_Rights_and_Grievances" title="Declaration of Rights and Grievances">Declaration of Rights and Grievances <small>(1765)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Letters_from_a_Farmer_in_Pennsylvania" title="Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania"><i>Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania</i> <small>(1767, 1768)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Liberty_Song" title="The Liberty Song">"The Liberty Song" <small>(1768 </small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_we_stand,_divided_we_fall#Use_in_U.S._history" title="United we stand, divided we fall"><small>United we stand, divided we fall)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petition_to_the_King" title="Petition to the King">Petition to the King <small>(1774)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Signee, Continental Association <small>(1774)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of correspondence">Pennsylvania Committee of Correspondence <small>(1774–1776)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Letters_to_the_inhabitants_of_Canada" title="Letters to the inhabitants of Canada">"Letter to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec" <small>(1774)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olive_Branch_Petition" title="Olive Branch Petition">Olive Branch Petition <small>(1775)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Causes_and_Necessity_of_Taking_Up_Arms" title="Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms">Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms</a> <small>(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">co-wrote</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Causes_and_Necessity_of_Taking_Up_Arms" title="Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms">1775)</a></small></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Secret_Correspondence" title="Committee of Secret Correspondence">Committee of Secret Correspondence <small>(1775–1776)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty committee <small>(1776)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union <small>(1776)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">President, Annapolis Convention <small>(1786)</small></a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Delegate, Constitutional Convention <small>(1787)</small></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Associators" title="Associators">Brigadier General, Pennsylvania militia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delaware_Constitution_of_1792" title="Delaware Constitution of 1792">Delaware Constitution of 1792</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mary_Norris_Dickinson" title="Mary Norris Dickinson">Mary Norris Dickinson <small>(wife)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philemon_Dickinson" title="Philemon Dickinson">Philemon Dickinson <small>(brother)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson_(Pennsylvania_and_Delaware)#Early_life_and_family" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)">Early life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson_House" title="John Dickinson House">Poplar Hall home</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mary_Norris_Dickinson#Fair_Hill_estate" title="Mary Norris Dickinson">Fair Hill estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friends_Meetinghouse_(Wilmington,_Delaware)" title="Friends Meetinghouse (Wilmington, Delaware)">Friends Burial Ground</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_-_Dickinson_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University - Dickinson Law">Dickinson School of Law, Pennsylvania State University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dickinson_High_School" title="John Dickinson High School">John Dickinson High School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1776_(musical)" title="1776 (musical)"><i>1776</i> <small>(1969 musical,</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1776_(film)" title="1776 (film)"><small>1972 film)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)"><i>John Adams</i> <small>(2008 miniseries)</small></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)"><i>Sons of Liberty</i> <small>(2015 miniseries)</small></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Claymont_Stone_School" title="Claymont Stone School">Claymont Stone School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/GND_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="GND (identifier)">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/16192277-6">16192277-6</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80039711">n80039711</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=vse2016914674&CON_LNG=ENG">vse2016914674</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VIAF_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIAF (identifier)">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2262145857126922922775">2262145857126922922775</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/WorldCat_Identities_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCat Identities (identifier)">WorldCat Identities</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80039711">lccn-n80039711</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1600696876 |